The cellular networking technology generations.

0G mobile telephony

Pre-cellular telephony now carries the designation of zero generation. It is also known as the
Mobile Radio Telephone System and is essentially the first form of wireless telephony that was
part of public switched telephone networks complete with individual telephone numbers. Mobile
radio telephones were typically installed in vehicles and connected via the first commercial mobile
telephone services provided by companies like Motorola and Bell.

1G cellular
1G stands for first-generation and denotes the first generation of mobile cellular technology. 1G
differs from all subsequent forms of cellular communications technology because it is an analog
rather than a digital cellular system. First released in Japan in the 1980s, this voice communication
technology uses analog modulation. This involves taking a low-frequency audio signal and
transferring it over a higher frequency carrier signal (upwards of 150 MHz) so it can travel longer
distances.

These early cellular systems typically consisted of:

1. A network of cell sites, which cover the network service area and has direct wireless
communication with networked mobile phones within its territory.
2. A Mobile Switching Center (MSC) which performs the work of correctly routing voice
calls either to another mobile phone or to a landline via the public switched telephone
network.
3. Mobile telephones (radios).

1G cellular technology has been permanently discontinued apart from a few isolated regions in
central Asia. Despite its initial utility, notable disadvantages included its lack of security, limited
user capacity, poor battery life, and large and unwieldy phones. The 1G communications standard
known as the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) was superseded by 2G within a decade.

2G Cellular networks

Second generation cellular networks were introduced in the 1990s and harness digital means if
data modulation and encryption to transfer both voice calls and data packets. Data is transferred
digitally using the frequency shift keying technique where rapid alternation between two
frequencies is used to send binary encoded (0s and 1s) data packets. The switch to digital
connectivity with the network of cellular radio towers improved the efficiency of use of the radio
spectrum with more phones able to simultaneously use each frequency band and the expansion of
data services to initially include SMS and MMS. Second generation networks largely operate under
the Global Standard for Mobile Communications (GSM) and use two notable technologies for data
rates of up to 384 k/bits per second:

• General Packet Radio Service or GPRS is a ‘2.5G’ standard that directs the transfer of
data packets which not only facilitates multimedia communications and connectivity on
cellular networks but also the bi-directional transfer of data with external networks like
the internet. Its data rate is 40 kbit/sec. GPRS has enabled cellular network operators to
 provide internet access, instant messaging, and multimedia messaging. GPRS relies on
several protocols to achieve this including Internet Protocol (IP), Wireless Application
Protocol (WAP), Point to Point, and Point to Multipoint protocols that support group
calls.
• Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) is an alternate extension for GSM
(sometimes termed ‘2.75G’)which provides increased data rates for 2G networking.
Though it was released in 2003 it is backward compatible and enables increased data rates
for 2 G technology of over 350 k/bits per second.

3G cellular technology

Third-generation cellular technology, otherwise known as 3G builds on the advancement of the

2.5G networks to support higher throughput and speeds of data transfer. This enables 3G network
operators to deliver a wider range of services including:

• Mobile internet access

• Voice over internet protocol
• Video calls
• Mobile TV

3G also carries increased robustness of security compared to previous generations with user
equipment authentication and end to end securing of communications. Services are delivered
across allocated portions of the radio spectrum between 400 MHz and 3 GHz. The standards that
underpin 3G cellular connectivity, the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-
2000) specifications, were devised by the and released by the International Telecommunication
Union and realized data transfer speeds of 144 kbit/s minimum. Mbit/sec bit rates were soon
achieved by subsequent releases. Its first release was in Japan in 2001.

3G is underpinned by the following notable technologies:

• EDGE: The EDGE extension, released with second-generation networking already

fulfilled 3G specifications.
• The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is based on the GSM
standard and specifies all aspects of cellular networking including the radio access network,
core network functionality, and user authentication by SIM card. It is capable of supporting
data transfer rates of up to 42 Mbit/sec
 • Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (W-CDMA) is a channel access method that
allows multiple access data transfer of voice, text, MMS, and video streaming over a single
channel using multiple transmitters.

4G broadband cellular networking

4G stands for the fourth generation and is a broadband cellular networking technology that has
largely overtaken 3G with expanded capabilities in mobile telephony and internet access as
outlined in the ITU standard.

• Network-wide use of IP-based packet switching

• Scalable bandwidth usage between 20 and 40 MHz and responsive accommodation of
more users within each cell.
• Data rates of 100 Mbit/sec if a network user is moving and up to 1Gbit/sec if stationary
• Seamless roaming across networks and geographic territories globally.

4G is reliant on several physical layer networking innovations that support the vastly increased
speeds and throughput offered including multi-antenna MIMO, modulation techniques like
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (to encode transmitted data on multiple carrier
frequencies), and error-correcting codes, to minimize noise, interference, and drop-outs during
signal transmission.

LTE vs 4G

Long Term Evolution is a contemporaneous technology to 4G but does not meet the requirement
of the IMT Advanced standard in some areas. LTE offers peak download speeds of 100 Mbits/sec
and is reliant on MIMO antenna arrays for optimal connectivity. LTE-advanced is an upgraded
standard that aims to exceed the IMT Advanced standard by modifying LTE networks to utilize
additional portions of the spectrum and harness multiplexing to improve performance and speed.

5G New Radio

Late 2018 saw the introduction of 5G New Radio (5GNR), the fifth generation of cellular
networking technology. The newest generation of cellular communication overhauls the previous
4 generations and uses the cellular network as a mature internet service provider capable of not
only serving telephony and broadband connectivity but supporting infrastructure and industrial
applications such as the Internet of Things, M2M networking, and C-V2C. The networking
standards for 5G are authored by the third generation partnership project (3GPP) with a contribution
from the ITU.

5G connectivity is via radio communication with local cellular antennas and is expected to deliver
10 Gbit/sec download speeds once fully realized. Greater capacity and bandwidth is achieved by
using more of the radio frequency spectrum with frequency bands well into the gigahertz range.
The use of higher frequencies which generally have lower range and penetration necessitates a
greater density and variety of cells which can operate at high medium and low frequency depending
on capacity and the fastest speeds that can be achieved at specific frequency bands. Full
implementation of 5G connectivity as specified will require a new class of compatible devices.

6G cellular networking technology

The sixth generation of cellular networking technology will supersede 5G, which is currently only
just commencing global deployment. Slated for an appearance at some point in the 2030s, it is
expected to deliver far greater speeds, multi-gigahertz frequencies, and network capacity with
latency further lowered. A drastic reduction in cell size with more complex MIMO antenna
networking and novel modulation techniques are postulated as key means that will be used to
underpin a future 6G network. The United States, South Korea, China, and Finland are currently
noted for their efforts to devise globally adopted sixth-generation networking standards.

Types of IoT Wireless technologies.

The Internet of Things (IoT) starts with connectivity, but since IoT is a widely diverse and
multifaceted realm, you certainly cannot find a one-size-fits-all communication solution.
Each solution has its strengths and weaknesses in various network criteria and is therefore
best-suited for different IoT use cases.

1. LPWANs

Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWANs) are the new phenomenon in IoT. By providing
long-range communication on small, inexpensive batteries that last for years, this family of
technologies is purpose-built to support large-scale IoT networks sprawling over vast industrial
and commercial campuses.

LPWANs can literally connect all types of IoT sensors – facilitating numerous applications
from asset tracking, environmental monitoring and facility management to occupancy
detection and consumables monitoring. Nevertheless, LPWANs can only send small blocks
of data at a low rate, and therefore are better suited for use cases that don’t require high
bandwidth and are not time-sensitive.

Also, not all LPWANs are created equal. Today, there exist technologies operating in both the
licensed (NB-IoT, LTE-M) and unlicensed (e.g. MYTHINGS, LoRa, Sigfox etc.) spectrum
with varying degrees of performance in key network factors. For example, while power
consumption is a major issue for cellular-based, licensed LPWANs; Quality-of-Service and
scalability are main considerations when adopting unlicensed technologies. Standardization is
another important factor to think of if you want to ensure reliability, security, and
interoperability in the long run.

2. Cellular (3G/4G/5G)

Well-established in the consumer mobile market, cellular networks offer reliable broadband
communication supporting various voice calls and video streaming applications. On the
downside, they impose very high operational costs and power requirements.

While cellular networks are not viable for the majority of IoT applications powered by battery-
operated sensor networks, they fit well in specific use cases such as connected cars or fleet
management in transportation and logistics. For example, in-car infotainment, traffic
routing, advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) alongside fleet telematics and tracking
services can all rely on the ubiquitous and high bandwidth cellular connectivity.

Cellular next-gen 5G with high-speed mobility support and ultra-low latency is positioned to
be the future of autonomous vehicles and augmented reality. 5G is also expected to enable real-
time video surveillance for public safety, real-time mobile delivery of medical data sets
for connected health, and several time-sensitive industrial automation applications in the
future.

3. Zigbee and Other Mesh Protocols

Zigbee is a short-range, low-power, wireless standard (IEEE 802.15.4), commonly deployed

in mesh topology to extend coverage by relaying sensor data over multiple sensor nodes.
Compared to LPWAN, Zigbee provides higher data rates, but at the same time, much less
power-efficiency due to mesh configuration.

Because of their physical short-range (< 100m), Zigbee and similar mesh protocols (e.g. Z-
Wave, Thread etc.) are best-suited for medium-range IoT applications with an even distribution
of nodes in close proximity. Typically, Zigbee is a perfect complement to Wi-Fi for
various home automation use cases like smart lighting, HVAC controls, security and energy
management, etc. – leveraging home sensor networks.

Until the emergence of LPWAN, mesh networks have also been implemented in industrial
contexts, supporting several remote monitoring solutions. Nevertheless, they are far from ideal
for many industrial facilities that are geographically dispersed, and their theoretical scalability
is often inhibited by increasingly complex network setup and management.

4. Bluetooth and BLE

Defined in the category of Wireless Personal Area Networks, Bluetooth is a short-range

communication technology well-positioned in the consumer marketplace. Bluetooth Classic
was originally intended for point-to-point or point-to-multipoint (up to seven slave nodes) data
exchange among consumer devices. Optimized for power consumption, Bluetooth Low-
Energy was later introduced to address small-scale Consumer IoT applications.
BLE-enabled devices are mostly used in conjunction with electronic devices, typically
smartphones that serve as a hub for transferring data to the cloud. Nowadays, BLE is widely
integrated into fitness and medical wearables (e.g. smartwatches, glucose meters, pulse
oximeters, etc.) as well as Smart Home devices (e.g. door locks) – whereby data is
conveniently communicated to and visualized on smartphones.

The release of Bluetooth Mesh specification in 2017 aims to enable a more scalable deployment
of BLE devices, particularly in retail contexts. Providing versatile indoor localization features,
BLE beacon networks have been used to unlock new service innovations like in-store
navigation, personalized promotions, and content delivery.

5. Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi has played a critical role in providing high-throughput data transfer for both enterprise
and home environments. However, in the IoT space, its major limitations in coverage,
scalability and power consumption make the technology much less prevalent.

Imposing high energy requirements, Wi-Fi is often not a feasible solution for large networks
of battery-operated IoT sensors, especially in industrial IoT and smart building scenarios.
Instead, it more pertains to connecting devices that can be conveniently connected to a power
outlet like smart home gadgets and appliances, digital signages or security cameras.

Wi-Fi 6 – the newest Wi-Fi generation – brings in greatly enhanced network bandwidth (i.e.
<9.6 Gbps) to improve data throughput per user in congested environments. With this, the
standard is poised to level up public Wi-Fi infrastructure and transform customer experience
with new digital mobile services in retail and mass entertainment sectors. Also, in-car
networks for infotainment and on-board diagnostics are expected to be the most game-
changing use case for Wi-Fi 6. Yet, the development will likely take some more time.

6. RFID

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) uses radio waves to transmit small amounts of data
from an RFID tag to a reader within a very short distance. Till now, the technology has
facilitated a major revolution in retail and logistics.
By attaching an RFID tag to all sorts of products and equipment, businesses can track their
inventory and assets in real-time – allowing for better stock and production planning as well as
optimized supply chain management. Alongside increasing IoT adoption, RFID continues to
be entrenched in the retail sector, enabling new IoT applications like smart shelves, self-
checkout, and smart mirrors.

Zigbee

Zigbee is another technology that falls under the wireless personal area networks
standards (WPAN) of IEEE and is often used in industrial applications. Like Wi-Fi
and Bluetooth, Zigbee also uses a 2.4GHz spectrum for communication. It is
suitable for application that requires a lower data rate and less frequent data
transfer.

It operates at low power mode and is suitable for sensor technology in industrial
applications. Zigbee ensures higher security, scalability, and efficient data transfer.
It is a perfect candidate for future IoT devices.

Standard: IEEE 802.15.4

Frequency band: 2.4 Ghz

Range: 0 to 100 meters

Application: Industrial devices, sensor monitoring, and IoT.

LoRaWAN
Low Power Wide Area Network is a wireless communication technology mainly
designed for Internet of Things applications. This technology will be used to connect
devices using a centralized server unit. Encrypted data will be transmitted via
different frequency channels at different data rates.

LoRaWAN terminology has end-point devices with many classes according to its
receive mode of operation. It ensures enhanced security at the network and
application level using several layers of encryption. LoRaWAN is a recommended
technology for smart cities, smart homes,s and many smart devices for industrial
automation and IoT.

Standard: IEEE 802.15.4g

Frequency band: Below 1 GHz (unlicensed spectrum)

Range: 0 to 20 kilometers

Application: Industrial automation, IoT, long-range irrigation systems, security

systems, and home automation.

Z-wave
Z-wave is a low-power wireless communication technology specially designed for
home automation. It is suitable for automated lighting controls and collects data from
sensors wirelessly. Z-wave uses an ISM spectrum below the 1 GHz range.

Z-wave is known as one of the simplest systems due to its less complicated network
protocol. It is designed to operate at lower data rates compared to Wi-Fi technology.

Standard: Z-Wave Alliance ZAD12837 / ITU-T G.9959

Frequency band: Below 1 GHz (ISM unlicensed spectrum)
Range: 0 to 30 meters
Application: Home automation and sensor technology.