Assignment 2: General Biology 2

Regina A. Reyes

STEM 11-A

1. What are the major eons of the geologic time scale, and what are the defining characteristics of
each?
Answer: The geological time scale is divided firstly into four eons: from earliest to most recent, these
are the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic.

Hadean Eon - Approximately 4.6 billion to 4 billion years ago. During this eon, Earth was formed,
and it was subjected to intense bombardment by asteroids and comets. The surface of the Earth was
extremely hot, with molten rock covering much of the planet. There was no life during this eon.

Archean Eon - Approximately 4 billion to 2.5 billion years ago. During the Archean Eon, the Earth's
crust cooled, and the first continents began to form. The atmosphere began to develop, with
volcanic activity contributing gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor. Simple life forms,
such as bacteria and archaea, emerged during this time.

Proterozoic Eon - Approximately 2.5 billion to 541 million years ago. The Proterozoic Eon is marked
by the formation of more complex life forms, including eukaryotic cells and multicellular organisms.
Oxygen levels in the atmosphere increased significantly due to photosynthetic organisms like
cyanobacteria. The first glaciers also appeared during this eon, leading to several ice ages.

Phanerozoic Eon - Approximately 541 million years ago to the present. The Phanerozoic Eon is
divided into three eras: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. This eon is characterized by a
rapid diversification and evolution of life, including the Cambrian explosion, the rise and fall of the
dinosaurs, and the emergence of mammals and humans.

2. How do scientists determine the boundaries between different divisions of the geologic time
scale?
Answer: Scientists determine the boundaries between different divisions of the geologic time scale
primarily through stratigraphy, which involves studying layers of rock and the fossils contained within
them. Other methods include radiometric dating of rocks and minerals, paleomagnetism, and
biostratigraphy, which relies on the presence of specific fossil species to correlate rock layers across
different locations.

3. What are the primary methods used to date rocks and geological events within the geologic time
scale?
Answer: Geologists commonly use radiometric dating methods, based on the natural radioactive
decay of certain elements such as potassium and carbon, as reliable clocks to date ancient events.

4. How do mass extinctions serve as significant markers in the geologic time scale, and what are
some notable examples?
Answer: Mass extinctions serve as significant markers in the geologic time scale because they
represent periods of abrupt and widespread loss of biodiversity. They often lead to major changes in
Earth's ecosystems and have long-lasting effects on the evolutionary trajectory of life. Notable examples
include the Permian-Triassic extinction event, which occurred around 252 million years ago and is the
most severe extinction event in Earth's history, and the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event, which
occurred around 66 million years ago and resulted in the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs.

5. What geological evidence supports the existence of supercontinents and their breakup
throughout Earth's history?
Answer: The distribution of matching rock formations, fossils, and mountain ranges across
continents that were once joined. Additionally, paleomagnetic data from rocks reveal shifts in
continental positions over time, supporting the theory of supercontinent formation and breakup.
Features like mid-ocean ridges and magnetic anomalies on the seafloor also provide evidence of plate
tectonics and continental drift, further supporting the concept of supercontinent cycles.

6. How does the geologic time scale correlate with the evolution of life on Earth, and what major
biological events coincide with key periods?
 Answer: The geologic time scale correlates with the evolution of life on Earth as it provides a
framework for understanding the timing and sequence of major events in Earth's history, including the
emergence and evolution of life forms.
Some of major biological events are:
1. Eons, such as the Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic, span billions of years and encompass
broad evolutionary trends, from the origin of life to the diversification of complex organisms.
2. Eras, like the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, further divide the eons and represent significant
shifts in Earth's geological and biological history, including the rise and fall of major groups of
organisms.
3. Periods, such as the Cambrian, Jurassic, and Pleistocene, correspond to specific intervals of time
characterized by distinctive fossil assemblages and evolutionary events.

7. What are some key differences between the Precambrian eon and the Phanerozoic eon in terms of
geologic processes and life forms?
Answer: The Precambrian eon, which spans from the formation of Earth around 4.6 billion years
ago to approximately 541 million years ago, is characterized by a predominance of simple, single-celled
life forms such as bacteria and archaea. Geological processes during this eon include the formation of
the Earth's crust, the development of the atmosphere and oceans, and the assembly of supercontinents.
In contrast, the Phanerozoic eon, which began around 541 million years ago and continues to the
present day, is marked by a greater diversity of complex life forms, including multicellular organisms and
vertebrates. Geologically, the Phanerozoic eon is defined by the formation and breakup of
supercontinents, the evolution of ecosystems, and major geological events such as mountain-building
and glaciation.

8. How have changes in atmospheric composition, such as the rise of oxygen, impacted Earth's
geologic history and the evolution of life?
Answer: Changes in atmospheric composition, such as the rise of oxygen, have had profound
impacts on Earth's geologic history and the evolution of life. The Great Oxidation Event, which occurred
around 2.4 billion years ago during the Proterozoic eon, led to a significant increase in atmospheric
oxygen levels due to the activity of photosynthetic organisms like cyanobacteria.

9. What role do index fossils play in correlating rock layers across different regions and establishing
relative ages within the geologic time scale?
Answer: These fossils are species that existed for relatively short periods of time and had wide
geographic distributions. By identifying index fossils within sedimentary rock layers, geologists can
determine the relative ages of those rocks and correlate them with similar layers in other locations. This
allows for the construction of a coherent timeline of Earth's history, with rock layers containing the same
index fossils assumed to be of similar age.

10. How has the geologic time scale been refined and revised over time, and what contributions
have modern scientific techniques made to our understanding of Earth's history?
Answer: The geologic time scale has been refined and revised over time through advances in
scientific techniques and accumulating evidence from various fields of study. Initially, the geologic time
scale was based on relative dating principles, such as stratigraphy and the identification of index fossils,
which allowed geologists to establish the sequence of rock layers and infer their relative ages.