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General Chemistry 2 – Grade 12

STEM Learning Activity Sheets
Quarter 4 – Week 5A: Entropy & Free Energy

First Edition, 2021

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Development Team of Learner’s Activity Sheets

Writer Myra Joy B. Montero

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 WEEKLY LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEETS
General Chemistry 2 Quarter 4 Week 5A

ENTROPY & FREE ENERGY

Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________

Most Essential Learning Competencies

❖ Predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy. STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-140

❖ Explain the second law of thermodynamics and its significance.
STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-142
❖ Use Gibbs’ free energy to determine the direction of a reaction. STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-143

Time allotment: 2 hours

Learning Objectives: The learners will be able to:

1. predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy;
2. describe the degree of disorder of a system;
3. calculate the standard entropy change of a reaction;
4. identify the spontaneity of a process based on entropy;
5. solve problems involving the standard Gibbs free energy; and
6. write a reflective essay about the application of entropy to real-life situation.

Key Concepts

SPONTANEOUS PROCESS

• A reaction that does occur under the given set of conditions is called a spontaneous
reaction. If a reaction does not occur under specified conditions, it is said to be
nonspontaneous. We observe spontaneous physical and chemical processes every day,
including many of the following examples:
❖ A waterfall runs downhill, but never up, spontaneously.
❖ A lump of sugar spontaneously dissolves in a cup of coffee, but dissolved sugar
does not spontaneously reappear in its original form.
❖ Water freezes spontaneously below 0°C, and ice melts spontaneously above 0°C
(at 1 atm).
❖ Heat flows from a hotter object to a colder one, but the reverse never happens
spontaneously.
❖ A piece of sodium metal reacts violently with water to form sodium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas. However, hydrogen gas does not react with sodium hydroxide to
form water and sodium.
❖ Iron exposed to water and oxygen forms rust, but rust does not spontaneously
change back to iron.
• These examples show that processes that occur spontaneously in one direction cannot,
under the same conditions, also take place spontaneously in the opposite direction.

Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

School/Station: Lianga National Comprehensive High School
Division: Surigao del Sur Division
email address: myrajoy.montero@deped.gov.ph
2
 Figure1. (a) A spontaneous process. After the valve is opened, the molecules distribute evenly
between the two bulbs. (b) A nonspontaneous process. After the valve is opened, the molecules
preferentially gather in one bulb.
(source: Chemistry Raymond Chang 10th edition, page 803)

ENTROPY

• Entropy (S) is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a system. It is described as

a measure of how spread out or dispersed the energy of a system is among the different
possible ways that system can contain energy. The greater the dispersal, the greater is
the entropy. Most processes are accompanied by a change in entropy.
• The entropy change of a system, ∆𝑺system, can be quantified using two approaches. The
first approach is defined by Ludwig Boltzmann. In 1868 Boltzmann showed that the
entropy of a system is related to the natural log of the number of microstates (W):
S = klnW [eqn.1]
where k = Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
W = number of microstates

• Like enthalpy, entropy is a state function. Consider a certain process in a system. The
entropy change for the process, ∆S, is:
∆S = Sf - Si [eqn. 2]
where Si and Sf are the entropies of the system in the initial and final states,
respectively.
• From the Equation above we can write
∆S = klnWf – klnWi [eqn. 3]
𝑊𝑓
= kln
𝑊𝑖
where Wi and Wf are the corresponding numbers of microstates in the initial and
final state. Thus, if Wf < Wi, ∆S < 0 and the entropy of the system increases.
• Equation 3 shows the direct relationship between entropy, a macroscopic property of
matter, and the arrangement of atoms or molecules, a microscopic state (or microstate)
of matter: entropy increases with the number of microstates of the system.
• For simplicity, the quantitative concept of the number of microstates can be defined
qualitatively as the ‘disorder’ and ‘the dispersal of matter and energy’. A more ‘disorderly’
distribution of energy and matter corresponds to a greater number of microstates
associated with the same total. With this simplified definition, the entropies of the
phases of a given substance follow the same order with its degree of disorder as shown
in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2. The relationship between the entropies of the phases and the degree of disorder.
(source: Chemistry Raymond Chang 10th edition, page 803)

Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

School/Station: Lianga National Comprehensive High School
Division: Surigao del Sur Division
email address: myrajoy.montero@deped.gov.ph
3
 • This relationship of the entropies of the phases can be used to make a qualitative
prediction about the ∆𝑺 of reactions. The entropy of the system is expected to increase
for:
1. melting (𝑺liquid > 𝑺solid);
2. vaporization (𝑺gas > 𝑺liquid); and
3. dissolving (𝑺solution > 𝑺solute + 𝑺solvent).
• The second approach to quantify the entropy change of the system is the one by Rudolph
Clausius, one of the two persons who extended the work of Carnot.
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑣
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = [eqn. 4]
𝑇

The 𝒒rev and T in equation 4 are the heat released or absorbed in a reversible process
and at the Kelvin temperature at which the heat transfer occurred, respectively.

THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

• In the case of the heat transfer, a reversible process is a process where the direction can
be reversed at any point by an immeasurably small change in temperature. It is important
to note that for other reversible processes, an immeasurably small change can be made
in some other property of the system. Recall that heat is spontaneously transferred only
from higher temperatures to lower temperatures, thus a temperature difference is the
driving force of the heat flow from one object to another.
• Equation 4 encapsulates the definition of the SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
entropy increases in any spontaneous process. A spontaneous process is one that
proceeds on its own without any outside assistance. The word “any” means that equation
4 also holds true for an irreversible spontaneous process. Consider below the melting of
1 mole of ice, which is roughly equivalent to the size of an ordinary ice cube, in the palm
of your hand.

Example 1
The melting of an ice cube in your palm is an irreversible process since the
temperature of the system (the ice cube) and the immediate surroundings (your hand) is
different. The melting requires 6.01 × 103 J/mol of heat. Calculate the entropy change of
the system, surroundings and universe.

Using equation 4 and taking T of the system as 0℃ (273 K), we can solve the entropy
change of the system as follows:
Given: T = 0℃
= 0 + 273 = 273 K
𝑞
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 ≥ 𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝑇
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑣
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 =
𝑇
(1 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(6.01 𝑥 103 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙)
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 =
273 𝐾
∆𝑺𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟎 𝑱/𝑲

The entropy change of the system is positive as expected since melting is an ‘order
to disorder’ process.
For the entropy change of the surrounding, we use the same equation but this
time we will use the temperature of your hand and the heat it lost. We assume that the
temperature of your hand is the same as the normal body temperature, 37. 0℃ (310 K).
Because the heat lost by your hand is the heat gained by the ice, the heat lost by
your hand is equal in magnitude to the heat gained by the ice but has opposite sign, −6.01
× 103 J/mol. So the entropy change of the surroundings is:
𝑞
∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝑇

Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

School/Station: Lianga National Comprehensive High School
Division: Surigao del Sur Division
email address: myrajoy.montero@deped.gov.ph
4
 (1 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(−6.01 𝑥 103 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙)
∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 =
310 𝐾
∆𝑺𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔 = −𝟏𝟗. 𝟒 𝑱/𝑲

The universe is composed of the system and the surroundings. Therefore, the
entropy change of the universe is the sum of the entropy change of the system and the
surroundings.
∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 + ∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 [eqn. 5]
Thus, the entropy change of the universe is
[22.0+(−19.4)]𝐽
∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = = 𝟐. 𝟔 𝑱/𝑲
𝐾
If the melting of the ice cube in your hand were a reversible process, that is the
temperature of the surroundings is infinitesimally above 273 K, the entropy change of the
surroundings would equal to -22.0 J/K and ∆𝑺universe would be zero.
• In summary,
Reversible process ∆𝑺universe = ∆𝑺system + ∆𝑺surroundings = 0
Irreversible process ∆𝑺universe = ∆𝑺system + ∆𝑺surroundings > 0

Thus, the second law of thermodynamics can also be stated the entropy of the
universe increases in any spontaneous process.
• For a spontaneous process, the second law says that ∆S univ must be greater than zero,
but it does not place a restriction on either ∆Ssys or ∆Ssurr. Thus, it is possible for either
∆Ssys or ∆Ssurr to be negative, as long as the sum of these two quantities is greater than
zero. For an equilibrium process, ∆Suniv is zero. In this case, ∆Ssys and ∆Ssurr must be equal
in magnitude, but opposite in sign.
• If for some hypothetical process we find that ∆Suniv is negative, this means that the process
is not spontaneous in the direction described. Rather, it is spontaneous in the opposite
direction.

ENTROPY CHANGES IN THE SYSTEM

• By applying Hess’s law, the standard molar entropy, 𝑺°, can be added to obtain the
standard entropy of reaction,

°
∆𝑆𝑟𝑥𝑛 : ∆𝑆𝑟𝑥𝑛
°
= ∑ 𝑛𝑆° (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑚𝑆° (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) [eqn. 6]

where n and m are the stoichiometric coefficients of the chemical equation.

• The standard entropy values of a large number of compounds have been measured in J/
mol∙K. To calculate ∆𝑺𝐫𝐱𝐧 (which is ∆𝑺sys), their thermodynamic values are already given.
Proceed according to example 2.

Example 2
Suppose you are asked to determine the ∆𝑆𝑟𝑥𝑛°
of methanation, reaction of
producing methane from CO2.
CO2 (g) + 4 H2(g) → CH4(g) + 2 H2O(g)
The 𝑺 ° in J/mol∙K of reactants and products are as follows:

Table 1. Supplied thermodynamic data for the standard entropy change of the
following substances at 1 atm and 25°C.
Substance CO2(g) CH4 (g) H2(g) H2O(g)

S° (J/mol∙K) 213.6 186.2 130.6 188.7

(Source: Chemistry Raymond Chang 10th edition, Appendix 3: Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C)

Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

School/Station: Lianga National Comprehensive High School
Division: Surigao del Sur Division
email address: myrajoy.montero@deped.gov.ph
5
 Using equation 6, you get

°
∆𝑆𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛𝑆° (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑚𝑆° (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)

°
𝐽
∆𝑆𝑟𝑥𝑛 = [(1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 186.2) + ( 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 188.7)]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾
𝐽
− [(1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 213.6) + (4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 130.6)]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾
𝑱
∆𝑺°𝒓𝒙𝒏 = −𝟏𝟕𝟐. 𝟒
𝑲

Take note that the standard molar entropy of H2 is not zero. Unlike the
standard molar enthalpies of formation, the standard molar enthalpies of elements
at the reference temperature of 298 K is not zero.

GIBBS FREE ENERGY

• In the second law of thermodynamics, a reaction is spontaneous if the ∆𝑺universe is greater

than zero. To determine the sign of the ∆𝑺universe, however, both ∆𝑺system and ∆𝑺surroundings
need to be calculated. The complications of having to calculate the ∆𝑺surroundings to
determine whether a reaction will occur spontaneously can be eliminated.
• Recall that the equation of ∆𝑺surroundings is

𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑣
∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 =
𝑇

And that the 𝑞sys of the surroundings is equal to the ∆𝑯system at constant pressure but
has opposite sign, therefore this equation becomes,
∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = − [eqn. 7]
𝑇

Substituting equation 7 to equation 4 gives

∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 −
𝑇

Multiplying both sides by –𝑻:

∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = ∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 − 𝑇∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 < 0 [eqn. 8]

This equation is the criterion for a spontaneous process at constant pressure and
temperature that is expressed only in terms of the properties of the system (∆𝑯system and
∆𝑺system). The term ∆𝑺surroundings is eliminated in the equation.

• A new state function was proposed by Josiah Willard Gibbs in order to express the
spontaneity of a reaction more directly. It is called Gibbs free energy (G), or simply free
energy which is defined as

𝑮 = 𝑯 − 𝑻𝑺 [eqn. 9]
where T is the absolute temperature. The change in the free energy of a system at constant
temperature and pressure is
∆𝑮system = ∆𝑯system –𝑻∆𝑺system [eqn. 10]

• Comparing equation 10 with equation 8, the change in the free energy of a system at
constant temperature and pressure, ∆𝑮, is equal to –𝑻∆𝑺universe:
∆𝑮sys = – 𝑻∆𝑺univ = ∆𝑯sys –𝑻∆𝑺sys < 0 [eqn. 11]

Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

School/Station: Lianga National Comprehensive High School
Division: Surigao del Sur Division
email address: myrajoy.montero@deped.gov.ph
6
 • Thus, equation 11 provides us how the sign of ∆𝑮 will be interpreted in connection with the
spontaneity of processes that occur at constant temperature and pressure.
• We can now summarize the conditions for spontaneity and equilibrium at constant
temperature and pressure in terms of ∆G as follows:
∆𝑮 < 0 The reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction
∆𝑮 > 0 The reaction is nonspontaneous in the forward direction;
input of energy from the surroundings is required to make
it occur. However, the reverse reaction is spontaneous.
∆𝑮 = 0 The reaction is at equilibrium.

STANDARD FREE-ENERGY CHANGES

• Just like enthalpy and entropy, the standard free energies of formation, 𝐺𝑓° , can be used to
calculate the standard free energy change of a reaction:
°
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛𝐺° (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑚𝐺° (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) [eqn. 12]
where n and m are the stoichiometric coefficients of the chemical equation.
Example 3
Let us consider again the melting of an ice cube in your palm problem that was
discussed in Example 1. We found out that the process is spontaneous because the sum
of the entropy change of the system and the surroundings is greater than zero. This time,
let us determine if we will arrive at the same conclusion about the spontaneity of the
reaction when the free energy change of the system, equation 8, is used. The data are as
follows from the previous calculation:
n of ice cube = 1 mole
∆𝑯system = 6.01 × 103 J/mol
∆𝑺system = 22.0 J/K
T of the reaction = 298 K
Substituting the above data to equation 6, the free energy change of the reaction is
∆𝐺𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 − 𝑇∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝐽 𝐽
∆𝐺𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = [(1𝑚𝑜𝑙) (6.01 𝑥 103 )] − [(298𝐾) (22.0 )]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾
∆𝑮𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 = −𝟓𝟒𝟔 𝑱

Since the sign of ∆𝑮system is negative, the melting of an ice cube in the palm is a
spontaneous reaction.

Example 4
Calculate the standard free energy change of the reaction at 298 K.
4 PCl3(g) → P4(g) + 6 Cl2(g)
using the following standard free energies of formation in kJ/mol:
Table 2. Supplied thermodynamic data for the standard free energies of the
following substances at 1 atm and 25°C.

Substance PCl3(g) P4(g) Cl2(g)

∆𝐺𝑓° (kJ/mol) −269.6 24.4 0
(Source: Chemistry Raymond Chang 10 edition, Appendix 3: Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C)
th

Substituting the above data to equation 8, the free energy change of the reaction is
∆𝐺°𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛∆𝐺𝑓° (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑛∆𝐺𝑓° (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺°𝑟𝑥𝑛 = [(1𝑚𝑜𝑙) (24.4 )] − [(4 𝑚𝑜𝑙) (−269.6 )]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
∆𝑮°𝒓𝒙𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝑱

Since the sign of ∆𝐺°𝑟𝑥𝑛 is positive, the reaction is nonspontaneous.

Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

School/Station: Lianga National Comprehensive High School
Division: Surigao del Sur Division
email address: myrajoy.montero@deped.gov.ph
7
 APPLICATIONS OF EQUATION (Eqn. 10)
• In order to predict the sign of ∆G, according to Equation 10, we need to know both ∆H and
∆S. A negative ∆H, an exothermic reaction, and a positive ∆S, a reaction that results in an
increase in the microstates of the system, tend to make ∆G negative, although temperature
may also influence the direction of a spontaneous reaction. The four possible outcomes of
this relationship are:
1. If both ∆H and ∆S are positive, then ∆G will be negative only when the T∆S
term is greater in magnitude than ∆H. This condition is met when T is large.
2. If ∆H is positive and ∆S is negative, ∆G will always be positive, regardless of
temperature.
3. If ∆H is negative and ∆S is positive, then ∆G will always be negative
regardless of temperature.
4. If ∆H is negative and ∆S is negative, then ∆G will be negative only when T∆S
is smaller in magnitude than ∆H. This condition is met when T is small.
• The temperatures that will cause ∆G to be negative for the first and last cases depend on
the actual values of ∆H and ∆S of the system.

𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟑. 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝐺 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝 ∆𝐺 = ∆𝐻 − 𝑇∆𝑆

(source: Chemistry Raymond Chang 10th edition, page 818)

• Under nonstandard state conditions, we must use the sign of ∆G rather than that of ∆G° to
predict the direction of the reaction. The sign of ∆G°, on the other hand, tells us whether
the products or the reactants are favored when the reacting system reaches equilibrium.
Thus, a negative value of ∆G° indicates that the reaction favors product formation whereas
a positive value of ∆G° indicates that there will be more reactants than products at
equilibrium.

TEMPERATURE AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Calcium oxide (CaO), also called quicklime, is an extremely valuable inorganic
substance used in steelmaking, production of calcium metal, the paper industry, water
treatment, and pollution control. It is prepared by decomposing limestone (CaCO3) in a kiln
at a high temperature.
CaCO3(s) ↔ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
The reaction is reversible, and CaO readily combines with CO2 to form CaCO3. The
pressure of CO2 in equilibrium with CaCO3 and CaO increases with temperature. In the
industrial preparation of quicklime, the system is never maintained at equilibrium; rather,
CO2 is constantly removed from the kiln to shift the equilibrium from left to right, promoting
the formation of calcium oxide.
The important information for the practical chemist is the temperature at which the
decomposition of CaCO3 becomes appreciable (that is, the temperature at which the
reaction begins to favor products). We can make a reliable estimate of that temperature as
follows.

Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

School/Station: Lianga National Comprehensive High School
Division: Surigao del Sur Division
email address: myrajoy.montero@deped.gov.ph
8
 First, we calculate ∆H° and ∆S° for the reaction at 25°C, using the following data,

Table 4. Supplied thermodynamic data of the following substances at 1 atm and 25°C.
CaO CO2 CaCO3
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻𝑓° ( ) −635.6 -393.5 −1206.9
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐽
𝑆° ( ) 39.8 213.6 92.9
𝐾∙𝑚𝑜𝑙
(Source: Chemistry Raymond Chang 10 edition, Appendix 3: Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C)
th

∆𝐻 ° = [∆𝐻𝑓° (𝐶𝑎𝑂) + ∆𝐻𝑓° (𝐶𝑂2 )] − [∆𝐻𝑓° (𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 )]

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻 ° = [(−635.6 ) + (−393.5 )] − (−1206.9 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻 ° = 177.8
𝑚𝑜𝑙

Next, we apply Equation 6 to find ∆S°:

∆𝑆° = [𝑆°(𝐶𝑎𝑂) + 𝑆° (𝐶𝑂2 )] − 𝑆°(𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 )
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
∆𝑆° = [(39.8 ) + (213.6 )] − (92.9 )
𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐽
∆𝑆° = 160.5
𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙

From this equation, ∆G° = ∆H° - T∆S°, we obtain

∆G° = 177.8 kJ/mol - (298 K) (160.5 J/K∙mol)(1 kJ/(1000 J)
∆G°= 130.0 kJ/mol

Because ∆G° is a large positive quantity, we conclude that the reaction is not favored for
product formation at 25°C (or 298 K). Indeed, the pressure of CO2 is so low at room
temperature that it cannot be measured.

To find the temperature at which the system is at its equilibrium, i.e., the ∆G° = 0, we set
∆G° of equation 10 equal to 0 and solve for the value of T.

∆𝐺° = ∆𝐻° − 𝑇∆𝑆°

0 = ∆𝐻° − 𝑇∆𝑆°
𝑇∆𝑆° = ∆𝐻°
∆𝐻°
𝑇=
∆𝑆°
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
(117.8 ) (1000 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 𝑘𝐽
𝑇=
𝐽
160.5
𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑇 = 1,108 𝐾 𝑜𝑟 835 ℃

Observe that in equation 10, ∆G° will become negative (∆G° < 0) if the term ∆H° < T∆S°. To
achieve this condition, temperature must be higher than 1,108 K (or 835°C). This means
that, at temperature T > 835°C, the reaction favors the formation of CaO and CO 2.

To show that ∆G° < 0 when T > 835°C, we solve for ∆G° at T = 840°C, or 1113 K.

∆𝐺° = ∆𝐻° − 𝑇∆𝑆°

𝑘𝐽 𝐽 1 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺° = 177.8 − (1113 𝐾) (160.5 )( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾 1000 𝐽
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺° = −0.8
𝑚𝑜𝑙
Clearly, the value of ∆G° is negative when the temperature is greater than 835°C.
Author: Myra Joy B. Montero
School/Station: Lianga National Comprehensive High School
Division: Surigao del Sur Division
email address: myrajoy.montero@deped.gov.ph
9
 Two points are worth making about such a calculation. First, we used the ∆H° and ∆S°
values at 25°C to calculate changes that occur at a much higher temperature. Because both
∆H° and ∆S° change with temperature, this approach will not give us an accurate value of
∆G°, but it is good enough for “ballpark” estimates. Second, we should not be misled into
thinking that nothing happens below 835°C and that at 835°C CaCO3 suddenly begins to
decompose.

Activity 1. Changes in Entropy

Learning Objectives: 1. Predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy.

2. Describe the degree of disorder of a system.
What you need: Pen, Paper and Periodic Table of Elements

PART A
What to do: Determine whether the entropy change is greater or lesser than zero for
each of the following processes. Write your answers in a separate sheet of paper.
1. Freezing ethanol
2. evaporating a beaker of liquid bromine at room temperature
3. dissolving sucrose in water
4. cooling nitrogen gas from 80°C to 20°C

PART B
What to do: Compute for the total entropy change (∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 ) in the oxidation of metallic iron
into ferric oxide (Fe2O3) under standard conditions. Determine the spontaneity of the
process at these conditions. (the ∆𝐻𝑓° for elemental substance is zero and that for Fe2O3 is -
824.2 kJ/mol)

4Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2Fe2O3 (s)

Activity 2. Standard Entropy

Learning Objectives:
1. Calculate the standard entropy changes of a reaction.
2. Identify the spontaneity of a process based on entropy.
Substance 𝑆° (
𝐽
)
𝐾∙𝑚𝑜𝑙
What you need: Pen and paper. Fe 27.3
PART A O2 205
Fe2O3 87.4
What to do: From the table of the standard entropy values, CaO 39.8
calculate the standard entropy changes for the following CO2 213.6
reactions at 25°C. Write your answers in a separate sheet of
CaCO3 92.9
paper.
NH3 193
1. CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g) N2 192
2. N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) H2 131
3. H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) HCl 187
Cl2 223
PART B
What to do: Identify whether the entropy change of the system in each of the following
reactions is positive or negative. Write your answers in a separate sheet of paper.
1. 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
2. NH4Cl(s) → NH3(g) + HCl(g)
3. H2(g) + Br2(g) → 2HBr(g)
Author: Myra Joy B. Montero
School/Station: Lianga National Comprehensive High School
Division: Surigao del Sur Division
email address: myrajoy.montero@deped.gov.ph
10
 Activity 3. Gibbs Free Energy

Learning Objective: Solve problems involving the standard Gibbs free energy.

What you need: Pen, Paper, Periodic Table of Elements and Calculator.
Substance 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺𝑓° ( )
What to do: Calculate the standard free-energy changes for 𝑚𝑜𝑙
the following reactions at 25°C and interpret the values CH4 -50.8
obtained from the calculations. Write your answers in a O2 0
separate sheet of paper. CO2 -394.4
H2O -237.2
1. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
MgO -569.6
2. 2MgO(s) → 2Mg(s) + O2(g)
Mg 0

Reflection

All things trend toward disorder. When cups of hot milk are left on the table for a
long period of time, the drinks cool to the temperature of their surroundings by losing their
heat. The cooling process occurs naturally without any external aid and is unidirectional.
The flow of heat is brought about by the temperature difference. How can you relate the
second law of thermodynamics in this process?

Your answer should consist at most five (5) sentences. Write your response on a separate
sheet of paper. Be guided with the following rubric:
Reflection Rubric
5 Practical application is scientifically explained consistent to the concepts, and
has no misconception.
4 Practical application is scientifically explained consistent to the concept, but
with minimal misconception.
3 Practical application is explained consistent to the concepts, but with
misconceptions.
2 Practical application is explained but not consistent to the concepts.
0 No discussion provided.

References for learners

Silberberg, M. S. (2006). Chemistry: The molecular nature of matter and change (4th ed.). NY,
USA: McGraw Hill.
Brown, T., LeMay H. E., Bursten, B., Murphy, C., & Woodward, P. (2009). Chemistry: The
Central Science (11th ed.). USA: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Chang, R., & Goldsby, K. A. (2010). Chemistry (10th ed.). NY, USA: McGraw Hill.

Mcquarrie, D. A., Rock, P. A., & Gallogly, E. B. (2011). General Chemistry (4th ed.). Canada:
University Science Books.
Atkins, P. & De Paula, J. (2010). Physical Chemistry (9th ed.). Great Britain: Oxford University
Press.
Brady, J. E., & Senese, F. (2004). Chemistry: Matter and its Changes (4th ed.). USA: John Wiley
& Sons
Zumdahl, Steven S., and Susan A. Zumdahl. 2014. Chemistry. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole,
Cengage Learning.

Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

School/Station: Lianga National Comprehensive High School
Division: Surigao del Sur Division
email address: myrajoy.montero@deped.gov.ph
11
 12
email address: myrajoy.montero@deped.gov.ph
Division: Surigao del Sur Division
School/Station: Lianga National Comprehensive High School
Author: Myra Joy B. Montero
Activity 3.
1. -818.0 kJ/mol
2. 1139kJ/mol
Activity 2.
Part A
1. 160.5 J/K.mol
2. -199 J/K.mol
3. 20 J/K.mol
Part B
1. Two reactant molecules combine to form one product molecule. Even though H2O is a
more complex molecule than either H2 and O2, the fact that there is a net decrease of
one molecule and gases are converted to liquid ensures that the number of microstates
will be diminished and hence ∆S° is negative.
2. A solid is converted to two gaseous products. Therefore, ∆S° is positive.
3. The same number of molecules is involved in the reactants as in the product.
Furthermore, all molecules are diatomic and therefore of similar complexity. As a result,
we cannot predict the sign of ∆S°, but we know that the change must be quite small in
magnitude.
Activity 1.
Part A
1. Upon freezing, the ethanol molecules are held rigid in position. This phase transition
reduces the number of microstates and therefore the entropy decreases; that is, ∆S < 0.
2. Evaporating bromine increases the number of microstates because the Br2 molecules
can occupy many more positions in nearly empty space. Therefore, ∆S > 0.
3. Sucrose is a nonelectrolyte. The solution process leads to a greater dispersal of matter
due to the mixing of glucose and water molecules so we expect ∆S > 0.
4. The cooling process decreases various molecular motions. This leads to a decrease in
microstates and so ∆S < 0.
Part B
1. 4979.3 J/K
Answer Key