I.

Pre-5G ERA
The evolution of telecommunications began with James Clark Maxwell's discovery of electromagnetic
waves in the 1860s, suggesting their potential for high-speed travel. Heinrich Hertz later identified and
named these waves as 'Radio Waves.' The idea of using these waves for information carriers emerged. The
First Generation (1G) of telecommunication technology, introduced in the late 1940s and 1950s, marked
the initial use of mobile phones. However, these devices faced limitations in size, security, and signal
transmission obstruction. In 1979, NTT introduced the First Generation Cellular Network, a breakthrough
in wireless communication despite transmitting data in analog signals.

The Second Generation (2G), launched by Radiolinja in 1991, revolutionized cellular technology with
digital signal transmission. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) represented the second
generation (2G) of mobile telecommunications technology. Developed to replace analog systems, GSM
introduced digital voice encoding, providing clearer audio quality. Subsequent iterations (2.5G, 2.75G)
introduced GPRS and EDGE technologies, providing mobile internet access with improved bandwidth. The
base architecture of these iterations were based on that of GSM.

However, the demand for higher bandwidth led to the introduction of 3G, the third generation, in the early
2000s. While not significantly improving calls and messaging, 3G excelled in data rates, reaching 7.2
Megabits per second. Security was enhanced with end-to-end encryption. 3.5G (HSPA) and 3.75G
(HSPA+) further increased data rate caps, positioning the technology as revolutionary for providing internet
access from any location.

4G, or commercially also called the LTE, provided significantly faster data speeds with download capping
at over a hundred megabits per second and upload capping at over 50 megabits per second. The other
significant improvement in the 4G technology, other than a better security and encryption, is the latency.
4G technology boasts a 50 ms response time, which is well over enough for any imaginable task at the time
of its release. However, like said earlier, just when we think we are almost there, turns out there is still a
mile of a journey ahead of us.

1.1 3G UMTS Technology

Universal mobile telecommunication system (UMTS) is defined as the third-generation (3G) mobile
network which combines the GSM network with superior technology of the WCDMA air interface.
 Key Points:
 Used Circuit Switching for voice transfer & Packet Switching for Internet.

 UMTS employed WCDMA as its air interface.

CDMA is a channel access network that allows multiple transmitters to transmit information
over a single communication channel simultaneously. Wideband CDMA was effective in the
transfer of ‘data packets’ over the air from one user to the other, unlike GSM, which worked
using a mix of frequency division multiple access (FDMA) and time division multiple access
(TDMA) as its communication services.

 QPSK as Modulation Scheme.

UMTS played a crucial role in paving the way for more advanced mobile communication technologies,
including the subsequent deployment of 4G LTE and 5G networks.

1.2 4G Technology
4G

LTE WiMAX
A. WiMAX Standard

WiMAX, which stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access, is a 4G wireless communication
technology that belongs to the family of IEEE 802.16 wireless access network standard.

Key Points:
 Similar to Wi-Fi, but Mobile WiMAX covered vast distance like 2-5 km (cellphone network)
with high speed internet.
 WiMAX employed Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) as its air
interface technology.
 The data rates can go upto 74mbps when used as 20 MHz.
  It uses AES Technique for encryption of data.

B. LTE Standard (3.9 G)

LTE (Long-Term Evolution) is a fourth-generation (4G) wireless standard that provides increased network capacity
and speed for cellphones and other cellular devices compared with third-generation (3G) technology.

 An LTE network employs the multiuser variant of the orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM)
modulation scheme, called orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA), for its downlink signal.
 Fully IP Packet Switching
 Single-carrier FDMA is used for the uplink signal, which reduces the transmit power required of the mobile
terminal.
 LTE-A uses multiple input, multiple output (MIMO) antenna technologies similar to that used in the IEEE
802.11n wireless local area network standard. MIMO and OFDM enable a higher signal-to-noise ratio at the
receiver, providing improved wireless network coverage and throughput, especially in dense urban areas.

C. LTE-A standard (4G)

LTE-A technology, considered as the real 4G, is an evolution of LTE standard, which allows a flow of 300 Mb/s
for the uplink and 1 GB/s for the downlink, the bandwidth is about 100 MHz and it supports a mobility reaching
500 km/h.

Key Points:
 LTE-A system uses OFDMA for the downlink and SCFDMA for the uplink. It also uses MIMO (4*4, 8*8)
as an advanced technique of antennas.
 Continual improvement to the LTE radio technology and architecture
 Backward compatibility of LTE-Advanced with LTE. An LTE terminal should be able to work in an LTE-
Advanced network and vice versa. Any exceptions will be considered by 3GPP.

D. Difference between 4G and 5G Standards

LTE has a direct role in the development of the current 5G standard, called 5G New Radio. Early 5G networks,
referred to as non-standalone 5G (NSA 5G), require a 4G LTE control plane to manage 5G data sessions. NSA 5G
networks can be deployed and supported by the existing 4G network framework, lowering capital and operating
expenses for operators rolling out 5G.
Currently, 5G is expected to be implemented this year (2020) giving the mobile industries a lot of work to do in a
short amount of time. Most wireless communication professionals agree that when 5G replaces 4G, it should
address three key needs:
- A reduced latency of less than one second.
- - Increased data rates of at least 1 Gbps for tens of thousands of users simultaneously.
- Increased energy efficiency.
-
Indeed, reduced latency is a key differentiator between 4G and 5G standards. In fact, low latency means that we’d
be able to download and upload files quickly and easily [7] [8].

TABLE 1. COMPARISON BETWEEN 4G AND 5G STANDARDS

Standard 4G 5G
Start Form 2010 2016
Data Rate 2 Mbps – 1Gbps and higher
1Gbps
Frequency 2 – 8 GHz 3 – 300 GHz
Domain
Handover Horizontal and Horizontal and Vertical
Vertical
Core network All IP network Flatter IP network, 5G network
interfacing (5G-NI)
Multiple CDMA CDMA, BDMA
Access

II. 5G ERA
Q: What is 5G?
The exact definition of 5G has always been debated. In a recent report published by GSMA
Intelligence, they portray that there are two views of 5G technology that exist today: the hyper-
connected vision and the next-generation radio access technology.

The first one, the hyper-connected vision, is described as a new technology where all the useful
features from the existing generations like the 2G, 3G, and 4G are scraped out to create a better
system that can provide the users with broader implications than the 4G and LTE that exist today.

Even though this technology provides a better service than any other existing technology, this
cannot be considered a true “generational shift”. This is where the concept of a next-generation
radio access technology comes in. The idea is to provide the users with the bandwidth throughput
of over a gigabit per second and a sub one millisecond response time (latency).

Currently, there exists a standard that has to be met by a technology to be considered 5G

 1-10Gbps connections to endpoints in the field (Data Rates)
 1 millisecond end-to-end round trip delay (latency)
 1000x bandwidth per unit area (Bandwidth)
 10-100x number of connected devices (Capacity)
 (Perception of) 99.999% availability
 (Perception of) 100% coverage
  90% reduction in network energy usage
 Up to ten-year battery life for low power, machine-type Devices
Source: GSMA Intelligence

Performance
Parameter Definition Importance
Speed at which data is transmitted over Enables faster downloads and supports data-
Data Rate the network. intensive applications.
Time delay between sending and Critical for real-time applications, including
Latency receiving information. gaming and critical communication services.
Amount of data transferred successfully A measure of the network's capacity to handle
Throughput over the network in a specific period. data traffic efficiently.
Consistency and dependability of Essential for providing a consistent user
Reliability network performance. experience, especially for critical applications.
Geographic area covered by the Widespread coverage is crucial for providing
Coverage network signal. service to diverse locations and user populations.
Network Maximum number of simultaneous Essential for accommodating a growing number
Capacity connections the network can support. of connected devices and users.
Spectral Efficiency with which the available Optimizing the use of limited radio frequency
Efficiency frequency spectrum is utilized. spectrum is crucial for network efficiency.
Ability of the network to deliver services Important for sustainable and environmentally
Energy Efficiency while minimizing energy consumption. friendly network operations.
Percentage of successful handovers as
Handover devices move between different cells or Contributes to seamless connectivity during
Success Rate base stations. device mobility.
Ensures that different applications receive the
Quality of Ability of the network to meet specified necessary level of performance for optimal user
Service (QoS) service quality requirements. experience.
Ability of the network to handle and
Interference mitigate interference from other Effective interference management ensures
Management sources. reliable and high-quality communication.
Overall satisfaction of end-users with Positive user experiences are crucial for customer
User Experience the network's performance. satisfaction and the success of the network.
Robust security and privacy features are
Security and Measures in place to protect data and fundamental for maintaining the integrity and
Privacy ensure user privacy. trustworthiness of the network.
Q: What underlying technologies make up 5G?
Foundation Technology:
OFDM (Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing) is indeed a fundamental technology for 5G.
It is a method of modulating a digital signal across several different channels to reduce
interference.
Key Characteristics
 Divides the available spectrum into orthogonal subcarriers for efficient data transmission.
 Mitigates multipath fading and interference.
 Supports flexible spectrum allocation and multiple access techniques.
 Well-suited for high data rates and low-latency communication.
Apart from foundation technology, there are five new technologies in 5G, which complement each
other in the 5G ecosystem, collectively contributing to the network's ability to provide high data
rates, low latency, increased capacity, and improved overall performance. Each of the technology
serves specific purposes in enhancing the overall performance of 5G network.

A. Massive MIMO & Beam Forming

Massive MIMO (Multiple Input, Multiple Output):

Definition: Massive MIMO involves using a significant number of antennas at the base station to communicate with
multiple user devices simultaneously. It goes beyond traditional MIMO, which uses a smaller number of antennas.

Beamforming:
Definition: Beamforming is a technique used to focus radio signals in a specific direction, rather than broadcasting
them in all directions. It can be achieved through antenna arrays and signal processing.

Massive MIMO and Beamforming are interrelated with each other. Beamforming is not a new concept and has been
around in the cellular market as active antenna systems (AAS) that use static beamforming in the radio as a tradeoff
to contain the system cost and complexity. The major difference between traditional MIMO and Massive MIMO is
the number of antenna used.

Massive MIMO with full digital beamforming adds a spatial dimension to frequency and time dimensions to
significantly boost spectral efficiency and thus increasing data rates. The resulting SNR (signal to noise ratio)
improvements brought about by the array gain and orthogonality of multiple beams means the same time and
frequency allocations can be reused by multiple users.
 Beamforming between MIMO and Massive MIMO

B. Millimeter Waves
Millimeter waves are radio frequencies above 24 GHz, often in the 30 GHz to 300 GHz range. The millimeter waves
use higher frequency i.e. lower wavelength signals (wavelength may vary from 1 to 10 millimeter).

The wireless technology we use today uses the frequency of less than 6 Gigahertz. However with more and more
devices coming online, we may see some significant decrement in performance. Scientists are testing the frequencies
of up to 300 Gigahertz, which is going to create a lot of room for the devices that are going to be added in the future.
But this technology comes with a major drawback. The signals cannot easily travel through concrete, and they are
likely to be absorbed by trees and rain. Hence, the other technology: Small Cells.

Key Characteristics
 Millimeter waves provide new and less used spectrum for 5G, enabling higher data rates.
5G wireless technology utilizes a variety of frequency bands within ranges known as FR1
below 7.125 GHz and FR2 above 24.250 GHz for the 5G NR.

FREQUENCY RANGES, FR1 & FR2 FOR 5G NR

FREQUENCY RANGE DESIGNATION FREQUENCY RANGE (MHZ)

FR1 410 - 7 125

FR2 24250 - 52600

The bands in frequency range 1, FR1 are envisaged to carry much of the traditional cellular mobile communications
traffic. Allocating FR1 for 5G allows for a smoother transition and the reuse of existing infrastructure.
The higher frequency bands in range FR2 are aimed at providing short range very high data rate capability for the 5G
radio

 Millimeter waves make it possible to have Massive MIMO antenna.

 While they have shorter range and are sensitive to obstacles, they are used in specific
scenarios to achieve ultra-fast and low-latency connections.

As the signals cannot easily travel through concrete, and they are likely to be absorbed by trees and rain. Hence,
the other technology: Small Cells

D. Small Cell Network

Small Cell Network is nothing but a concept of getting around an obstacle rather than facing it. As said earlier, the
millimeter waves have a hard time traveling through obstacles, foliage, and rain. So, small cell network allows the
signal to run past the obstacle. Huge Massive MIMO stations broadcast the signals over long distances. Yet, adding
thousands of small low powered sub-stations all around the city would solve the problem of signals being blocked
by infrastructures. What this basically does is that when a lot of sub-stations are available, the phone can
automatically switch to another, closer substation when it experiences any kind of barrier.

A small cell is basically a miniature base station that breaks up a cell site into much smaller pieces.

Key Characteristics:

 Low-powered, short-range wireless communication systems.

  Deployed in areas with high user density to increase capacity and improve coverage.

 Enhances overall network capacity by providing additional access points.

E. Full Duplex
Full Duplex:
 Definition: Full duplex communication allows simultaneous transmission and reception of data on
the same frequency, enabling two-way communication without the need for separate channels.

Current 4G systems will eventually evolve into the fifth generation of cell network technology (5G),
which will ostensibly offer faster data speeds and greater reliability. 5G, however, is still not fully
deployable.
 Various technologies have been proposed as mediums for completely achieving 5G. These include but are
not limited to millimeter waves, beamforming and massive MIMO.

Full duplex, however, could be the most realistic. Current half-duplex cellphones and base stations are
forced to operate on different frequencies if users require simultaneous transmittal and reception of
information. Transmittal on the same frequencies means full-duplex systems could double the capacity of
signal transfer and halve the conversation time.

Additionally, full duplex’s effects would also counter current problems, which include but are not limited
to:

 Hidden terminals: When nodes in the system communicate with a wireless access point but not with
other nodes. This leads to simultaneous data transfers from multiple nodes, which causes interference.

 High end-to-end latency: When the time taken for a data packet to be transmitted from source to
destination is unusually high.

 Fairness: When certain users are receiving more than their fair share of system access and resources.

 Congestion: The reduced quality of service when the system has to bear more data than it can carry.
II. POST-5G ERA
 References

[1] Paudel, Prabesh & Bhattarai, Abhi. (2018). 5G Telecommunication Technology: History, Overview, Requirements and Use
Case Scenario in Context of Nepal.
[2] Intelligence, G. (2014). Understanding 5G: Perspectives on future technological advancements in mobile.
[online] GSMA Intelligence. Available at:
https://www.gsmaintelligence.com/research/?file=1412085g.pdf&download [Accessed 15 Mar. 2018].

[3] Paul Newson, Hemang Parekh & Harpinder Matharu. Realizing 5G New Radio massive MIMO systems Available
at: https://www.ednasia.com/realizing-5g-new-radio-massive-mimo-systems/

https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/connectivity/5g-mobile-wireless-cellular/frequency-bands-channels-fr1-fr2.php

https://www.qorvo.com/design-hub/blog/small-cell-networks-and-the-evolution-of-5g