Chapter 2

Thermochemistry

Prepared by: Ron Eric B. Legaspi

Energy

Energy is a property of matter, transferable and can be converted

into work, heat or radiation.
The SI unit for energy is joules, J.
• based on the amount transferred to an object by the mechanical work of
moving it 1 meter against a force of 1 newton
Energy
Law of Conservation of Energy

– states that: “the total energy of an isolated system cannot change.

It can not be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction or physical
change. It can only be converted from one form to another.”
Forms of Energy

All forms of energy are either kinetic or potential. The energy

associated with motion is kinetic energy and the energy associated
with position is potential energy.

• Kinetic Energy – motion

• Mechanical Energy – motion of macroscopic systems
• Thermal Energy – motion of particles of matter
• Electrical Energy – motion of charges
• Electromagnetic Radiation – disturbance of electric and magnetic fields
Forms of Energy

• Potential Energy – position

• Gravitational Potential Energy
• Electromagnetic Potential Energy
• Chemical Energy – stored energy of a material
• Elastic Potential Energy
• Nuclear Energy
Chapter 2
Thermal Energy
Thermal Energy
Terms and Principles

Heat is the term we give to energy transferred because of the

temperature difference between objects.

Thermal energy is the energy an object has by virtue of being hot.

Temperature is the measurement of a body’s hotness or coldness. It

measures whether a body has a tendency to give off or absorb heat.
Thermal Energy
Terms and Principles

Temperature is a quantity that determines when objects are in

thermal equilibrium.
The net flow of energy is always from the object at higher
temperature to the object at lower temperature.
• Cooler body gains thermal energy (internal energy), while warmer body
loses thermal energy.

The flow of energy that occurs between two objects or systems due
to a temperature difference is called heat flow.
Heat Flow
3 Main Modes

Conduction is the flow of heat by direct contact between warmer

and cooler body.

Convection is the flow of heat carried by a moving gas or liquid

(fluids).

Radiation is the flow of heat without need of an intervening

medium (vacuum).
Heat Flow
3 Main Modes

Example: Boiling a pot of water on an electric stove.

• First turn on “burner”, wait ‘til it glows red.
• Your face feels warm from radiation
• Put the pot of water on the burner.
• Heat is conducted from burner to the pot, and from there into water.
• Look at the circulation of water in the pot.
• Water warms first at bottom. Convection occurs as warm water rises, cool
water sinks.
Thermal Energy
Measurement

• The SI unit of thermal energy and heat is joule, J.

• Another units for heat are the calorie, cal and the British Thermal
Unit, BTU.
• 1 calorie of heat raises the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C.
• 1 BTU of heat raises the temperature of 1 lb of water by 1°F.

• Conversions: 1 cal = 4.184 joules

1 BTU = 1,054.350 joules
Thermal Energy
Sensible Heat

Sensible heat is heat that results in temperature change. This is

because, it can be “sensed”.

• Heat Capacity
• Specific Heat Capacity
Sensible Heat
Heat Capacity

For any substance, its heat capacity is the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of the substance by 1°C.

𝑞
𝐶=
∆𝑡
Where:
𝐶 = heat capacity
𝑞 = thermal energy added or liberated
∆𝑡 = difference in temperature = 𝑡𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 – 𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
Sensible Heat
Heat Capacity

Example 1:
What is the heat capacity of 100 grams of iron if 9,150 joules of
thermal energy are required to increase the temperature of iron by
25°C?
Sensible Heat
Specific Heat Capacity

Specific heat, 𝒔, is the amount of heat required to raise temperature

of 1 gram of a substance by 1°C with no change in phase.

𝑞
𝑠= ; 𝒒 = 𝒎𝒔∆𝒕
𝑚 ∙ ∆𝑡
Where:
m = mass
𝑠 = specific heat capacity
𝑞 = thermal energy added or liberated
∆𝑡 = difference in temperature = 𝑡𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 – 𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
Sensible Heat
Specific Heat Capacity

Specific heat, 𝒔, is the amount of heat required to raise temperature

of 1 gram of a substance by 1°C with no change in phase.
SPECIFIC HEAT SPECIFIC HEAT
SUBSTANCE
( cal / g·°C ) (J / g·°C )
Water @ 20°C 1.00 4.184
Ice @ -5°C 0.50 2.090
Steam @ 100°C 0.97 4.039
Iron 0.11 0.449
Hydrogen Gas 3.42 14.304
Air 0.24 1.005
Helium 1.24 5.193
Sensible Heat

Example 2:
A coffee maker makes 10 cups (1.75 liters) of 80.0 °C coffee from
20.0 °C tap water. Calculate the thermal energy consumed by the
system.

Example 3:
An iron with mass of 15.0 g at 25.0 °C is heated to 80.0 °C. What is
the amount of thermal energy absorbed by iron if its specific heat is
equal to 0.11 cal/g·°C?
Sensible Heat

Example 4:
A 35.34 g beaker at 95.50 °C was removed on a stove and cooled. If
the heat liberated from the system is 1,743 joules, what is the cooled
temperature of the glass? Given that s = 0.753 J/g·°C.
Thermal Energy
Heat Transfer

The transfer of heat is normally from high temperature object to low

temperature object.

Heat transfer changes the internal energy, 𝒒, of both systems

involved according to the First Law of Thermodynamics.

𝒒𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 = 𝒒𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕

+𝒒 = −𝒒
Thermal Energy
Heat Transfer

Example 5:
Find the final temperature of the mixture, if two cups of water
having masses 150.0 g and 250.0 g and temperatures 30.0 °C and
75.0 °C respectively are mixed in an isolated system in which there
are no heat lost.
Thermal Energy
Heat Transfer

Example 6:
Temperature of an iron block decreases from 85 °C to 35 °C when
soaked into a 1.0 gal of 12 °C water. If the specific heat of iron is
0.115 cal/g·°C and specific heat of water is 1.00 cal/g·°C, what is the
mass of iron?
Thermal Energy
Phase Transitions

Matter generally exists in three phases:

• gas, liquid and solid
Phase transitions are changes from one state to another.
• Evaporation/Condensation
• Melting/Freezing
Thermal Energy
Latent Heat in Phase Transitions

Response of temperature to added heat is different during phase

transition.

Latent heat is the energy released or absorbed by a body during a

constant-temperature process. The word latent means hidden.

The change is endothermic if the system absorbs energy on going

from solid to liquid to gas, and exothermic if the system releases
energy.
Thermal Energy
Latent Heat
Thermal Energy
Latent Heat

A specific latent heat, L, expresses the amount of energy in the

form of heat (𝑞) required to completely effect a phase change of a
unit of mass (𝑚) of a substance.

𝑞
𝐿 = ; 𝒒 = 𝒎𝑳
𝑚

When the phase change is from solid to liquid, we must use the
latent heat of fusion, 𝑳𝒇 , and when the phase change is from liquid
to gas, we must use the latent heat of vaporization, 𝑳𝒗 .
Thermal Energy
Latent Heat

Latent Heat of Melting Point Latent Heat of Boiling Point

Substance
Fusion (kJ/kg) (°C) Vaporization (kJ/kg) (°C)
Ethanol 108 -114 855 78.3

Ammonia 339 -75 1369 -33.34

Carbon Dioxide 184 -78 574 -57

Helium 21 -268.9

Hydrogen 58 -259 455 -253

Lead 23.0 327.5 871 1750

Thermal Energy
Latent Heat

Latent Heat of Melting Point Latent Heat of Boiling Point

Substance
Fusion (kJ/kg) (°C) Vaporization (kJ/kg) (°C)
Nitrogen 25.7 -210 200 -196

Oxygen 13.9 -219 213 -183

Refrigerant R134a -116 326.5 11.3

Toluene 72.1 -93 351 110.6

Water 334 0 2260 100

Thermal Energy
Example 7:
Calculate the amount of heat needed to melt a 3.0 kg ice.

Example 8:
Calculate how much heat should be removed to convert a 3.78 kg
steam at 110.0 °C into water at 80.0 °C.

Example 9:
250.0 g of ice at −5.00 °C was added to a 1.00 L of water at 80.0 °C.
Calculate the final temperature of the two substances.
Thermal Energy

Example 10:
A closed container is filled with 500.0 g of ice at −5.00 °C. What
mass of platinum at 995.00 °C is needed to turn all the ice into steam
at 105.00 °C?
𝒔𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚 = 0.133 J/g·°C
𝒔𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 2.090 J/g·°C
𝒔𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4.184 J/g·°C
𝒔𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 3.985 J/g·°C
Chapter 2
Heat of Reaction
Heat of Reaction

The heat of reaction (at a given temperature) is the value of 𝒒

required to return a system to the given temperature at the
completion of the reaction.

An exothermic process is a chemical reaction or a physical change

in which heat is evolved (𝒒 is negative)
An endothermic process is a chemical reaction or a physical change
in which heat is absorbed (𝒒 is positive)
Heat of Reaction
Heat of Reaction

Enthalpy, 𝑯, is an extensive property of a substance that can be

used to obtain the heat absorbed or evolved in a chemical reaction.

∆𝐻 = 𝐻𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − 𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠

The enthalpy of reaction equals the heat of reaction at constant

pressure.
∆𝐻 = 𝑞𝑝
Heat of Reaction
Heat of Reaction: Stoichiometry

Example 11:
How much heat could you obtain from 10.0 g of methane, assuming
you had an excess oxygen?

𝐶𝐻4 (𝑔) + 2𝑂2 (𝑔) 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) ; ∆𝐻 = −890.3 kJ

Heat of Reaction: Stoichiometry

Example 12:
How much heat is evolved when 9.07 × 105 g of ammonia is
produced according to the following equation?

𝑁2 (𝑔) + 3𝐻2 (𝑔) 2𝑁𝐻3 (𝑔) ; ∆𝐻 = −91. 8 kJ

Measurement of Heat of Reaction

A calorimeter is a device used to measure the heat absorbed or

evolved during a physical or chemical change.

∆𝑯 = 𝒒𝒓𝒙𝒏 = −𝒒𝒄𝒂𝒍
Measurement of Heat of Reaction
Measurement of Heat of Reaction
Example 13:
Suppose 0.562 g of graphite is placed in a calorimeter with an excess of oxygen
at 25.00°C and 1 atm pressure. The graphite is ignited, and it burns according to
the equation:

𝐶(𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔)

On reaction, the calorimeter temperature rises from 25.00°C to 25.89°C. The

heat capacity of the calorimeter and its contents was determined in a separate
experiment to be 20.7 kJ/°C. What is the heat of reaction at 25.00°C and 1 atm
pressure? Express the answer as a thermochemical equation.
Reference

• Ebbing, D. D., & Gammon, S. D. (2009). General Chemistry, 9th

Ed. Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin Co.
1. When power was turned off to a 30.0 gal. water heater, the temperature of water dropped
from 75.0°C to 22.5°C. How much heat was lost to the surroundings? swater = 4.184 J/g·°C

2. 50.0 g of iron that has an initial temp of 225.0°C and 50.0 g of gold that has an initial
temp of 25.0°C are brought into contact with one another. Assuming that no heat is lost in
the surroundings, what will be the temperature when the two metal reach thermal
equilibrium?
siron = 0.449 J/g·°C; sgold = 0.128 J/g·°C

3. A customer ordered a brewed coffee. You prepared the coffee at 85.0°C to extract the
flavor of the coffee at short time. When you served the 355 mL coffee, the customer
wanted to cool it down to 55.0°C so he will be able to drink it sooner. You decided to add
ice in it to cool it down. How many grams of ice cubes at −18.5°C should you add?
 Thermal Energy and Heat

5. A small boiler can convert 500.0 L of water into steam. If the initial temperature of
water is 27.50°C, how much heat in calories will the boiler need to produce a
150.00°C steam? (Lv = 540 cal/g; ssteam = 0.95 cal/g·°C)

6. A customer ordered a brewed coffee. You prepared the coffee at 85.0°C to extract
the flavor of the coffee at short time. When you served the 355 mL coffee, the
customer wanted to cool it down to 55.0°C so he will be able to drink it sooner. You
decided to add ice in it to cool it down. How many grams of ice cubes at -18.5°C
should you add?