TP 400level

Fluid flow classifications
• Ideal and Real fluid flow

Ideal flow
No friction (viscosity = 0.0) i.e there is no dissipation of mechanical energy into heat.
All particles flow in parallel lines and equal velocities (no velocity gradient)
No formation of eddies or circulation within the stream
Note:
This type of flow is also called potential flow or irrotational
flow and can exist at a distance not far from a solid boundary
(outside the boundary layer)
Real fluid flow

The presence of friction and
velocity gradient (dV/dy)
Note:
This type exists inside the boundary layer where the fluid is affected by the presence of solid boundaries
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•• Uniform
and non-uniform flow
In uniform flow, the conditions (velocity) are independent of position (space coordinate) while non-
uniform flows are position dependent
Note: Uniform flow is ideal flow while non-uniform flow is real flow
• Viscous and Inviscid flow

For a viscous flow, the effects of viscosity are significant, thus can not be neglected. While for an
inviscid flow, viscous effects are not significant and thus can be neglected.
Note: An ideal fluid is inviscid and incompressible, while a real fluid is not.
• Steady and unsteady state flow

In steady state flow, the conditions are independent of time (invariant with time; , , , etc.), while
unsteady state flows are dependent on time (change with time)
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Flows can also be classified as one, two or three dimensional
• One dimensional flow: The fluid velocity changes only in one

direction x, y or z. One dimensional flows occur in long, straight pipes
or between parallel plates, which are the typical examples to be
considered.
• Two dimensional flow: The fluid velocity changes in two directions

(if the flow in the preceding pipe is real, the velocity will change in both
directions x and y). In many cases, one of the velocity components is
small relative to the other two and it is reasonable to assume 2-D flows.
• Three dimensional flow:

Presence of any solid body in the fluid path makes the flow three
dimensional because the flow parameters vary in all three directions
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• Laminar and turbulent flow
Laminar flow exists at low velocities and assumes that the fluid adjacent layers slide past one
another like playing cards. It is characterized by:
a. Absence of lateral mixing. b. Absence of cross current or eddies.
c. High velocity gradient.
Turbulent flow exists at high velocities and is characterized by: Presence of

mixing and cross currents, and lower velocity gradient than that of laminar flow
The flow regime can be predicted based on a dimensionless parameter termed the Reynolds
number. The Reynolds number takes into consideration the fact that flow regimes depend on a
length scale ‘L’ (e.g. diameter of a pipe, length of a plate, boundary layer thickness, etc.), a velocity
V, and the kinematic viscosity of the flow field. The Reynold number is defined as:
or
Reynolds number represents the ratio between inertia force and viscous force.
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• For internal flow (flow in pipes): The flow is laminar when Re <2000 and turbulent
when Re>4000, thus in the range 2000 < Re < 4000 the flow is transitional.
• For external flow (flow past flat plate): for Re < 2 х 105 the flow is laminar, for Re >
3 х 106 the flow is turbulent and for 2 х 105 < Re < 3 х 106 the flow is transitional.
• For most engineering applications involving pipe flow, Recrit is approximately 2000.
For an extremely smooth pipe wall, free of vibration, a critical Reynold number of
up to 40000 has been measured. Nevertheless, for flow between parallel plates a
critical Reynolds number of 1500 is suggested, while for flow on a flat plate Re crit
is about 200000. Thus critical Reynolds number is also a function of geometry.
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Practice questions
• Kerosene flows in a pipe of 2 mm diameter at a flowrate of 0.02 l/min. Determine the
1.
Reynolds number and classify the flow. (Density of kerosene = 0.8 g/cm 3, Viscosity = 0.05
g/cms)
D = 0.002 m, = 3.3 x 10-7 m3/s,ρ = 800 kg/m3, μ = 0.005 kg/ms

, A= 3.14 x 10-6 m2, V = 0.106 m/s
Ans.: Re =ρVD/μ = 34 => Laminar (Re < 2000)
2. Water flows in a pipe of 3 cm diameter at a velocity of 6 m/s. Determine the flow regime.
D = 0.03 m, V = 6 m/s, ρ = 1000 kg/m3, μ = 0.001 kg/ms
Ans.: Re =ρVD/μ = 180000 => Turbulent (Re > 4000)
3. If Reynolds’s experiment was performed with a 38-mm-ID pipe, using water, what flow
velocity would occur at transition to turbulent flow?
D = 0.038 m, ρ = 1000 kg/m3, μ = 0.001 kg/ms
Re =ρVD/μ = 4000 (Turbulent!) => Ans.: V=μRe/ρD = 0.105 m/s
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Boundary layer
When a real fluid (viscous fluid) flows past a stationary solid surface, a
layer of fluid which comes in contact with the surface adheres to it (due
to viscosity) and the condition of ‘no slip’ occurs.
No slip implies that at the solid boundary surface, the velocity of the
fluid is the same as that of the boundary, i.e. for a stationary boundary,
the velocity is zero.
As result of the ‘no slip condition’ a small region (in the vicinity of the
solid boundary surface) is developed. This region is known as the
‘boundary layer’. Thus a boundary layer is a thin layer of viscous fluid
close to the solid surface of a wall in contact with a moving stream in
which (within its thickness δ) the flow velocity varies from zero at the
wall (where the flow “sticks” to the wall because of its viscosity) up to
Ue at the boundary, which approximately (within 1% error) corresponds
to the free stream velocity, V.
Initially the boundary layer is laminar before it becomes turbulent at
some distance.
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Constituents of boundary layer:
• The boundary layer consists of two parts laminar and turbulent.
• Near the leading edge of the plate, the flow in the boundary layer is entirely laminar.
• At distances farther from the leading edge, a point is reached where turbulence appears and after this point
turbulent boundary layer exists.
• The turbulent boundary layer consists of three zones namely; viscous sublayer, buffer layer and turbulent
core.
• The fluid velocity near the wall is small and flow in this part of boundary layer is laminar. This part of
boundary layer is called viscous sublayer.
• Farther away from the surface the fluid velocity may be fairly large and flow in this part of boundary
layer may become turbulent. This part of boundary layer is called turbulent core.
• Between the zone of fully developed turbulence and the region of laminar flow is a transition or buffer
layer of intermediate character. This part of boundary layer is called buffer layer.
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Boundary layer thickness
Boundary layer thickness is defined as the distance from the wall to the point of
99% of the mean (free) stream velocity.
Calculation of boundary layer thickness:

• For laminar boundary layer
• For transition boundary layer
• For turbulent boundary layer
where x is the distance from the leading edge and δ is the boundary layer
thickness.
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10
•
Boundary layer formation in a straight tube
• When a fluid enters a tube, a boundary layer begins to form at the wall of the tube.
• As the fluid moves through the tube, the layer thickens and during this stage the
boundary layer occupies part of the tube cross sectional area.
• At a point well downstream from the entrance, the boundary layer reaches the center
of the tube. At this point the velocity profile in the tube reaches its final form and the
flow is called fully developed flow in which the velocity profile is constant
• The length required for the boundary layer to reach the center of the tube and for fully
developed flow to be established is called the transition length or entrance length, xt.
• For laminar flow:
• For turbulent flow:
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Boundary layer separation and wake formation
Boundary layer separation occurs whenever the change in velocity of the fluid (either in magnitude or
direction) is too large for the fluid to adhere to the solid surface.
Conditions at which boundary layer separation occurs:
• Change in the flow channel by sudden expansion or sudden contraction
• Sharp bend
• Obstruction around which the fluid must flow
Effect of boundary layer separation on the fluid:

• In the boundary layer separation zone large eddies called vortices are formed. This zone is known as the
wake. The eddies in the wake are kept in motion by the shear stresses between the wake and the
separated current. They consume considerable mechanical energy and may lead to a large pressure loss
in the fluid. 12
How to minimize boundary layer separation?
• By avoiding sharp changes in the cross sectional area of the flow channel (avoid sudden
expansion and sudden contraction)
• Streamlining any objects over which the fluid must flow.
Note:
• Boundary layer separation may be desirable for enhancing heat transfer or mixing of fluids
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Practice question
•Calculate
the boundary layer thickness for water in a pipe of 6 cm ID with flow rate of 5 m/s
at a distance 0.6 m. At what distance will the flow be fully developed?
D = 0.06 m, V = 5 m/s, x = 0.6 m, ρ = 1000 kg/m3, μ = 0.001 kg/ms
i. Boundary layer thickness?

Re =ρVD/μ = 300000 => Turbulent (Re > 4000)
• For turbulent boundary layer:
where x is the distance from the leading edge
x = 0.6m =>= 0.018 m
ii. Distance for fully developed flow => Entrance length, ?

• For turbulent flow:
=> = 0.6 m
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Fluid flow classifications

• Ideal and Real fluid flow

Real fluid flow

• Viscous and Inviscid flow

• Steady and unsteady state flow

• One dimensional flow: The fluid velocity changes only in one

• Two dimensional flow: The fluid velocity changes in two directions

• Three dimensional flow:

Turbulent flow exists at high velocities and is characterized by: Presence of

D = 0.002 m, = 3.3 x 10-7 m3/s,ρ = 800 kg/m3, μ = 0.005 kg/ms

Calculation of boundary layer thickness:

• For transition boundary layer

• For turbulent boundary layer

Effect of boundary layer separation on the fluid:

i. Boundary layer thickness?

ii. Distance for fully developed flow => Entrance length, ?

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