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Assessment Front Sheet

Open Book Examination

Assessment Title
Qualification Module Code and title
Advanced Diploma in Psychology Educational Psychology

Student ID Assessor’s Name

02000947 Miss. Theruni Karunawardena

Cohort Date Issued Submitted on

EPSY SU22 10/07/2022 23/08/2022

No. Learning Outcome Task no

1 Analyse theory and research pertaining to the topic above.

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2 Describe the key debates and features to the topic above.

2

3 Weigh and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses pertaining to the

3
theories discussed above.
4 Use appropriate scholarly techniques for your essay and reference in a
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standard format, e.g. APA.

Learner Declaration

I certify that the work submitted for this Assessment is my own and research sources are
fully acknowledge.

Student Signature:…Nafla Nassar……………. Date:…23rd August 2022……………..

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Educational Psychology

Task I:

Analyse and evaluate the theory and research evidence relating to three educational
psychology concepts.

Word count: 2000 (+/- 10%)

Write a comprehensive essay, reviewing relevant psychological literature for ONE of

the following topics, including research outcomes.
A. Moral Development and moral education
B. Motivation (cognitive perspectives) and application in educational setting

1. Analyse theory and research pertaining to the topic above.

2. Describe the key debates and features to the topic above (Minimum 3).
3. Weigh and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses pertaining to the theories
discussed above (Minimum 3).
4. Use appropriate scholarly techniques for your essay and reference in a standard
format, e.g. APA.

Your essay may include the following sections:

- Introduction
- A comprehensive literature review/ theories/ debates/ strengths and
weaknesses
- Discussion/ conclusion
- References

Evaluation Criteria:

1. Overall format of paper: 10%

 Is it in a standardized format?
 Did you use proper citation style?
 Did you use proper referencing?

2. Writing Style: 10%

 Is the writing clear and easy to understand?
 Was the overall organization of the paper clear?
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 Were sentences clearly and appropriately constructed?

 Did you use technical words meaningfully?

3. Sources and Integration: 20 %

 Were appropriate sources of information utilized?
o primary sources
o current research
 Did you integrate and connect relevant theory studied in
educational psychology?

5. Topic: 30 %
 Did you describe the key debates sufficiently?
 Did you analyse and reflect on the theory and research applied?

6. Critical Evaluation: 30%

 Did you demonstrate an in depth understanding and reflection?
 Did you critically evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the
topic discussed?

Marking scheme
GOOD PERFORMANCE BASIC PASS RATE
High quality task coverage, including Competent task coverage including some
relevant theory and research inline with the relevant theory and research inline with the
area of study. A meaningful and in depth area of study. Candidate shows a
analysis and evaluation is applied. satisfactory level of understanding and
Candidate shows a good level of analysis/ evaluation. Usually communicates
understanding. The content is in an effective manner but need to be more
communicated effectively, clear and concise clear and concise. Some minor inaccuracies
applying appropriate scholarly techniques. in referencing and bibliography are given
All sources are cited in consistent and with although all sources are cited.
correct use of APA referencing.

Moral Development and Moral Education

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Fathima Nafla Nassar

Scottish Qualifications Authority – Advanced Diploma in Psychology

EPSY SU22: Educational Psychology

Theruni Karunawardena

August 23rd, 2022

Moral Development and Moral Education

Introduction

Moral development is the process through which individuals learn what society

deems to be "good" and "evil," which is crucial for a healthy society. People who have

developed morals refrain from acting on unrestrained impulses in favor of thinking about

what is morally correct and beneficial to others and society (Little, 2014). Moral education is

shaped by a variety of factors of school life. The formation of pupils' moral character is
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greatly influenced by factors like school culture and the instructor as a moral individual

(Schuitema et al., 2008).

Moral education is important as over the last half-century, studies of immoral

behaviour such as cheating in school have confirmed that that almost all of us indulges in

cheat some point, and that character education has no effect on developing an overall moral

uprightness that continuously withstands chances to cheat (Leming, 1978).

According to the findings of several research done in the context of cheating,

disciplined moral thinkers have participated in moral behaviour in specific contexts, but

others at lower stages have not. Studies demonstrates that the nature of the scenario in

which moral conduct is judged has an impact on the individuals' behavior. Future study on

this topic should not be confined to putting all individuals in the same moral struggle if varied

results are to be seen (Leming, 1978).

Furthermore, positive social interactions and the promotion of social adjustment are a

part of prosocial behaviour which is a significant type of moral behavior that children can

develop (Fabes et al., 1999 as cited in Ding et al., 2018). Prosocial behaviour, which

includes assisting, collaborating, consoling, sharing, and giving, was described as activity

that benefits others (Eisenberg, 1982 as cited in Ding et al., 2018). This type of behaviour

can in turn lead to altruistic behavior which is typically characterized as being driven by the

desire to help another person out of compassion for that individual (Sonne & Gash, 2018).

Cognitive Domain

This domain is concerned with how students reason or think about rules for ethical

conduct. Two main theories under this domain are Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

developed in 1958 and Piaget’s theory of moral development developed in 1932.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

To begin with the most well-known idea of moral formation based on reasoning—

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development, for many years, psychology and education were
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dominated by Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development, which was based in part

on Piaget's theories. Kohlberg assessed both children's and adults' moral reasoning by

presenting them with moral quandaries, or hypothetical situations in which people must

make tough decisions and explain their rationale (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2015).

Kohlberg suggested a thorough process of six phases of moral reasoning, or

judgments about right and wrong, based on their reasoning:

Table 1.

Kohlberg’s Six Phases of Moral Reasoning

Level Explanation Stage Explanation

Pre-conventional Judgement is Stage 1: Obedience Rules are followed to

Level based solely on Orientation avoid punishment.

personal

viewpoints and

needs.

Stage 2: Personal needs

Rewards/Exchange dictate what is right or

Orientation wrong

Conventional Level The social norms Stage 3: Being Being nice means

are considered Nice/Relationships being polite.

Orientation

Stage 4: Law and Order Laws and authorities

Orientation must be obeyed; the

social system must

be maintained

Post-conventional Judgments are Stage 5: Social Contract Good or bad is

(Principled) Level based on decided by social

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abstract, more Orientation standards.

personal

principles of

justice that are

not necessarily

defined by

society’s laws.

Stage 6: Universal Individuals must

Ethical Principles adhere to universal

Orientation ideals of human

dignity and social

fairness, regardless

of the law or what

others think

Note. Woolfolk & Margetts, 2015.

Clearly, everything he proposes tries to improve children's moral judgment abilities.

However, the most important question is how can we enhance it successfully. One of

Kohlberg's three moral education concepts is "arousing truly moral disputes and discords

among students". He proposed classroom dilemma talks in which moral conflicts are applied

in context to allow the participants' internal conceptions to be "reflected," which he believes

is a feasible way to reflect people' moral development level.

Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development

This theory put forth by Jean Piaget explains the different stages that a child goes through in

moral development. These stages are illustrated below:

Table 1.
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Three Stages of Moral Development by Piaget

Stage Explanation

Pre-Moral Period The children will not focus on the

consequences and the rules and simply

enjoy their activities

Heteronomous Morality (age 5-10) Right and wrong is imposed through moral

rules and regulations which must be

followed or consqequences suffered.

Autonomous Morality (age 10 onwards) Child develops their own understanding of

morality based on intentions of actions.

Note. Carpendale, 2009

Strengths

Piaget's hypothesis was among the earliest to attempt to interpret rather than

merely describe the moral developmental process. His broad intellectual development

sequences give a realistic picture of how children of various ages think and his insights have

had a significant impact on how we think about socio - emotional development, and a range

of different applications for teachers (Watts et al., 2013).

Kohlberg's idea of moral development indicates that cognitive growth is necessary

but inadequate for moral development to occur. Therefore, this theory proposes that each

stage builds on the foundation built by previous stages but reflects a more integrated and

logically consistent set of moral ideas than those that came before it. It is thus a

distinguishing element of Kohlberg's moral development theory (Dawson, 2002).

Finally, Piaget posed crucial issues and inspired tens of thousands of scholars to

examine cognitive development. Moreover, as is often the case when heuristic theories like
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Piaget's are reviewed again, some of this study yielded fresh insights while highlighting flaws

in his original concepts (Watts et al., 2013).

Weaknesses

Piaget is claimed to have undervalued infants, toddlers, and preschool kid's

cognitive skills. He inclined to think that kids who failed in one of his tasks merely missed the

underlying concepts, or cognitive processes, he was assessing. We presently understand

that this notion is incorrect because various variables besides a lack of essential

competences may affect a person's ability to do well on a cognitive exam (Upton, 2012).

Moreover Kohlberg’s stages do not appear to be distinct, sequential, or constant.

People frequently propose arguments for moral decisions that represent numerous stages at

the same time. Moreover, children's thinking and reasoning develop across all domains, but

the rate of development may differ. Even the cognitive (neurological) processing of moral

and conventional judgments varies (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2015).

Alternatively, a person's choices in one context may correspond to one stage, while

his or her actions in another situation may correspond to a different stage. Furthemore, the

stages are skewed toward Western male norms that promote individualism. His phases do

not reflect the development of moral reasoning in women or other countries because the

stage theory was founded solely on a long term study of American males (Woolfolk &

Margetts, 2015).

Affective Domain

Affective domain focuses on how students feel about moral behaviour. This domain can

be explained using Socialisation and Internalization theories put forth by Grusec and

Goodnow in 1994 and the Social Domain Theory put forth by Turiel in 1983.

Socialisation and Internalization

The Americal Psychological Association (2022) defines internalization as:

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“The nonconscious mental process by which the characteristics, beliefs,

feelings, or attitudes of other individuals or groups are assimilated into the self and

adopted as one’s own.”

The Americal Psychological Association (2022) defines socialization as:

“The process by which individuals acquire social skills, beliefs, values,

and behaviors necessary to function effectively in society or in a particular

group.”

This concept focuses on how parenting practices help adults instill moral beliefs in children,

who then absorb those values. Child's independent or self-generated adoption of parental

principles and morals, as well as their intuitive implementation of these principles and morals

in the lack of supervision, are the intended outcomes of socialization (Grusec et al., 2000).

Social Domain Theory

To judge socially appropriate behaviors, the Social Domain Theory (SDT) offers a model for

how people recognize, assess, and coordinate domains of social knowledge. Individuals

specifically consider three domains when making social judgments: the moral domain, which

includes considerations of fairness, justice, rights, and welfare; the societal domain, which

includes conventions, customs, and traditions; and the psychological domain, which includes

considerations of personal preference and discretion. Numerous studies show that children

as young as 3 can coordinate and weigh various domains differently while making

judgements, but little is known about the mechanism through which domain identification and

coordination occur. (Richardson et al., 2012)

Strengths

The affective domain puts the first socializing agent as family. A child learns

everything they need to know from their parents, siblings, grandparents, and other family
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members, including those in their extended family. This is huge strength in terms of features

of this theory as family plays a major role in children’s moral development (Little, 2014).

This domain is also useful in rehabilitation settings where professionals can

understand and explain a person’s immoral actions by conducting a brief study into the

background of the person. Social information about the community that the person lived in

can help with resocialisation process of prison/rehabilitation centre inmates (Little, 2014).

Socialisation also helps young children quickly adapt to the moral standards of the

society that they live in. Thus, making it easier for them to fit in and make friends while

upholding good image in their society (Little, 2014).

Weaknesses

One of the main weaknesses of the affective domain is that a child’s decision to

behave morally or immorally cannot be easily justified as due to how they feel about

morality. This is because our feelings are influenced by several factors such as situational

cues and personality types therefore even if the child knows the moral right action, he/she

might not perform it and cannot be judged for it (Smetana, 2013).

Traditionally, moral behaviour is said to have been influenced largely by particular

parenting techniques or styles and have recognized the significance of a responsive parent-

child relationship, but these theories have failed to distinguish between different types of

responsiveness, have stressed internalization of values as the desired outcome, and have

restricted their focus to a small number of parenting strategies or methods (Grusec et al.,

2000). It is crucial to remember that families are not the only humans that a child interacts

with. How a family raises its kids is influenced by a variety of social influences (Little, 2014).

Another weakness of this domain is that it ignores the religious backgrounds of

families or communities which can play a major role in the upbringing of children. Different

religions may have different meanings to what morality means and this is not considered

under this domain (Little, 2014).

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Behavioral Domain

Behavioral domain focuses on how students behave rather than on the morality of

their thinking. This domain can be explained using operant conditioning theories of

reinforcements and punishments put forward by B. F. Skinner in 1938 and the Observational

learning method introduced by Albert Bandura.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is dependent on moral actions. For instance, incentives or

reinforcers encourage people to repeat their moral behaviour when they encounter a similar

circumstance. However, when people receive harmful or just unhelpful reactions, they will

take measures to stop repeating such immoral behaviours in the future. Non-rewarding

behaviours will be curtailed or stopped outright, whereas rewarding behaviours are

reinforced. A reward is viewed as a reinforcer by behaviourists. When a similar situation

arises, a positive reinforcer promotes the moral act to be repeated. The learner can

experience some delight from positive reinforcers. Negative reinforcement, on the other

hand, avoids undesirable immoral behaviour by eliminating an adversarial incentive from the

environment (Saracho & Evans, 2021).

Observational Learning Method

Observing and imitating another person's actions, attitudes, or emotional outbursts is

a key component of the learning process known as observational learning. Although it is

often assumed that the observed would match the model, American psychologist Albert

Bandura emphasized that people may instead choose to learn from the behaviour (Fryling et

al., 2011). This model can be used to explain moral behaviour and can also aid instructors in

moral educational strategies.

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Strengths

There is ample research evidence to state that rewards are an extremely effective

motivator to encourage morally accepted behaviours. Therefore, this is a huge strength for

this theory (Amutan Krishnan & Gordan, 2014).

The focus on learning from one’s environment is a huge strength in the case of this

domain where rewards/punishments or observational learning is used to increase the

occurences of moral development and environment plays a huge role (Saracho & Evans,

2021).

This domain is more scientific than the other two domains as the outcome of the

theories can be tested in laboratory settings easily (Amutan Krishnan & Gordan, 2014). It is

difficult to assess how someone exactly feels unless they are extremely honest and it is also

difficult to be concise with the stage of moral development of a person.

Weaknesses

Research shows that punishments can make a person completely avoid the moral

decision-making as it is too stressful for them. Furthermore, when the rewards are stopped

that too can make the person stop the positive behaviour. (Akpan, 2020).

Moreover, research states that observational learning methods are far more effective

than actually engaging in rewards and punishments in boosting moral behaviour. Students

would prefer to see someone else being punished and learn from it than to get punished

themselves (Fryling et al., 2011).

Furthemore, this domain fails to consider the cognitive and genetic components of

development as cited by the other domains. Research shows that molecular genetic

techniques are able to correlate between behaviors and specific genes thus claiming that

behaviour is not always modifiable or learnt (Moore & Neiderhiser, 2014).

Discussion/Conclusion
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Moral education is one of the solutions to immoral behaviour displayed by students

and later on in their adult lives. Thus, the following section discusses approaches that

educators can take in order to ensure effective moral development in their students.

Furthermore, focusing just on individuals' moral competency through explicit instruction of

moral principles is ineffective in changing moral behavior, whereas focusing on enhancing

the moral climate of the school is more beneficial (von Grundherr et al., 2016).

The Hidden Curriculum

Dewey (1933 as cited in Santrock, 2011) observed that even in the absence of formal

moral education programs, schools nonetheless offer moral instruction through a "hidden

curriculum." School and classroom norms, the moral outlook of instructors and school

officials, and text materials all contribute to the creation of the hidden curriculum, which is

communicated through the moral climate that permeates every school. Teachers act as role

models for moral or immoral conduct (Sanger, 2008 as cited in Santrock, 2011). School

policies and peer relationships influence students' views toward lying, stealing, cheating, and

showing consideration for others. The administration of the school instills a value system

within the institution through its rules and regulations.

Character Education

Character education is a direct method of moral instruction where students learn

morality to stop them from acting immorally and harming themselves or others (Arthur, 2008

as cited in Santrock, 2011). Every school needs an established moral code that is made

known to pupils, according to the character education strategy. Consequences ought to be

applied to any violators of the code. Moral principles can be taught using examples and

definitions, class debates and role-playing exercises, or by rewarding good conduct in the

classroom (Santrock, 2011).

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Values Clarification

Values clarification means assisting individuals in determining the purpose of their

lives and the things that are worthwhile to strive for. Students are urged to articulate their

own values and comprehend those of others. In contrast to character education, values

clarification does not instruct pupils on what their values should be. Exercises to clarify

values don't have right or incorrect responses. The individual student oversees explaining

their own values (Santrock, 2011).

Cognitive Moral Education

Cognitive moral education assumes that as students' moral thinking matures, they

should grow to respect principles like democracy and fairness. Numerous cognitive moral

education initiatives have their roots in Kohlberg's theory. Kohlberg, at the conclusion of his

tenure, realized the moral climate of the school is more significant than he had first thought.

The goal of cognitive moral education is to help students understand ideas like community,

collaboration, trust, and responsibility at a deeper level (Santrock, 2011).

Service Learning

In service learning, a type of education that encourages civic engagement and

community service, students take part in tasks including tutoring, supporting the elderly,

working in a hospital, helping at a daycare center, or clearing out a barren lot to create a play

area. Students being less self-centered and more driven to serve others is one of service

learning's key objectives (Eisenberg & others, 2009 as cited in Santrock, 2011). When two

requirements are satisfied, service learning is frequently more successful (Nucci, 2006 as

cited in Santrock, 2011). These requirements are to (1) provide students some level of

choice in the service activities they participate in, and (2) give students opportunity to reflect

on their involvement.
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