Ans.1: A force is an action that changes or maintains the motion of a body or object.

Stress is
force applied to material per unit area. Its symbol is sigma. While strain is the resulting
deformation or the change in shape of the material. Its symbol is epsilon.
Ans2: Ductility: It is the property of a material which enables it to draw in thin wires. Its ia
tensile quality.
Malleability: Malleability of a material is its ability to be flattened out in thin sheets without
cracking by hot or cold working. It is a compressive quality.
Brittleness: The brittleness of a material is the property of breaking without much permanent
distortion. More the brittleness, less the ductility. Eg. Glass, cast iron.
Hardness: It is a fundamental property which is closely related to strength. It is the ability of a
material to resist scratching, abrasion, cutting, indentation and penetration. It is different from
hardenability.
Hot hardness: It is the hardness of a material at high temperatures.
Toughness: It is the measure of the amount of energy a material can absorb before actual
fractures or failure takes place. It is the ability to withstand both plastic and elastic deformations.
Strength: The ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation.
Tensile strength: The tensile or ultimate strength is the stress corresponding to the maximum load
reached before rupturing the specimen.
Compressive strength: The capacity of a material or strength to withstand loads tending to
reducing size.
Sheer Strength: The strength of a material against structural failure when the material fails in
shear.
Impact strength: Impact strength is the material's ability to resist cracking, fracturing, and
deformation under sudden and intense impact.
Resilience: It is the capacity of a material to absorb energy elastically.
Fatigue: The fatigue properties of a material determine its behavior when subjected to thousands
or even millions of cyclic load applications in which the maximum stress developed in each
cycle is well within the elastic range of the material.
Fatigue Strength: the highest stress that a material can withstand for a given number of cycles
without breaking.
Creep: The slow and progressive deformation of a material with time at constant stress is called
creep.

The sum total of all the elementary interatomic forces or internal resistances which the material
is called upon to exert to counteract the applied load is called stress, and the resultant
deformation expressed as a fractional change in dimension is termed strain.
Ans3:

Ans4: When we apply tensile load on a rod of ductile material, large amounts of stress localizes
disproportionally in a small region of the material. This decrease in local cross-sectional area
forms a neck like shape. This process is called ‘necking’.
Ans5: Carbon increases strength, elasticity (determined by yield point)' and hardness, and
lowers the ductility (characterized by elongation) and impact strength..
Manganese also serves as a valuable deoxidizing and purifying agent. Manganese also combines
with Sulphur and thereby decreases the harmful effect of this element remaining in the steel.
When uses in ordinary low carbon steels, manganese makes the metal ductile and of good
bending qualities. The manganese content of carbon steel is usually less than 1.00 per cent and
commonly ranges from 0.30 to 1.00 per cent.
Sulphur occurs in steel either as iron Sulphide or as manganese Sulphide. The presence of a
substantial amount of Sulphur in steel unfavorably affects other properties of steel, e.g., tensile
strength, yield point, fatigue limit, etc., and decreases its corrosion resistance
Chromium hardens steel and increases the resistance of steel to corrosion, especially at high
temperatures.
Nickel enhances its important properties such as formability, weldability and ductility, while
increasing corrosion resistance. Most importantly, it increases toughness, especially at low
temperatures.
Ans6: Corrosion is the degradation of a material due to its interaction with its environment. This
interaction can involve chemical reactions, metal degradation and chemical and electrochemical
processes. Chromium, Copper, Nickel and Molybdenum are some alloying elements that make
steel corrosion resistant.
Ans7:
i) Metals: They have high strength, high hardness, high density, high melting point, good
thermal and electrical conductivity, a typical lusture, and a good degree of elasticity and
plasticity.
Non-metals: Usually non-metals have low strength, low hardness, low melting point, bad
thermal and electrical conductivity, non-lustrous and bad elasticity and plasticity.
ii)
Ferrous metal Non-ferrous metal
1. They contain high iron content, generally 1. They do not contain significant amounts of
more than 50%. iron.
2. They are strong, magnetic and relatively 2. They are more expensive than ferrous
inexpensive. metals but provide a wide property of
varieties like high conductivity, light weight
and corrosion resistance.
3. Example: steel, cast iron and wrought iron. 3. Example: Aluminum, copper, lead and
gold.

iii) Tensile stress: Acts to pull a material apart, elongating it along its axis. Imagine pulling on a
rope; the force you exert creates tensile stress.
Compressive stress: Acts to squeeze a material together, pushing its particles closer. Imagine
pushing down on a block of wood; the force compresses the material.
Shear stress: Acts parallel to the surface of a material, causing the layers to slide past each other.
Imagine trying to cut a piece of paper with scissors; the shearing force acts along the blades.
iv)
Elasticity Plasticity
1. It is reversible. 1. It is irreversible.
2. It occurs at lower stress levels. 2. It occurs at higher stress levels.
3. Example: Rubber 3. Example: Clay

v) Ductile: These materials can deform significantly (bend, stretch) without breaking. It is
crucial for applications requiring flexibility. Ex. Copper wire.
Brittle: These materials break with minimal deformation. It is suitable for applications where
rigidity is preferred. Ex. ceramic plate
vi) Elastic deformation: Reversible. The material returns to its original shape once the stress is
removed. Example: rubber band
Plastic deformation: Irreversible. The material retains its deformed shape after the stress is
removed. Example: paperclip
vii) Deformation: This is the general term for any change in the size or shape of a material due
to applied stress (force). Deformation can be: elastic or plastic.
Permanent deformation: This is a specific type of deformation where the material *stays
deformed even after the stress is removed. It's essentially synonymous with plastic deformation.
viii)

Mild steel Cast iron

1. Higher carbon content makes it harder and 1. Lower carbon content makes it more
more brittle. ductile and malleable.
2. It has higher tensile strength. 2. It has higher compressive strength.
3. Mild steel is more suitable for structural 3. Cast iron is ideal for use in compression
elements. and wear resistant applications.

ix)

S.no Pure metals Alloys Composite materials

1. Consist of mostly one element with Mixture of two or Combination of two or
minimal impurities. more metals or a more materials with
metal with a non- different properties.
metallic element.
2. Generally good conductors of heat Offer a wide range of Tailored for specific
and electricity. properties than pure properties like high
metals. strength to weight
ration or heat
resistance.
3. Example: Copper, gold, aluminium. Example: Stainless Example: Carbon fibre,
steel, bronze. plywood.
8.

9. A 3-jaw lathe machine has three jaws that move together to hold round workpieces securely.
It's versatile and ideal for cylindrical parts but may not provide precise clamping for odd-shaped
objects.
A 4-jaw lathe machine, on the other hand, has four independently adjustable jaws, allowing for
more accurate and versatile clamping of various shapes, including square and odd-shaped
workpieces. It's great for precision work, but setup might take a bit longer.
10. A single point cutting tool is a simple tool with one cutting edge, used primarily in turning
and threading operations. It removes material through a single cutting action, providing better
surface finish and accuracy.
A multi-point cutting tool, like a milling cutter or a drill bit, has multiple cutting edges. It's used
in milling, drilling, and other machining processes. Multi-point tools can remove material faster
but might produce a slightly inferior surface finish compared to single-point tools.
11. Cutting speed in a lathe machine refers to the relative speed between the workpiece and the
cutting tool. It's usually measured in surface feet per minute (SFPM) or meters per minute
(m/min). The ideal cutting speed depends on the material being cut, the tool's geometry, and the
desired surface finish.
Feed rate in a lathe machine refers to the speed at which the cutting tool advances into the
workpiece, measured in inches per minute (IPM) or millimeters per minute (mm/min). The feed
rate impacts the material removal rate, surface finish, and the time required to complete a given
operation.
Depth of cut in a lathe machine refers to the distance that the cutting tool penetrates into the
workpiece during a cutting operation. It is typically measured in inches or millimeters
The depth of cut is determined by the tool's geometry, the workpiece's material properties, and
the desired surface finish.
12. Important desirable properties of tool steel include:
1. Hardness: Tool steel should be hard enough to resist wear and tear, but not so hard that it
becomes brittle and prone to breaking.
2. Toughness: Tool steel should be tough enough to withstand impact and deformation without
breaking.
3. Wear resistance: Tool steel should be resistant to wear and tear, especially when in contact
with other materials.
4. Corrosion resistance: Tool steel should be resistant to corrosion and oxidation, especially when
exposed to harsh chemicals or high temperatures.
5. Fatigue resistance: Tool steel should be able to withstand repeated loading and unloading
without failing.
Here are five tool steels in increasing order of their hardness:
1. H13 (48-52 HRC) - A versatile tool steel with good toughness and wear resistance.
2. O1 (58-62 HRC) - A high-hardenability tool steel with excellent wear resistance and good
toughness.
3. D2 (59-62 HRC) - A high-carbon tool steel with excellent wear resistance and good toughness.
4. A2 (55-59 HRC) - A versatile tool steel with good toughness and wear resistance.
5. W1 (62-68 HRC) - A high-hardness tool steel with excellent wear resistance and good
toughness, but may be more brittle than other steels.
13
To calculate the cutting speed, we need to use the formula:
Cutting speed (m/min) = (workpiece diameter x revolutions per minute) / 1000
In this case, the workpiece diameter = 40 mm, and the revolutions per minute =80 rpm.
Cutting speed (m/min) = (40 mm x 80 rpm) / 1000
Cutting speed (m/min) = 3200 / 1000
Cutting speed (m/min) = 3.2 m/min
Therefore, the cutting speed of the workpiece is 3.2 meters per minute.
14. 1. Centering: This operation involves placing a workpiece on a lathe and securing it in place
using a centering device. The purpose is to ensure that the workpiece is properly aligned and
centered on the lathe spindle before machining.
2. Turning: Turning is the process of shaping a workpiece by rotating it while cutting it with a
cutting tool. The cutting tool is moved along the length of the workpiece to create a cylindrical
shape or to remove material.
3. Straight Turning: This operation involves turning a workpiece to create a straight cylindrical
shape without any tapers or shoulders.
4. Taper Turning: Taper turning involves creating a tapered shape on a workpiece by gradually
reducing the diameter as the cutting tool moves along the length of the workpiece.
5. Facing: Facing is the process of creating a flat surface on a workpiece using a cutting tool.
This operation is often used to create a flat surface at one end of a workpiece.
6. Chamfering: Chamfering is the process of creating an angled surface on a workpiece. This
operation is often used to create a smooth transition between two surfaces or to reduce the stress
concentration at a corner.
7. Knurling: Knurling is the process of creating a textured surface on a workpiece using a
specialized cutting tool. The texture created by knurling can provide a better grip or improve the
aesthetic appearance of the workpiece.
8. Thread Cutting (What are threads?): Thread cutting involves creating a helical ridge on a
workpiece to create a thread. Threads are spiral grooves that are cut into a workpiece to provide a
mechanical advantage or to secure two parts together.
9. Parting Off: Parting off involves cutting a workpiece free from the parent material using a
cutting tool. This operation is often used to create a separate part from a larger workpiece.
10. Shoulder Turning: Shoulder turning involves creating a conical or tapered surface at one end
of a workpiece. This operation is often used to create a shoulder or a bearing surface on a shaft or
a cylindrical part.
11. Drilling: Drilling involves creating a hole in a workpiece using a drill bit. This operation can
be used to create a hole for a screw, a bolt, or any other type of fastener.
12. Boring: Boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled. This operation
can be used to create a larger hole or to improve the accuracy of the hole.
13. Reaming is the process of enlarging a previously drilled or bored hole to improve its
accuracy and surface finish. This operation is typically performed using a reamer, which is a tool
that has a cutting edge on its periphery. The reamer is inserted into the hole and rotated to
remove any imperfections or burrs, and to achieve the desired size and finish.
14. Forming is the process of shaping a metal part into a specific shape or profile using a die. The
die is a tool that has the desired shape or profile cut into it, and the metal part is pressed into the
die using a press or a hammer. The metal part is deformed as it is pressed into the die, and the die
shape is transferred to the part. z

Q15.
In a lathe, a chuck is a gripping device that holds the workpiece securely for machining. It acts
like a clamp, centered on the machine's rotation axis.
*3-jaw chuck:*
* Simpler and faster to use.
* Three self-centering jaws grip round or hexagonal objects.
* Ideal for frequently changing workpieces.
*4-jaw chuck:*
* Offers more precise centering.
* Four independent jaws allow for gripping irregular shapes (squares, octagons).
* Takes more time to set up for each workpiece.
Q16. i)
Simple turning Taper turning
1. It involves cutting a cylindrical shape with 1. It involves cutting a tapered shape with a
a constant diameter. gradually changing diameter.
2. the cutting tool moves parallel to the 2. the cutting tool moves at an angle to the
workpiece's axis workpiece's axis, creating a tapered surface.

ii) Orthogonal turning involves cutting with a cutting tool that moves parallel to the
workpiece's axis, resulting in a perpendicular cutting action. This type of turning is commonly
used for producing straight, cylindrical shapes with a constant diameter.
Oblique turning, on the other hand, involves cutting with a cutting tool that moves at an angle
to the workpiece's axis, resulting in a non-perpendicular cutting action. This type of turning is
commonly used for producing tapers, cones, and other shapes that require a non-cylindrical
surface.
iii) Parting off refers to the process of cutting a workpiece free from the parent material,
typically using a parting tool. This leaves a small amount of material, called a "parting line," that
must be removed before the workpiece can be finished.
Shoulder turning, on the other hand, involves cutting a conical or tapered surface on the end of
a workpiece, typically using a shoulder tool. This creates a smooth, rounded surface that can be
used as a starting point for further turning operations.
iv) The key differences between drilling and boring are:
Drilling Boring
1. It is typically used to create a hole for a 1. It is used to enlarge an existing hole or to
fastener or to remove material create a smooth, precise hole for a specific
application.
 2. It uses a rotating drill bit 2. It uses a rotating boring tool
3. It is typically done to a depth of a few 3. It can be done to much greater depths, often
inches. exceeding 10 inches.
4. Drilling is generally less precise than 4. Boring is more precise due to the use of a
boring, as the drill bit can vibrate or wander steady, rotating cutting tool.
5. Drilling often leaves a rough, irregular 5. Boring produces a smooth, precise finish.
surface finish

v)
Turning Shoulder Turning
1. It is used to create a straight hole 1. It is used to create a tapered hole.
2. turning uses a rotating tool with a single 2. Shoulder turning uses a cutting tool with
point. multiple edges.
3. It uses linear cutting action. 3. It uses circular cutting action.
4. It is done till the depth of a few inches. 4 It can be done to much greater depths.
5. It leaves a rough irregular finish. 5. It leaves a smooth, precise finish.