BOUNDARY LAYER

ANALYSIS
Instructor: Dr. Megha Sharma
SY B.Tech., Civil & Environmental Engineering Department
VJTI, Mumbai
 OUTLINE

• Assumption and concept of boundary layer theory

• Boundary-layer thickness, displacement, momentum & energy
thickness,
• Laminar and Turbulent boundary layers on a flat plate
• Laminar sub-layer, smooth and rough boundaries
• Local and average friction coefficients
• Separation and Control.
 INTRODUCTION
• When a real fluid flows past a solid boundary, a layer of fluid which
comes in contact with the boundary surface adheres to it on account of
viscosity. Since this layer of fluid cannot slip away from the boundary
surface it attains the same velocity as that of the boundary. In other
words, at the boundary surface there is no relative motion between the
fluid and the boundary. This condition is known as no slip condition.
• However, if the boundary is stationary, the fluid velocity at the boundary
surface will be zero. Thus, at the boundary surface the layer of fluid
undergoes retardation.
• This retarded layer of fluid further causes retardation for the adjacent
layers of the fluid, thereby developing a small region in the immediate
vicinity of the boundary surface in which the velocity of flowing fluid
increases gradually from zero at the boundary surface to the velocity of
the mainstream. This region is known as boundary layer.
 INTRODUCTION
• In the boundary layer region since there is a larger variation of velocity
in a relatively small distance, there exists a large velocity gradient
(∂v/∂y) normal to the boundary surface. As such in this region of
boundary layer even if the fluid has small viscosity, the corresponding
shear stress τ=μ (∂v/∂y),is of appreciable magnitude.
• Farther away from the boundary this retardation due to the presence of
viscosity is negligible and the velocity there will be equal to that of the
mainstream.
• The flow may thus be considered to have two regions, one close to the
boundary in the boundary layer zone in which due to larger velocity
gradient appreciable viscous forces are produced and hence in this
region the effect of viscosity is mostly confined;
• Second outside the boundary layer zone in which the viscous forces are
negligible and hence the flow may be treated as non-viscous or inviscid.
The concept of boundary layer was first introduced by L. Prandtl in 1904
and since then it has been applied to several fluid flow problems.
 THICKNESS OF BOUNDARY LAYER
• The velocity within the boundary layer increases from zero at the
boundary surface to the velocity of the mainstream asymptotically.
• Therefore, the thickness of the boundary layer represented by δ (‘delta’)
is arbitrarily defined as that distance from the boundary surface in which
the velocity reaches 99% of the velocity of the mainstream.
• In other words, the boundary layer thickness δ may be considered equal
to the distance y from the boundary surface at which v = 0.99 V.
• This definition however gives an approximate value of the boundary
layer thickness and hence δ is generally termed as nominal thickness of
the boundary layer.
• For greater accuracy, the boundary layer thickness is defined in terms of
certain mathematical expressions which are the measures of the effect
of boundary layer on the flow. Three such definitions of the boundary
layer thickness which are commonly adopted are the displacement
thickness δ*, the momentum thickness θ and the energy thickness δE.
 THICKNESS OF BOUNDARY LAYER
• The displacement thickness δ* is defined as
the distance by which the boundary surface
would have to be displaced outwards so
that the total actual discharge would be
same as that of an ideal (or frictionless) fluid
past the displaced boundary. Thus, it may be
expressed by the equation
 THICKNESS OF BOUNDARY LAYER
• The retardation of flow due to viscosity in the boundary layer would
cause the reduction in the momentum flux. Accordingly, the momentum
thickness θ is defined as the distance from the actual boundary surface
such that the momentum flux corresponding to the mainstream velocity
V through this distance θ is equal to the deficiency or loss in momentum
due to the boundary layer formation. Thus
 THICKNESS OF BOUNDARY LAYER
• Further the retardation of flow due to viscosity in the boundary layer would
cause the reduction in the flux of energy. As such the energy thickness δE is
defined as the distance from the actual boundary surface such that the
energy flux corresponding to the mainstream velocity V through this distance
δE is equal to the deficiency or loss of energy due to the boundary layer
formation.
 BOUNDARY LAYER ALONG A THIN PLATE AND ITS
CHARACTERISTICS
• Consider a long thin plate held stationary in the direction parallel to the flow in a
uniform stream of velocity V as shown in Fig. (next slide)
• The plate is said to be held at zero incidence to the velocity of flow and the velocity of
flow is known as ‘free stream velocity’ or ‘ambient velocity’ or ‘potential velocity’.
• At the leading edge of the plate the thickness of the boundary layer is zero, but on
downstream, for the fluid in contact with the boundary the velocity of flow is reduced
to zero and at some distance δ from the boundary the velocity is nearly V.
• Hence a velocity gradient is set up which develops shear resistance to the flow and
retards the motion of the fluid.
• Near the leading edge of the plate the fluid is retarded in a thin layer. In other words,
the boundary layer near the leading edge is relatively thin. As this retarded layer of
fluid moves downstream, due to continued action of shear resistance more and more
fluid is retarded. Thus, the thickness of the boundary layer δ, goes on increasing in the
downstream direction.
BOUNDARY LAYER ALONG A THIN PLATE AND ITS
CHARACTERISTICS
 BOUNDARY LAYER ALONG A THIN PLATE AND ITS
CHARACTERISTICS
The various factors which influence the thickness of the boundary layer forming along a flat
smooth plate are:
• The boundary layer thickness increases as the distance from the leading-edge increases.
• The boundary layer thickness decreases with the increase in the velocity of flow of the
approaching stream of fluid.
• Greater is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid greater is the boundary layer thickness.
• The boundary layer thickness is considerably affected by the pressure gradient (∂p/∂x) in
the direction of flow. In the case of a flat plate placed in a stream of uniform velocity V,
the pressure may also be assumed to be uniform, i.e., (∂p/∂x)=0.
• However, if the pressure gradient is negative as in case of converging flow, the resulting
pressure force acts in direction of flow and it accelerates the retarded fluid in the
boundary layer.
• On the other hand, if pressure gradient is positive as in the case of divergent flow the fluid
in the boundary layer is further decelerated and hence assists in thickening of the
boundary layer.
 BOUNDARY LAYER ALONG A THIN PLATE AND ITS
CHARACTERISTICS
• As the boundary layer develops, up to a certain portion of the plate from the leading edge,
the flow in the boundary layer exhibits all the characteristics of laminar flow. This is so
irrespective of whether the flow of the incoming stream is laminar or turbulent. This is
known as laminar boundary layer.
• If the plate is sufficiently long, then beyond some distance from the leading edge the
laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and the flow in the boundary layer exhibits the
characteristics between those of laminar and turbulent flow. This region of the boundary
layer is usually small and is known as transition region.
• After the transition region the flow in the boundary layer becomes turbulent. In this
portion of the boundary layer there is a rapid increase in its thickness, and it is known as
turbulent boundary layer.
• If the plate is very smooth, even in the region of turbulent boundary layer, there is a very
thin layer just adjacent to the boundary, in which the flow is laminar. This thin layer is
commonly known as laminar sublayer, and its thickness is represented by δ’.
• The velocity distribution in a laminar boundary layer is parabolic (V – v) ~ (δ – y)2; and for
turbulent boundary layer the velocity distribution has been found to follow approximately
either the one seventh power law: v ~ y1/7 or it is logarithmic, v ~log y. For laminar
sublayer, the velocity distribution is parabolic, but since its thickness δ’ is usually very
small, a linear distribution can be assumed.
 BOUNDARY LAYER ALONG A THIN PLATE AND ITS
CHARACTERISTICS
• The change of boundary layer from laminar to turbulent mainly depends on
the velocity of flow V, of the approaching stream of fluid, the length x
measured along the plate from the leading edge, the mass density ρ of fluid
and its dynamic viscosity μ.
• As such the Reynolds number Rex = (ρVx/μ) (the suffix x indicating that it is
calculated with the distance x as the characteristic length) becomes a
significant parameter in indicating the change of boundary layer from laminar
to turbulent.
• The value of Rex at which the boundary layer may change from laminar to
turbulent varies from 3 × 105 to 6 ×105 . In exceptional cases, where the
approaching flow is free from any disturbance the values of critical Reynolds
number can reach 106 or even higher.
• However, change of boundary layer from laminar to turbulent is also affected
by several other factors such as roughness of the plate, plate curvature,
pressure gradient and intensity and scale of turbulence.
 LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER
• Inside the boundary layer since the viscous forces are predominant, it is
reasonable to assume that the inertial and viscous forces are of the same
order of magnitude in a laminar boundary layer.
• The inertial forces per unit volume is given by (ρ𝑣𝜕𝑣/𝜕𝑥) which is
proportional to (ρ𝑉 ! /𝑥) for the case of a flat plate.
• Similarly, the viscous force per unit volume is (𝜕𝜏/𝜕𝑦) which for laminar flow
becomes (∂/∂y) (𝜇𝜕𝑣/𝜕𝑦) i.e., (𝜇𝜕 ! 𝑣/𝜕𝑦 ! ).
• In this boundary layer since (∂v/∂y) ~ (V/𝛿), hence (𝜕𝜏/𝜕𝑦) ~ (µ𝑉/𝛿 ! ).
• Thus, if these forces are proportional to each other, then
 LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER
• Analytical solution of the boundary layer equations Blasius has obtained the
value of constant k as 5.

• Expression for shear stress 𝜏"

• Value of constant obtained

by Blasius by analytical
solution
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER
 TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER
• Turbulent boundary layers are usually thicker than laminar ones. Further as a
result of intermingling of fluid particles between different layers of the fluid
in a turbulent boundary layer the velocity distribution in a turbulent
boundary layer is much more uniform than that in a laminar boundary layer.
• However, in a turbulent boundary layer, near the boundary large velocity
change occurs in a relatively small vertical distance, and hence at the
boundary the velocity gradient (∂v/∂y) is steeper in a turbulent boundary
layer than in a laminar boundary layer.
• The velocity distribution in a turbulent boundary layer follows a logarithmic
law i.e., v ~log y, which can also be represented by a power law
# % '
• =
$ &
• The value of the exponent n is approximately (1/7) for moderate Reynolds
number (Vx/υ < 107 for a flat plate) and decreases somewhat with increasing
Reynolds number.
 TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER
• Although above Eq. satisfactorily describes the velocity distribution for most
of the region of turbulent boundary layer, it cannot apply at the boundary
itself because (∂v/∂y) = (1/7)Vδ–1/7 y–6/7 = ∞ when y = 0.
• However, immediately adjacent to the boundary there is laminar sublayer,
which is so thin that its velocity distribution profile may be taken as linear
(instead of parabolic) and tangential to the ‘seventh root’ profile at the point
where the laminar sublayer merges with the turbulent part of the boundary
layer.
• The expressions for δ, cf and Cf for the turbulent boundary layer are as noted
below

• For ReL ranging between 107 to 109

 TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER
• If the plate is covered with both laminar and turbulent boundary layers the
drag coefficient Cf is given by
 LAMINAR SUBLAYER
• If the plate is very smooth, even in the zone of turbulent boundary layer, there
exists a very thin layer immediately adjacent to the boundary, in which the flow is
laminar.
• This thin layer is commonly known as laminar sublayer, and its thickness is
represented by δ’. As stated earlier the exponential as well as the logarithmic
velocity distribution cannot apply at the boundary itself, although these
satisfactorily describe the velocity distribution for most of the region of turbulent
boundary layer.
• This discrepancy may, however, be explained by the existence of the laminar
sublayer. Since the flow in the laminar sublayer is laminar, it will follow a parabolic
velocity distribution law, which can be approximately taken to be linear as δ’ is very
small, and hence exponential or logarithmic velocity distribution law cannot be
applied within the laminar sublayer.
• Thus, in this case there will be a gradual change from parabolic velocity distribution
very close to the boundary to exponential or logarithmic velocity distribution and
the intersection of the parabolic and exponential or logarithmic velocity
distribution curves may be arbitrarily taken as the limit of the laminar sublayer.
 BOUNDARY LAYER ON ROUGH SURFACES
• For a rough plate if k is the average height of roughness projections on the surface
of the plate and δ is the thickness of the boundary layer, then the relative
roughness (k/δ) is a significant parameter indicating the behavior of the boundary
surface.
• For k remaining constant, (k/δ) decreases along the plate because δ increases in
the downstream direction. As a result, the front portion of the plate will behave
differently from its rear portion as far as the influence of roughness on drag is
concerned.
• If it is assumed that the boundary layer is turbulent from the leading edge of the
plate, the front portion of the plate will act as hydrodynamically rough, followed by
a transition region and the downstream portion of the plate will be
hydrodynamically smooth if the plate is sufficiently long.
• The limits between these three regimes are determined by the value of a
dimensionless roughness parameter (V* ks/υ) as indicated below:
• Hydrodynamically smooth: V* ks/υ < 5
• Transition: 5< V* ks/υ < 70
• Hydrodynamically rough: V* ks/υ > 70
BOUNDARY LAYER ON ROUGH SURFACES
 SEPARATION OF BOUNDARY LAYER
• Boundary layer thickness is considerably affected by the pressure gradient in
the direction of flow. If the pressure gradient (∂p/∂x) is zero, then the
boundary layer continues to grow in thickness along a flat plate. With the
decreasing pressure in the direction of flow i.e., with negative pressure
gradient, the boundary layer tends to be reduced in thickness.
• However, with the pressure increasing in the direction of flow i.e., with
positive (or adverse) pressure gradient, the boundary layer thickens rapidly.
• The adverse pressure gradient plus the boundary shear decreases the
momentum in the boundary layer and if they both act over a sufficient
distance they cause the fluid in the boundary layer to come to rest i.e., the
retarded fluid particles, cannot, in general penetrate too far into the region of
increased pressure owing to their small kinetic energy.
• Thus, the boundary layer is deflected sideways from the boundary, separates
from it and moves into the mainstream. This phenomenon is called
separation.
SEPARATION OF BOUNDARY LAYER
 SEPARATION OF BOUNDARY LAYER
• Consider flow of fluid over a curved surface as shown in Fig. As the fluid
flows round the surface it is accelerated over the left hand section until
at point C the velocity just outside the boundary layer is a maximum. At
this section the pressure is minimum as shown by the graph below the
surface.
• Thus, from A to C the pressure gradient (∂p/∂x) is negative and the net
pressure force on an element of fluid in the boundary layer is in the
direction of flow, which counteracts to some extent the slowing down
effect of the boundary on the flowing fluid and thus the rate at which
the boundary layer thickens is less than that for a flat plate with zero
pressure gradient (at a corresponding value of Rex).
• However, beyond C the pressure increases, and hence the net pressure
force on an element of fluid in the boundary layer opposes the forward
flow. Thus at a certain distance on the downstream of point C the fluid
near the boundary surface is soon brought to a standstill.
 SEPARATION OF BOUNDARY LAYER
• The value of the velocity gradient (∂v/∂y) at the boundary surface is then
zero as at point D. The fluid is no longer able to follow the contour of the
curved surface and it separates from it. The separation of the flowing fluid
from the boundary first occurs at a point where (∂v/∂y) at the boundary
becomes zero and this point is known as separation point.
• On downstream of the separation point D, a further retardation of the fluid
close to the boundary can even have a reverse or back flow as at point E.
• If all the points below which a reverse flow occurs are joined by a smooth
curve, a line dividing the forward and reverse flows is obtained which is
known as separation streamline.
• In a region in between the boundary surface and the separation streamline,
as a result of the reverse flow, large irregular eddies are formed in which
much energy is dissipated as heat. This region of disturbed fluid usually
extends for some distance on the downstream. Since the energy of the
eddies is dissipated as heat, the pressure downstream remains approximately
the same as at the separation point.
 SEPARATION OF BOUNDARY LAYER
• Separation occurs with both laminar and turbulent boundary layers, but
laminar boundary layer is more susceptible to earlier separation than
turbulent boundary layer.
• This is so because in a laminar boundary layer the increase of velocity
with distance from the boundary surface is less rapid, and the adverse
pressure gradient can more rapidly halt the slow moving fluid close to
the boundary surface.
• On the other hand in a turbulent boundary layer the velocity
distribution is much more uniform than in a laminar boundary layer
because of intense lateral mixing. As a result relatively higher velocity
prevails within a turbulent boundary layer, which reduces tendency of
separation.
• Separation of the boundary layer greatly affects the flow as a whole. In
particular the formation of a wake zone of disturbed fluid on the
downstream, in which the pressure is approximately constant and much
less than that on the upstream, gives rise to boundary forces.
 SEPARATION OF BOUNDARY LAYER
• Net force in the direction of flow caused by such pressure difference is known
as pressure drag or form drag, the magnitude of which depends on the form
or shape of the boundary and the resulting flow pattern obtained due to
separation.
• Further the flow in a divergent passage or diffuser is another example in
which the separation of the flow may be caused due to adverse pressure
gradient prevailing there unless the angle of divergence is very small.
• Since the separation of the boundary layer gives rise to additional resistance
to flow, attempts should be made to avoid separation by some means. One of
these methods may be by developing such boundary shapes for which the
separation is as far as possible eliminated.
• The flow past a streamlined object such as airfoil is one such example. Apart
from this the separation may also be avoided by adopting suitable method of
controlling the boundary layer which are described in the next section.
 METHODS OF CONTROLLING THE BOUNDARY LAYER

• Motion of Solid Boundary

• Acceleration in Fluid in the
Boundary Layer
• Suction of the Fluid from the
Boundary Layer
• Streamlining of Body Shapes
 MOTION OF SOLID BOUNDARY
• The formation of the boundary layer is due to the difference
between the velocity of the flowing fluid and that of the solid
boundary. As such it is possible to eliminate the formation of a
boundary layer by causing the solid boundary to move with the
flowing fluid.
• Such a motion of the boundary may be achieved in the simplest
ways by rotating a circular cylinder lying in a stream of fluid, so
that on the upper side of the cylinder, where the fluid as well as
the cylinder move in the same direction, the boundary layer
does not form and hence the separation is completely
eliminated.
• However, on the lower side of the cylinder, where the fluid
motion is opposite to that of the cylinder, separation would
occur.
 ACCELERATION OF THE FLUID IN THE SOLID BOUNDARY

• This method consists of supplying additional energy to the

particles of fluid which are being retarded in the boundary
layer.
• This may be achieved either by injecting fluid into the region
of boundary layer from the interior of the body with the help
of some suitable device or by diverting a portion of the fluid of
the main stream from the region of high pressure to the
retarded region of boundary layer through a slot provided in
the body as in the case of the slotted wing.
• However, a disadvantage of this method is that if the fluid is
injected into a laminar boundary layer, it undergoes a
transition to turbulent boundary layer which results in an
increased skin friction drag.
 SUCTION OF THE FLUID FROM THE SOLID BOUNDARY

• In this method the slow moving fluid in the boundary

layer is removed by suction through slots or through a
porous surface, so that on the downstream of the point
of suction a new boundary layer starts developing which
is able to withstand an adverse pressure gradient and
hence separation is prevented.
• Moreover, the suction of the fluid from the boundary
layer also greatly delays its transition from laminar to
turbulent due to which skin friction drag is reduced.
 STREAMLINING OF BODY SHAPES
• By the use of suitably shaped bodies the point of
transition of the boundary layer from laminar to
turbulent can be moved downstream which results in the
reduction of the skin friction drag.
• Furthermore by streamlining of body shapes the
separation may be eliminated.
 PRACTICE PROBLEM
• Air flows over a flat plate 1 m long at a velocity of 6 m/s.
Determine (a) the boundary layer thickness at the end of the
plate, (b) shear stress at the middle of the plate, (c) total drag
per unit length on the sides of the plate. Take ρ = 1.226 kg/m3
(0.125 msl/m3) and υ = 0.15 × 10–4 m2/s (0.15 stokes) for air.