Inquiries, Invest igat ions and

Im m ersions
 Objec t ives of t he Ses ion
At the end of the session, the
participants should be able to:
✓ Discuss importance of the subject
the
✓ Explain how to conduct the study

✓ Explore Grade 12 Inquiries, Investigations

and Curriculum guideand
instructional materials
Immersion
✓ Give sample activities forthe
learning
learning of Inquiries,
Investigations and Immersion
competencies
DE PARTME NT OF E DUCATION
Inquiries, Invest igat ions and
Im m ersions
D A Y 1
What is research?
Research is
□ A study/investigation
□A scientific investigation
□ Is a study on investigation which is done
systematically, empirically, scientifically,
and logically for the purpose of achieving
knowledge and helping solve situational
problems.
 Characteristics of a Research
Process
□ Systematic - well defined designs,
an orderly procedure
□ Empirical – measurable and observable
things or phenomenon that you can put in
print on the bases of your senses.
□ Scientific – can be tested
□ Logical – justifiable and acceptable by
reason
 Purpose of Research

1. Discover new knowledge

2. Help solve situational problems
 System Framework of research

□ INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

(Theories/Principles)
Skills and abilities Pure/Basic research
necessary in (Idealistic)
conducting Solutions to
Research/Scientific problems
Investigation (Social
Responsibilit
y
Input Output
 System Framework of research
Aims at developing a person to be-

ENVIRONMENT •Sensitive to
surroundings
Social • Systematic
Political • Critical
Economic • Objective
Educational • Logical
Technological • Rational
Physical • Analytical
Critical Researcher- has the “3rd
eyes”, seeks the truth from what
he reads, does not take them hook-
and
line does not jump into
sinker, Treat opinions
conclusions. as
opinions
Begin with
a TOPIC in
mind
10
TOPIC

Relevant
Significant
Feasible
11
Brainstorming for Research Topics
1. Scheduling 7.Field trips
2. Team teaching 8. School facilities
3. Evaluation of 9.Extracurricular
learning, programs
reporting to 10.Uses of ICT in
parents Instruction
4. Student 11. Stress
regulation management
5. Learning 12.Guidance-
styles counseling
6. Peer programs
Tutoring
 I. Brainstorming for
Research Topics
STEP 1: T O P I C
a. What do I know about
the topic?
b. What should I know
about the topic?

c. What do previous studies say about my

chosen topic?
Inquiries, Invest igat ions and
Im m ersions
D A Y 2
II. Identifying the Problem and
Asking the Question

Specific Consideration in Choosing a

Problem
Workability
Is it within the limit and range of your
resource and time constraints?
Will you have access to the number of
samples required?
Is there reason to believe that you can come
up with the answers to the problem?
Is the required methodology manageable
and understandable?
 II. Identifying the Problem
and Asking the Question

Specific Consideration in Choosing

a Problem
Critical Mass
Is the problem sufficient magnitude and
in scope (are there variables and
enough results)?
potential
Interest
Are you interested in the problem?
Does it relate to your career interest?
 II. Identifying the Problem
and Asking the Question

Specific Consideration in Choosing

a Problem
Theoretical Value
Does the problem fill a gap in the literature?
Will it contribute to the advancement in
your field?
Does it improve the “state of the art”?
 II. Identifying the Problem
and Asking the Question

Specific Consideration in Choosing

a Problem
Practical Values
Will the solution to the problem
improve practice?
Are practitioners likely to be interested in
the results?
Will the findings aid the managers in
making sound decisions?
Will the system be changed by the outcome?
Situational Problem – Research Problem
SEE Situation
EXPERIENCE in
•the Environment
• Social
OBSERVE
• Political
HEAR
ION • Physical
READ
P T
CE
• Economic
FEEL

P ER
Meaningful sensation of
Religious
/Moral
-a of Situational scientific
Source
the condition the
investigation of the
Problem
environment that bothers
in RESEARCH
different dimensions
you and which you PROBLEM
associated with the
alone cannot solve.
situational problem
involving 2 or more
factors or variables
Example

Knowledge of child abuse

existing in the environment are
problems that can be derived
from this situation. Problems
Do children
would
a. be – abused sexually
come from
-broken homes or not
-one-parent homes or
not
-poor families or not
The research problem is just
part of the a whole pie. It
investigates two or
more how
variables, particularly,
these variables are related.
 II. Identifying the Problem and
Asking the Question
Background of the Problem
It is the presentation of the concept
of the study in a very effective
manner.
1. It must include an assumption of
significance.
2. It must be a loaded statement that
would drive an impact to
emote interest from the reader.
3. It must be simple, clear, specific and
related to the topic.
 II. Identifying the Problem
and Asking the Question
Background of the Problem

This introductory page acquaints

the reader with the problem to
be dealt with. This orientation
is best accomplished by
providing rationale or
background.
 II. Identifying the Problem
and Asking the Question
Background of the Problem

The background intends to draw

a clearer picture of what
you want to say. It describes
clearly, colorfully and vividly the
problem situation which serves
as the rationale of the study.
 II. Identifying the Problem
and Asking the Question
Background of the Problem
It presents in details the problem
situation based on what you
SEE AND OBSERVE HEAR READ

Happenings Lectures/Speeches Newspapers

Events Radio and TV Journal
Broadcasting
Phenomenon Conversations Books
Personal Experience Interviews Reports &
Monographs
SEE AND OBSERVE HEAR READ

Happenings Lectures/Speeches Newspapers

Events Radio and TV Journal
Broadcasting
Phenomenon Conversations Books
Personal Experience Interviews Reports &
Monographs

Records of Critical Records of Records of findings,

Incidents opinions, positions, figures/statistical
values data
 1. Background of the Problem

The purpose of the background is to

highlight the need for the study by
presenting what is happening at
present and what ought to be using
the data that the researcher has
gathered.

It identifies the area in which the

problem is to be found, and points out
that the problem had not been fully
studied.
 2. Conceptual Framework

This deals with the key concepts

and related literature underlying
the framework that guides the study.
The purpose of this is:
1. To expand the context and
background of the study
2. To help further define the problem
3. To provide an empirical basis for the
subsequent development/formulation
of hypothesis.
 2. Conceptual Framework

The initial step is to identify the key

variables of the study. This refers to
the independent, dependent and
moderator variables to be investigated.
 2. Conceptual Framework

The second step is to look for

definitions of the variables. the
dependent variables the followingFor the
should
be done:
1. Define the variable (universal definition)
2. Describe its characteristics
and indicators
3. Discuss its importance (how it
affects other variables) and how it is
affected by other variables
(independent variables)
 2. Conceptual Framework

For the independent variable,

define and describe its
characteristics and indicators.
Discuss its effect on the
dependent variable on the basis
of the review of related
literature and studies.
The same should be done for the
moderator variables.
 2. Conceptual Framework

The discussion should point out how

the previous studies relate to the
present investigation by
highlighting
their similarities and differences. More
importantly, it must include some
relevant theories and concepts that
help in the development of the
present study.
 2. Conceptual Framework

Organizing the literature review

section by subheadings makes it easier
for the researcher to follow. To
meaningful, this subheadings be
reflect the variables and should
relationship. their
 2. Conceptual Framework

We should remember that the purpose

of literature review is to provide a basis for
the formulation of hypothesis.

The conceptual framework is

synthesized
summarizedintoor a logical network of
relationship of key concepts or
the
involved variables
in the study. This is further simplified
by presenting a research paradigm
or hypothetical illustration of the relationship
of variables and their corresponding indicators.
 3. Research Hypothesis
(for quantitative research)

Hypothesis – is a conjectural
statement of the relation between two
or morevariables.
It is a tentative or
temporary answer to a
research problem.
 3. Research Hypothesis
(for quantitative research)

It has the following characteristics:

1. It should conjecture upon a relationship

between two or more variables.
2. It should be stated clearly and
unambiguously in a declarative statement.
3. It should be testable; that is it should be
possible to restate it in an operational form
which can be evaluated based on data.
 3. Research Hypothesis
(for quantitative research)

Example:

I.Q. achievement test are positively

and
related.
 3. Research Hypothesis
(for quantitative research)

There are two approaches for

hypothesis: developing

Deduction – starts from generalization or

theory by logical deduction.

Induction – starts from observation,

opinions to generalizations.
 3. Research Hypothesis
(for quantitative research)

General Classification of Hypothesis

RESEARCH/ This
ALTERNATIVE (H1) temporarily asserts
the
relationship
of variables
NULL/TEST (Ho) Denies the relationship
of variables
 4. Statement of the Problem

The advantages of stating the statement

of the problem are:
1. It provides the reader with
immediate basis from an
which to
interpret subsequent statements
2. It makes it possible to
quickly determine the purpose of
the study. The reader will not
have to search for the
introduction and background to
discover the problem being examined.
 4. Statement of the Problem

A problem statement must have the

following characteristics:
1. It should ask about a relationship
between two or more variables.
2. It should be stated clearly,
unambiguously and usually in question
form.
3. It should be possible to collect data to
answer the question asked.
4. It should not represent a moral
or ethical position.
 4. Statement of the Problem

One or two sentences normally

will suffice to state the Often
problem. statement begins as the
follows:
The purpose of this study is to
examine the relationship between…….
(state the variables, locale and time
as the case maybe).
 4. Statement of the Problem

Specifically, it seeks answers to the

following questions:
1. What is the between I.Q.
relation
and achievement?
2. Is a relationship between
there background and dropout
economic
rate?
 5. Definition of Terms

The definition is based on the

observable characteristics of that which
is being defined.

What is important is the nature of these

observations upon which definitions are
based.
 5. Definition of Terms

There are 3 approaches or types of

constructing definitions. These are arbitrarily
labelled as A, B, and C by Bruce W. Tuckman.

A type A definition can be constructed in

terms of the operations that must be
performed to cause the phenomenon or state
being defined to occur.

An intelligent child can be

defined operationally as the child produced
by the marriage of above average, intelligent
couples.
 5. Definition of Terms

A type B definition can be constructed in

terms of how the particular object or
thing defined operates, that is what it
does or what constitute its dynamic
properties.

Thus an intelligent student can

operationally defined as a person be
gets high grades in school or who
person
a who demonstrates solving
capability for
complicated mathematical problems.
 5. Definition of Terms

A type C definition can be constructed

in terms of what the object
or
phenomenon being defined looks like
that is what constitutes its static
properties. Thus, an intelligent student
can be defined for instance as a person
who has a good memory, large
vocabulary, good ability,
reasoning good mathematical
skills, etc.
 5. Definition of Terms

Ideally, the operationaldefinition

should contain three parts. Thefirst
part is its universal meaning. The
second part is how it is being used in
the study. The third is how it is being
measured.
 6. Importance of the Study

It is at this point that the researcher

described who will benefit and what
benefits can be derived from the
findings of the study. The writer, under
this section, tries to sell its importance to
the panel or to the funding agency.
 7. Scope and limitations of the Study

This tells the specific boundaries of the

study by describing the place or venue of the
study, the population,
subjects/respondents, time frame, the
variables and their indicators.

Any weakness of the study such as

failure to use a more precise data
measuring
gathering orinstrument or failure to execute
an important procedure due to
circumstances beyond the certain
control form part researcher’s
of the study’s limitations.
 Learner’s Output:
List of Related Literature
A literature review is a re-
view of something that has
already been written

LITERATURE REVIEW
STEP 1a: Literature Review: The Research
Powerhouse

A literature review is an account of what

has been published on a topic by
accredited scholars and researchers

•Generativity is one of the hallmarks

of scholarship (Shulman, 1999). It is
the ability to build on the scholarship
and research of those who have
come before us.
52
Why do a literature review?

A literature review can be a precursor in

the introduction of a research paper
A literature review is a critical and in
depth evaluation of previous research. It
is a summary and synopsis of a particular
area of research, allowing anybody
reading the paper to establish why you
are pursuing this particular research
project.
Finding related research articles
typically requires competence on
the internet.
Search through databases that
have indexed information on
thousands of research articles
that have been conducted

Tips for Searching for Resources on the

Internet
Tips for Searching for Resources on
the Internet
• List the major or key variables/concepts in the study
• List synonyms for each variable
• Outline the major points to be made in the
literature review
• Do not limit your search to only studies that examine all
of the same variables as your study.
• Put key phrases in quotation marks
• When searching online, use the limit function to reduce
searches that have too many results.
• Limit your use of Google
• Do not cite wikipedia as a source. Like Google, anybody
can edit articles on wikipedia. Therefore, wikipedia
should never be used as a source for an academic
paper.
• Use the resources you have to find additional resources.
 Boolean logic is the
way to put terms
together in a search by
using AND, OR, NOT

Tips for Searching for Resources on

the Internet
Using AND
•When you use AND you will be
looking for articles containing two or
more words within each article.
 For example, employee AND
motivation would retrieve articles
with both words in the article.
 Use AND when you are
searching for concepts and want to
be more specific in your search (to
narrow it down).
Using OR
 When you use OR you will be
looking for articles containing either
one word or the other word.
 For Example, employee OR
personnel OR staff. You would use
OR for similar concepts and
alternative words or synonyms (to
broaden out your search).
Using NOT
 When you use NOT you will
be looking for one term but not
the other.
 For example, you might search
for broadband NOT wireless. You
would use NOT to exclude irrelevant
results (to narrow down your
search).
Table 1 Writing styles – opening sentence
Good opening style Opening style to avoid
Early work by Thomas (1996) Thomas (1996) said …
shows that …
Brown said (2000) …
Another study on the topic by
Brown (2000) asserts that … Smith (2003) wrote ….

The latest research (Smith,

2003) show …
Table 2 Verbs and synonyms, to use in writing about text and making
an argument

Account for Clarify Describe Exemplify Investigate Recognize

Analyze Compare & Determine Expand Judge Reflect

contrast
Argues Conclude Discuss Explain Justify Refer to
Assess Criticize Distinguish Exhibit Narrate Relate to
Debate Differentiate Identify Outline Report
Assert Evaluate Illustrate Persuade Review
Defend
Assume Define Emphasize Imply Propose Suggest
Claim Demonstrat Examine Indicate Question Summarize
e
Table 3. Forming critical sentences using signaling words
As a consequence of x then y
Consequently, …
Hence …
Therefore, …
Thus …
In short …
In effect …/ It follows
that …
This indicates that …
This suggests that …
This points to the conclusion that …
This most obvious explanation is …
This means that …
Finally, …

Source: Brown and Keeley (2004)

Writing the Literature
Review
 Writing the Theoretical
Background
(The SEC Approach)

Rule 1: State the theory

Suggested Sentence Stems

The theoretical basis of this paper is This

paper is theoretically anchored on This
paper is premised on
The theory of underpins this
study
We draw on to (state the
objective of the paper)

Rule 2: Explain the theory

Rule 3: Contextualize the theory

LITERATURE REVIEW
Rule 1: Synoptic Dimension

• Defning what the construct is all about

• Stating what has been said about the
variable (relationship, effect, difference)
or it historical development

Rule 2: Argumentative Dimension

 Build arguments either through

sentence of problematising (SOP) or the
need for the study (NFS)
 Variable: Teaching Beliefs
Literature 1 Claim 1 Evidence
Literature 2
Literature 3 Claim 2 Evidence
Literature 4
Literature 5 Claim 3 Evidence
Literature 6
Literature 7

Indicate the How do the Cite specifc studies

findings of each fndings relate? from your literature
of the literature How do the review that will
reviewed fndings differ? support the claims
From these made in frame 2
similarities and
differences,
what can we
possibly claim?
Literature 1
Finding 1
Finding 2
Finding 3

Literature 2
Finding 1
Finding 2
Finding 3
Finding 4

Literature 3
Finding 1
Finding 2
The Need for
Finding 3 Dendrogramming
Literature 4
Finding 1
Finding 2
Finding 3

Literature 5
Finding 1
Finding 2
Finding 3
Finding 4
Finding 5
Example write-up (CF)
The conceptual framework underlying this study is
anchored on the concepts of research capability, workload,
and research productivity.

Research Capability
Research capability is simply the capability of the faculty to
undertake research. All the resources or inputs which
enable the faculty member to conduct research are
considered as components of research capability (Deza,
1999; Banaag, 1994). Salazar-Clemena and Almonte-Acosta
(2007) enumerated indicators of research capability which
include budget for research, the ability to obtain research
grants, the provision of research infrastructure, the ability
to collaborate with and access to research professionals,
and the presence of rules and procedure on the granting of
rewards for research.
Example write-up (CF)
 In this study, research capability is described in terms of
technical skills in doing research, skills in conceptualizing a
research problem, knowledge and skills in designing the
research plan, knowledge and skills on research data
processing, and knowledge and skills in writing the research
paper. Technical skills include written communication
(expressing one’s ideas and arguments using language
rules, presenting and packaging ideas effectively); oral
communication (expressing one’s ideas and
arguments using language rules, presenting and packaging
ideas effectively); critical /analytical thinking (evaluating
ideas, analyzing the arguments of others); problem-solving;
research organization (parts, format of a research paper);
online search , use of electronic resources, databases &
search engines; use of computer commands/programs/
software; and acknowledging or citing sources/ cross-
referencing.
Example write-up (CF)
Determinants of Research Productivity
 Previous foreign and local studies have revealed
that the reasons for low research productivity
among faculty members are poor or lack of
research skills (Anunobi & Emerole, 2008; Iqbal,
2011); lack of research funds (Anunobi & Emerole,
2008; Iqbal, 2011; Mahilum, 2010); and heavy
workload or teaching overload (Iqbal, 2011;
Mahilum, 2010; Mordeno, 2002). Iqbal (2011)
added performance of administrative duties along
with academic duties, nonexistence of research
leave, negative attitude of the faculty towards
research and absence of professional journals while
Anunobi & Emerole (2008) included time
constraints as impediments to research publication.
Example write-up (CF)
Determinants of Research Productivity
 Predictors of research productivity include
teachers training or having research
orientation (Finkelstein, 1984, Banaag, 1994,
Mordeno, 2002); academic rank (Flanigan, et
al.,1988; Banaag, 1994); highest educational
attainment (Finkelstein, 1984; Flanigan, et
al.,1988; Banaag, 1994);and sufficient time
allocated to research (Finkelstein, 1984).
Example write-up (CF)
While several studies have been made to investigate
correlates of research productivity, studies on research
capability in terms of specific research skills of teachers
were lacking. In this end, the researchers were
motivated to conduct this research that explored the
levels of proficiency of teachers on different skills that
determine their capability in doing research and how
this capability can be associated to research
productivity. Workload in terms of hours of work and
number of teaching preparations was also investigated
to verify its impact on faculty productivity in research. In
the end, it is aimed that this research may contribute to
the existing literatures on determinants of research
productivity.
 Read enough background
discuss to
material the research and the theory
giving a reasonably complete account of
our knowledge of the topic
 Present data that are based on data
and theory, including conflicting views of
different researchers.
 Make it easy for the reader to
understand how all of the studies
interrelate.

Remember!
 Writing the Introduction
(The TIOC Approach)

Pointers: The TIOC Approach

• Highlight then trend/s in the field
• Pinpoint the issues underlying the
trend/s
• State the overall objective/intent of
the paper in the light of the gap
identified
• Discuss the possible contribution of
the research attempt to
advancing/improving disciplinal
theory, research, practice and
policy
• (cross-reference to strengthen
claims
Some Approaches to Starting the
Introduction
 Make a compelling statement about
an important issue
There is a strong evidence that computer games are
hugely popular. For example, as of 2002, more money was
spent on computer games in the United States- 6.9billion
on box-office
dollars- than movies, and 145
approximately
Americans (or about 60% of the million over
regularly played computer games (Lee, Park, & Jin,
population age2006).
6)
Advocates of educational gaming have proposed that
educators should harness the appeal of computer games as a
vehicle for fostering student learning, but reviews of
the research literature have not yielded strong support for
instructional effectiveness of computer
the (Adams,
games Mayer, McNamara, Koenig, & Wainess,
2011).
Some Approaches to Starting the
Introduction
 Identifying the Scope of
Previous Research
The literature on suicide and suicide risk factors is
extensive. The research includes clinical reports, intervention
strategies, identification of individual risk factors,
demographic patterns of suicide, and estimates of base
rates in different ages and culture. A subset of this
literature has examined suicide in college students.
College students suicide research is longstanding and
an increasing number of articles address the topic each
year (Stephenson, Belesis, & Balliet, 2005)
Some Approaches to Starting the
Introduction

 Presenting a
Statistics
Health outcomes are increasingly
recognized as socially patterned, In 2001-
2002, the leading causes of death were
heart disease, cancer and stroke (Jackson,
Kubzansky, & Wright, 2006).
Some Approaches to Starting the
Introduction

 Describing common
occurrences
For male jobs,.. Women are
less likely to be hired than men. They are
traditionally
also paid less, given authority, and
promoted less less often...Conversely male
applicants are discriminated
, against for
jobs that are considered feminine (Ulhmann
& Cohen, 2005),
“A
o

Wh
di
in
so
ta
tr
so

Pl
ag
Table 6.1. Basic Citation Styles
Type of citation First citation in Subsequent Parenthetical
text Parenthetical format,
citations in text format, first subsequent
citation in tex citations in text
t
One w ork by Walker (20 7) Walker (20 7) (Walker, 20 7) (Walker, 20 7)
one au thor
One w ork by Walker and Walker and (Walker & (Walker & A len,
two au thors A len (20 4) A len (20 4) A len, 20 4) 20 4)
One w ork by Brad ley, Brad ley et al. (Brad ley, (Brad ley et al.,
thre au thors Ram irez, and (19 9) Ram irez & So ,
So (19 9) 19 9) 19 9)

One w ork by Brad ley, Brad ley et al. (Brad ley, (Brad ley et al.,
fou r au thors Ram irez, So (20 6) Ram irez, So & 20 6)
and Walsh Walsh, 20 6)
(20 6)
Type of citation First citation in Subsequent Parenthetical
text Parenthetical format,
citations in text citation in text subsequent
format, first citations in text
On e work by Walker, A len, Walker et al. (Walker, A len, (Walker et al.,
five au thors Brad ley, (20 8) Brad ley, 20 8)
Ram irez, and Ram irez, & So ,
So (20 8) 20 8)
One work by six Was erstein et Was erstein et (Was erstein et (Was erstein et
or m ore au thors al. (20 5) al. (20 5) al., 20 5) al., 20 5)
Grou p s (read ily N ational N IMH (20 3) (N ational (N IMH , 20 3)
id entified Institu te of Institu te of
throu gh Mental H ealth M ental H ealth
ab reviation) as (N IMH , 20 3) [N IMH ], 20 3)
au thors
Grou p s (no University of University of (University of (University of
ab Pit sbu rgh Pit sbu rgh Pit sbu rgh, 20 5) Pit sbu rgh, 20 5)
reviaton) as (20 5) (20 5)
au thors
 Beins, B.C. APA simplified style:
psychology,
Writing in nursing, education, and
sociology. USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 De Guzman, A.B. Writing for
international publication. Presented in a
seminar- workshop 2012
 explorable.com/what-is-a-literature-
review
 Korb, K. (2015). Conducting
educational research: Search the
Research Literature

References
1.Research
Design
A research design is a plan or strategy
in order to answer the research problem
and control (variance) for validity. This is
the over-all plan for the conduct of
the investigation.
Hence, substantially a design is
intended to answer the problem; and,
technically it provides control for validity.
Understanding Ways to
Collect Data
1.Research
Design
Essentially, research designs may
be classified only in two (2) categories on
the basis of maximum control for validity:
2. non-design or non-
experimental (descriptive)
3. True Design or experimental design

Understanding Ways to Collect

Data
1. Research Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A.Pre-experimental design (non-design)
Not recommended for use
-designs which do not control
adequate against sources of internal validity
1. One shot case study
2. One-group pre-test-post-test design
B. Quasi-experimental design
UCn. TdreuersEtxapnedriminegntWal
aDyessigtno Collect
Data
1.Research
Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)
B.Quasi-experimental design
-this design controls some but not
all sources of internal invalidity due to
existing conditions by which experimental
control is difficult if not impossible.
C.True Experimental Design
Understanding Ways to Collect
Data
1. Research Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)
B. Quasi-experimental design
1. Expost facto design – This is the study in which
the researcher examine the effects
naturalistically occurring treatment of after
treatment has occurred rather thanthat creating
the treatment itself. The researcher
attempts to rotate this after the fact.
2. Co-relational standard
UC.nTdrueerEsxtpaenrimdeinntgal
WDesaigyns to Collect
Data
1.Research
Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)
B. Quasi-experimental design
1. Expost facto design
2. Co-relational standard – this involves two
or more sets of data from a group of subjects
with an attempt to determine the
subsequent relation between those sets of data.
C. True Experimental Design
Understanding Ways to
Collect Data
1.Research
Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)
B. Quasi-experimental design
1. Expost facto design
2. Co-relational standard – serve useful
purpose in determining the relationship
as
among measures and suggesting possible
bases for causality, while correlation does not
necessarily imply causation.
C. True Experimental Design
Understanding Ways to Collect
Data
1.Research
Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)
B. Quasi-experimental design
C. True Experimental Design –
provide complete adequate controls for all
sources of internal invalidity (only possible for
non-human subjects
1. Post-only control group design
2. Pretest-post test control group design

Understanding Ways to Collect

Data
Experimental Research
 Most powerful design
 Used to establish cause and effect
by manipulating (influencing) an IV
(independent variable, aka treatment
or experimental variable) to see its
effect on a DV (dependent variable
,aka criterion or outcome variable)
 Goes beyond description and
prediction
Experimental Research

• Comparison of groups (at least two groups of

subjects, called treatment and control groups)
• Manipulation of the IV (experimenter changes
something for the treatment group that’s different
than the control group)
• Randomization (true experiments require random
assignment into treatment/control conditions…
after random selection of subjects to participate in
study)
• Assignment takes place at start of experiment
Experimental Research

 Do not use already formed groups

 Groups should be equivalent
(any differences due to chance)
 Randomization eliminates
threats from extraneous
variables
 Groups must be sufficiently large to
be equivalent
 All extraneous variables must be
to eliminate threats to validity/rival
controlled
hypotheses
 Ensure groups are equivalent to begin
using randomization
 Hold certain variables constant (i.e.
age, IQ) or build them into to the design

Experimental Research
 Use matching when necessary
 Use subjects as their own
controls (treat same group first in
control condition then in treatment
OR use pre-test/posttest on same
group)
 Use analysis of covariance to
statistically equate unequivalent
groups

Experimental Research
 Weak Designs(Pre experimental
Designs)
 True Experimental
Designs

 Quasi Experimental
Designs

Experimental Research
(Group Designs)
Pre-Experimental Designs

• Do not adequately control for the problems

associated with loss of external or internal
validity
• Cannot be classified as true experiments
• Often used in exploratory research
• Three Examples of Pre-Experimental
Designs
◦ One-Shot Design
◦ One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
◦ Static Group Design
One-Shot Design
• A.K.A. – after-only design
• A single measure is recorded after the treatment
is administered
• Study lacks any comparison or control of
extraneous influences
• No measure of test units not exposed to the
experimental treatment
• May be the only viable choice in taste tests
• Diagrammed as: X O1
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

 Subjects in the experimental group

are measured before and after the
treatment is administered.
 No control group
 Offers comparison of the same
individuals before and after the treatment
 (e.g., training)
If time measurements is
extended, may & 2maturation
suffer
nd
between 1 st

 Can also suffer from history, mortality,

and testing effects
 Diagramme O1 X O2
d as
Static Group Design
• A.K.A., after-only design with control group
• Experimental group is measured after being
exposed to the experimental treatment
• Control group is measured without having
been exposed to the experimental treatment
• No pre-measure is taken
• Major weakness is lack of assurance that the
groups were equal on variables of interest prior to
the treatment
• Diagrammed as: Experimental Group X
O1 Control Group O2