• Galilean transformation

• Relativistic velocity
• The relativistic Doppler effect
• Relativistic dynamics
• Relativistic total energy and rest energy
• A “theory of relativity” is a way for observers in different frames of
reference to compare the results of their observation.
• Consider an observer in a car parked by a highway near a large rock. To
this observer, the rock is at rest.
• Another observer, who is moving along the highway in a car, sees the
rock rush past as the car drives by.
• It provides the conceptual framework and mathematical tools that enable
the two observers to transform a statement such as “rock is at rest” in one
frame of reference to the statement “rock is in motion "in another frame
of reference.
• Relativity gives a means for expressing the laws of physics in
different frames of reference.
• The mathematical basis for comparing the two descriptions is called a
transformation
• It relates the coordinates x, y, z, t to x’, y’, z’, t’.
• If Newton’s laws are valid in one reference
frame, then they are also valid in another
reference frame moving at a uniform velocity
relative to the first system.
• This is referred to as the Newtonian principle
of relativity or Galilean invariance
 • Two cars are traveling at constant speed
along a road in the same direction.
• Galilean coordinate transformation • Car A moves at 60 km/h and car B
moves at 40 km/h, each measured
• x’ = x − ut relative to an observer on the ground
• y’ = y • What is the speed of car A relative to car
• z’ = z B?
velocity transformation, we can get
by time deviating.
• V’x = vx − u , Car A
• v’y = vy
• v’z = vz

Car B O’
• Let O be the observer on the ground, who observes car A to move at Vx =
60 km/h.
• Assume O’ to be moving with car B at u = 40 km/h. Then O’ observes car A

v’x = vx − u = 60 km/h − 40 km/h

= 20 km/h

1. what is the relative velocity of car B relative to car A?

There two postulates of Einstein’s
1. The principle of relativity: The laws of physics are the same in all
inertial reference frames.
2. The principle of the constancy of the speed of light: The speed of
light in free space has the same value c in all inertial reference
frames.
The first postulate declares that the laws of physics are absolute,
universal, and the same for all inertial observers.
• To demonstrate the relativity of time,
we use the timing device.
• It consists of a flashing light source
S that is a distance L0 from a
mirror M.
• The time interval between ticks is
the distance 2L0 (assuming the light
travels perpendicular to the
mirror) divided by the speed c:
• This is the time interval that is
measured when the clock is at rest
with respect to the observer.
• We consider two observers: O is at rest on The time interval measured by
the ground, and O’ moves with speed u. O is
• Observer O measures a longer time interval
than O’ measures.
• This is a general result of special relativity,
which is known as
Substituting Lo
• Length contraction suggests that objects in motion are
measured to have a shorter length than they do at rest.
• The objects do not actually shrink;
• There is merely a difference in the length measured by
different observers.
• Observer O’, who is at rest with respect to the object,
measures the rest length L0.
• All observers relative to whom O’ is in motion measure a
shorter length, but only along the direction of motion;
• An observer O is standing on a) According to O, what is the time necessary
a platform of length D0 = 65 for the rocket to pass a particular point on the
m on a space station.
platform?
• A rocket passes at a relative b) What is the rest length L0 of the rocket?
speed of 0.80c moving
parallel to the edge of the c) According to an observer O’ on the rocket,
platform. what is the length D of the platform?
d) According to O’, how long does it take for
• The observer O notes that the
front and back of the rocket observer O to pass the entire length of the
simultaneously line up with rocket?
the ends of the platform at a
particular instant. DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY SPACE CRAFT

0.80c O’
a) According to O, the length L of the rocket
matches the length D0 of the platform.
The time for the rocket to pass a particular
point is measured by O to be.
b) O measures the contracted length L of the
rocket. We can find its proper length L0.
c) According to O the platform is at rest, so
65 m is its proper length D0. According to
O’, the contracted length of the platform
is therefore.
d) For O to pass the entire length of the
rocket, O’ concludes that O must move a
distance equal to its rest length, or 108 m.
The time needed to do this is.
• A source S emits particles that travel at speed v’ according to an observer O’ at rest with
respect to the device.
• The flashing bulb F is triggered to flash when a particle reaches on it.
• The flash of light makes the return trip to the detector D, and the clock ticks.
• The time interval ∆to between ticks measured by O’ is composed of two parts: one for the
particle to travel the distance L0 at speed v’ and another for the light to travel
the same distance at speed c:
∆to = Lo/v’ + Lo/c
Particle
V’
S O’
Source

Light
F
D
Detector Lo
• A spaceship moving away from the Here O’ is on the ship and O is on Earth; O’
Earth at a speed of0.80c fires a moves with a speed of u = 0.80c relative to
missile parallel to its direction of O. The missile moves at speed v’ = 0.60c
motion. The missile moves at a relative to O’, and we seek its speed v
speed of 0.60c relative to the ship. relative to O
• What is the speed of the missile as
measured by an observer on the
Earth
 • In the classical Doppler effect for sound waves, an observer moving relative
to a source of waves (sound, for example) detects a frequency different from
that emitted by the source.
• The frequency f ’ heard by the observer O is related to the
frequency f emitted by the source S according to.
where v is the speed of the waves in the medium , Vs is
the speed of the source relative to the medium, and Vo is
the speed of the observer relative to the medium.
1. The upper signs in the numerator and denominator
are chosen whenever S moves toward O or O moves
toward S,
2. while the lower signs apply whenever O and S move
away from one another
Suppose the source emits sound waves at f = 1000 Hz. If the source
moves at 30 m/s toward the observer who is at rest and the sound moves
is v = 340 m/s).

1. Find the f’ heard by the observer.

2. If the source is at rest in the medium and the observer

moves toward the source at 30 m/s f’?.

V=30m/s toward the observer

• Here we have a situation in which it is not the relative speed of the
source and observer that determines the Doppler shift rather it is the
speed of each with respect to the medium.
• consider a source of waves that is at rest in the reference frame of
observer O. Observer O’ moves relative to the source at speed u. We
consider the situation from the frame of reference of O’.
Since classical momentum is not conserved. The New definition of
momentum must have two properties:
1. It must yield a law of conservation of momentum that satisfies the
principle of relativity; that is, if momentum is conserved according
to an observer in one inertial frame, then it is conserved according to
observers in all inertial frames.
2. At low speeds, the new definition must reduce to p = mv, which we
know works perfectly well in the nonrelativistic case.
• These requirements are satisfied by defining the relativistic
momentum for a particle of mass m moving with velocity v as
• What is the momentum of a proton moving at a speed of
v = 0.86c
• We can derive the relativistic expression for the kinetic energy of a
particle using essentially the same procedure used to derive the
classical expression, starting with the particle form of the work-energy
theorem.
1

END OF CHAPTER ONE

IF YOU HAVE QUESTION

PLEASE WELL COME
1
Particle properties of waves
• Black body radiation

• X-ray radiation
• Compton effect
• Pair Production
particle wave

An ideal body that locate in a • A disturbance hat propagates

certain spot of the space through space and time
Applied to newton's law • Applied to Maxwell's law
Mechanics of particle • Optics of wave
Mass and energy transformation • Energy transportation only.
• An electromagnetic field is characterized by its
electric field E and magnetic field B.
• For example, the electric field at a distance r
from a point charge q at the origin is.
• The magnetic field at a distance r from a long,
straight, current-carrying wire along the z axis is.
• Coupled electric and magnetic oscillations that move with the speed of
light and exhibit typical wave behavior.
• Accelerated electric charges generate electric and magnetic
disturbances that can travel indefinitely through space.
• if the charges oscillate periodically, the disturbances are waves
whose electric and magnetic components are perpendicular to each
other and to the direction of propagation.
Con…
• Maxwell was able to show that the speed c of electromagnetic
waves in free space is given by

• where ε0 the electric permittivity of free space and µ0 is its

magnetic permeability. This is the same as the speed of light
waves
• Electrons emitted when the frequency of the light was sufficiently
high. This phenomenon is known as the photoelectric effect.
• The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons.
• The rate of electron emission can be measured as an electric current i
by an ammeter in the external circuit.
• Some of the photoelectrons that emerge from this surface have enough
energy to reach the cathode despite its negative polarity, and they
constitute the measured current.
 Experimental Observations Of Photo Electricity

1. Because Em wave energy is concentrated in photons and not spread

out, there should be no delay in the emission of photoelectrons.
2. All photons of frequency have the same energy, so changing the
intensity of a monochromatic light beam will change the number of
photoelectrons but not their energies.
3. The higher the frequency ν, the greater the photon energy hν and so
the more energy the photoelectrons have.
• There must be a minimum energy φ for an
electron to escape from a particular metal
surface or else electrons would pour out all the
time. This energy is called the work function of
the metal, and is related to ν0 by the formula.
• The greater the work function of a metal, the
more energy is needed for an electron to leave
its surface, and the higher the critical frequency
for photoelectric emission to occur.
• where hν is the photon energy, KEmax is the
maximum photoelectron energy and φ is the
minimum energy needed for an electron to leave
the metal.
• In terms of electron volts, the formula E=hν for
photon energy becomes
 • What are the energy and momentum of a photon of red
example light of wavelength 650 nm? (b) What is the wavelength of
a photon of energy 2.40 eV
 Black body radiation
• Only the quantum theory of light can
explain its origin.
• Until the end of the nineteenth century the
nature of light seemed settled forever.
• Attempts to understand the origin of the
radiation emitted by bodies of matter.
• All objects radiate such energy
continuously whatever their temperatures,
though which frequencies predominate
depends on the temperature.
• At room temperature, most of the radiation
is in the infrared part of the spectrum and
hence is invisible.
 Con…
• Any radiation striking the hole enters the
cavity, where it is trapped by reflection back
and forth until it is absorbed.
• The cavity walls are constantly emitting and
absorbing radiation, and it is in the properties
of this radiation (blackbody radiation).
• This is to be expected, since a body at a
constant temperature is in thermal equilibrium
with its surroundings and must absorb energy
from them at the same rate as it emits energy
• Ideal body that absorbs all radiation incident
upon it, regardless of frequency.
• In the laboratory, a blackbody can be
approximated by a hollow object with a very
small hole leading to its interior.
X-ray radiation
• They consist of high-energy photons.
• The photoelectric effect provides convincing evidence that photons of
light can transfer energy to electrons. Is the inverse process also
possible?
• That is, can part or all of the kinetic energy of a moving electron be
converted into a photon?
• In 1895 Wilhelm Roentgen found that a highly penetrating radiation of
unknown nature is produced when fast electrons impinge on matter.
• The faster the original electrons, the more penetrating the resulting x-
rays, and the greater the number of electrons, the greater the intensity
of the x-ray beam.
 Con…
• X-rays are em waves. Electromagnetic theory
predicts that an accelerated electric charge
will radiate em waves, and a rapidly moving
electron suddenly brought to rest is certainly
accelerated.
• Radiation produced under these circumstances
is given the German name bremsstrahlung
(“braking radiation”).
• Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths
from about 0.01 to about 10 nm falls into the
category of x-rays.
Con…
• The x-rays produced at a given accelerating potential V vary in
wavelength, but none has a wavelength shorter than a certain value
λmin
 Compton effect
• According to the quantum theory of light, photons behave like particles
except for their lack of rest mass.
• an x-ray photon strikes an electron (assumed to be initially at rest in the
laboratory coordinate system).
• we can think of the photon as losing an amount of energy in the collision that
is the same as the kinetic energy KE gained by the electron.
Con…
• The scattering of a photon by an electron is called the Compton effect.
• Energy and momentum are conserved in such an event, and as a result the
scattered photon has less energy (longer wavelength) than the incident
photon.
Conn…
Con…
• we can find a formula that relates the wavelength difference between
initial and scattered photons with the angle Ø between their
directions, both of which are readily measurable quantities (unlike
the energy and momentum of the recoil electron).
Pair Production
• Energy into matter.
• As we have seen, in a collision a photon can give an electron all of its
energy (the photoelectric effect) or only part (the Compton effect).
• It is also possible for a photon to materialize into an electron and a
positron, which is a positively charged electron.
• In this process, called pair production, electromagnetic energy is
converted into matter.
Con…
Waves properties of Particle
Outline
• Introduction
• De Broglie wavelength and duality properties
• De Broglie wave
• De Broglie Phase velocities
• De Broglie group velocities
INTRODUCTION
• Einstein introduced us to the particle properties of waves in 1905
(photoelectric effect).
• C:\Users\mm\Downloads\Photoelectric Effect - Photoelectric
Effect Experiment- Work Function- PhET Simu.mp4
• You Ought to ask "Is there a converse?.
• De Broglie postulated wave properties of particles in his thesis in
1924.
• If waves can behave like particles, then particles should be able to
behave like waves.
Devisson and Germer experiment
De Broglie waves

P=mv
Con…
The de Broglie Wave Velocity
• We can easily calculate a velocity for de Broglie waves.
• A wave velocity is given by 𝑉𝑝 = ƒ𝜆
ℎ
• De Broglie postulated that 𝜆 = for both wave and particle.
𝑚𝑣
• Combining the formula 𝑉𝑝 = ƒ𝜆 for waves,
𝒎𝒄𝟐
• with de Broglie's postulated equation for ƒ= and
𝒉
𝒉
• our value for 𝝀 = which we just obtained gives for the velocity of the de
𝒎𝒗
Broglie waves
𝑐2
𝑉𝑝 = ƒ𝜆 =
𝑣
Photons travel with a speed 𝑣 = 𝑐, so that the "wave velocity" is 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑐.
Con…
phase velocity
v p  
for a massive particle for a massless particle
h mc2 c vp 
h E 1 pc
 c
vp  c c
mv h v ph p 1
phase velocity does not describe particle motion
Con…
• The de Broglie wave "velocity" of a particle with mass is greater
than c!.
• What does this mean? Right now, it means we must re-think what we
mean by wave "velocity.“
• Consider a string stretched along the x-axis and vibrating in the y-
direction
hint HFSS.
 Group Velocities
• Wave groups or group velocities, are a
superposition of different individual waves.
• The phase velocity of the wave groups is still 𝑣𝑝 =
𝜔/𝑘, while the groups (the modulation) move
with a velocity 𝑣𝑔 = (𝑑𝜔/2)/(𝑑𝑘/2) = 𝑑𝜔/𝑑𝑘.
• If the phase velocity 𝑉𝑝 is the same for all
wavelengths, as it is for light in a vacuum, then
the phase and group velocities are the same.
Example
Compute the de Broglie wavelength of the following:
A. A1000-kg automobile traveling at 100 m/s (about 200 mi/h).
B. A 10-g bullet traveling at 500 m/s.
C. A smoke particle of mass 10−9 g moving at 1 cm/s.
D. An electron with a kinetic energy of 1 eV.
E. An electron with a kinetic energy of 100 MeV
Assignments

Write the main idea regarding about and its Application Area.
G1 uncertainty principle I
G2 uncertainty principle ii
G3 Laser
G4 Zeeman effect
G5 Heisenberg uncertainty principle
G6 Schrodinger
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Outline
Introduction
The nuclear atom
Electron orbits
Atomic spectra
The Bohr atom
Energy levels and spectra
INTRODUCTION ABOUT ATOM
• The word ‘atom’ has been derived from the Greek word ‘a-tomio’
which means ‘uncut able’ or ‘non-divisible’.
• These ideas remained dormant for a very long time and were
revived again by scientists in the nineteenth century.
• The atomic theory of matter was first proposed on a firm
scientific basis by John Dalton, a British school teacher in 1808.
• His theory, called Dalton’s atomic theory, regarded the atom as the
ultimate particle of matter.
Con…
• Elements are the simplest substances.
• There are about 100 different elements.
• Each element is made up of very tiny particles called atoms,
and
• Each element is made up of just one particular type of atom,
which is different to the atoms in any other element.
What particles are atoms made of?
• For some time, people thought that atoms were the smallest particles
and could not be broken into anything smaller.
• Scientists now know that atoms are actually made from even smaller
particles. There are three types:

proton neutron electron

 What particles are atoms made of?
• Protons, neutrons and electrons are not evenly distributed in an
atom.

The protons and neutrons exist in a

dense core at the centre of the atom.
This is called the nucleus.

The electrons are spread out

around the edge of the atom.
They orbit the nucleus in layers
called shells.
 Mass and electrical charge
There are two properties of protons, neutrons and electrons that are especially important:

 mass
 electrical charge.

Particle Mass Charge

proton 1 +1
neutron 1 0
electron almost 0 -1

The atoms of an element contain equal numbers of protons and electrons and so have no overall charge.
Basic Properies of Atoms

Atoms are very small, about 0.1 nm in radius.

Atoms are stable
Atoms contain negatively charged electrons, but are
electrically neutral
Atoms emit and absorb electromagnetic radiation.
 Atomic Emission & Absorption Spectra
• Electric discharge in a gas at low
pressure:
• The gas emits characteristic light which
are a series of discrete bright lines
• This series of lines is called an emission
spectrum
C:\Users\mm\Downloads\Emission and
Absorption Spectra.mp4
C:\Users\mm\Downloads\Emission
Spectra VS Absorption Spectra _ Grade
12 Physical Science _ TeachSA _
A.mp4
 Absorption Spectra
• An absorption spectrum is obtained by passing a continuous radiation
spectrum through a vapor of the element being analyzed

• The absorption spectrum: a series of dark lines superimposed on the

continuous spectrum

The dark lines of the absorption spectrum coincide

with the bright lines of the emission spectrum
Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen, H 1
nm
 1 1 
 RH  2  2 
m n 

• The wavelengths of H spectral lines ,four in the Visible spectrum,

from the Balmer Series:
1 1 1
 RH  2  2  n = 3, 4, 5, 6, …
n 2 n 
RH = 1.1 x 107 m-1 is the Rydberg constant

n=5 n=4 n=3

UV
Visible
Other Series
• Lyman series, UV
Ends at energy level m=1
• Paschen series, IR
Ends at energy level m=3

1  1 1
 RH  2  2 
nm m n 

n  m 1
Early Models of the Atom
• Discovery of electron, 1897

J. J. Thomson
 Planetary model of an Atom
Rutherford, 1911
• Based on results of thin foil
experiments

• Positive charge is concentrated in the

HEAVY center of the atom, the
nucleus
The Coulomb force produces
• Electrons orbit the nucleus the centripetal acceleration
like planets orbit the Sun
 Difficulties with the Rutherford Model
Atoms emit certain discrete characteristic frequencies of
electromagnetic radiation.
• The Rutherford model is unable to explain this

Electrons are undergoing a centripetal acceleration and so

should radiate electromagnetic waves
• The radius should steadily decrease as this radiation is given off
• The electron should eventually spiral
into the nucleus. But it does not.
Atoms are stable!
The Bohr Theory of Hydrogen
• In 1913 Bohr provided an explanation
of the hydrogen atomic spectra Niels Bohr
• Includes some features of
the modern quantum theory

• His atomic model includes both

classical and quantum ideas

• His model postulates

that the atom is stable 1885 – 1962
 Bohr’s Assumptions
• The electron moves in circular orbits around the proton
under the influence of the Coulomb force of attraction

• Only certain electron orbits are stable and allowed

• In these orbits the atom does not emit EM radiation

• Therefore, the energy of the atom remains constant
• C:\Users\mm\Downloads\Bohr's Model of an Atom
- Class 9 Tutorial.mp4
 Bohr’s Assumptions
• Radiation is emitted by the atom when the electron exhibits
“a quantum leap” from a more energetic initial state to a less
energetic state
• The frequency of emitted light is given by the difference between
the initial and final atom’s energies

Ei  E f  hf
Angular Momentum
• Just as linear momentum is the product of mass (m) and linear
velocity (v), angular momentum is the product of moment of inertia
(I) and angular velocity (ω).
• For an electron of mass me, moving in a circular path of radius r
around the nucleus, angular momentum = I × ω Since 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑒𝑟 2 ,
and ω = v/r where v is the linear velocity,
∴ angular momentum = 𝑚𝑒𝑟 2 × 𝑣/𝑟 = 𝑚𝑒𝑣𝑟
Bohr’s Postulates and Results

• The condition imposed: Electron’s orbital angular

momentum me vr  n n  1, 2, 3, ...
H atom size: the Bohr Radius
• The radii of the Bohr orbits are quantized:
n 2 2 n  1, 2, 3, ...
r  rn  2
me ke e
n = 1: the smallest radius, rn  n a0
2

called the Bohr radius,

r1= ao = 0.05 nm
• The energy of any orbit is at rest
RH
En   2 RH  13.6 eV
n
Energy Levels
The energy level diagram
• The lowest energy state is
called the ground state

This corresponds to n = 1 and

energy E1 = –13.6 eV

• The next energy level:

n = 2 has energy E2 = –3.40 eV

ground state
Energy Levels, Cont.
• The ionization energy is the energy
needed to completely remove the
electron from the atom.
• The ionization energy
for hydrogen is 13.6 eV
• The uppermost level corresponds to
E = 0 and n  
Generalized Equation
• The value of RH from Bohr’s analysis
is in excellent agreement with experiment

• Emission spectral lines: 1  1 1 

 RH  2  2 
For the Balmer series, nf = 2
 n n 
For the Lyman series, nf = 1  f i 

The emitted photon has a frequency

f = (Ei – Ef)/h and wavelength λ
EXAMPLE
Thank you

Question
Quantum mechanics and Quantum theory
of the hydrogen Atom