SJO571 Environmental impact from shipping

Oil spills

2023-09-11

Ida-Maja Hassellöv
ida-maja@chalmers.se
 Disposition
• Oil
• Regulations
• Transports
• Discharge sources
• Fate of oil
• Effects on wildlife
• Costs
• Ship wrecks
• Oil recovery
• Scrubbers
 Learning outcomes
After this lecture the student should be able to:

• Explain the formation of crude oil and roughly describe its main
components
• Distinguish between different sources of oil spills and describe their
characteristics
• Explain the fate of an oil spill in water
• Categorize and explain different types of effects of oil on wildlife
• Describe factors influencing the effects of an oil spill
• Give example of different costs associated with oil spills
• Briefly describe the current legislation and responsibility of Swedish
authorities concerning oil spill prepardeness and response
• Summarize the predominant remediation strategies available for oil
spill response at sea and on land
• Describe the risks of scubber water in the marine environment
Crude oil (Råolja)

Plant- and animal material

incorporated in sediment

• Time (106 yrs)

• Pressure
• Heath
“making a cake, you need all
the right ingredients, a
container and it has to cook in
at the right temperature for a
period of time”
Only at specific
locations worldwide.
Where are the largest oil reservoirs?

Why?
Where are the largest oil reservoirs?
• 200 million yrs ago
• Pangea continent
• Tethys sea
• Equator
• Shallow
• Nutrient rich
• High biological
productivity, which
turned into oil when
encapsulated during
suitable temperatures
over long time.

“making a cake, you need all

the right ingredients, a
container and it has to cook in
at the right temperature for a
period of time”
 Crude oil
Saturated hydrocarbons:
alkanes, cycloparaffines

Aromates:
90% mono-, di-, polycyclic-

Rests:
aggregates of pyridines, quinones, carbazoles etc.

Asphaltenes:
aggregates of polyaromates, naphtenic acid etc.

Nitrogen

Oxygen
10%
Sulphur

Metals: vanadium, nickel

Crude oil refinery processing

=jet fuel, kerosene

=petrol

=heating oil, diesel

=HFO, bunker oil

=bitumen, asphalt
https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5944
IEA, Oil 2021, IEA, Paris
https://www.iea.org/reports/oil-2021
IEA, Oil 2021, IEA, Paris
https://www.iea.org/reports/oil-2021
 Crude oil price - availability
The availability/access of the resource affects the price.

WEO =World Energy Outlook

EOR = Enhanced Oil Recovery Source: International Energy Agency (IEA)
 Shipping regulations

• MARPOL (1978, IMO)

- Methods to reduce spills
- compensation after accidents
1992 update: double hulls for new tankers
• Oil Pollution Act (1990, law in the USA)
- claim from responsible party
- phasing out single-hull tankers
• ISM code (1998, IMO)
- Implementation of safety management systems
• SOLAS Chapter V (2002, IMO)
- Equipment standards: - VDR (voyage data recorder)
- AIS (automatic information system)
 Update MARPOL, 2011. Chapter 9

Regulating both the carriage in bulk, as cargo and the carriage and use of
heavy-grade oils.

Polar code Jan 1st 2017: “Under the Polar Code ships are encouraged not to
use or carry heavy fuel oil in the Arctic.”

“require any oil tanker involved in oil cargo STS operations to have,
on board, a plan prescribing how to conduct STS operations”
 Oil transport
• Tankers transport ~70%
of all annual oil production
(3146 Million tons loaded, UNCTAD 2018 Maritime Transport vs
4380 Million tons production, statista.com 2019)
~ 7400 oil tankers

• Smaller sized oil product tankers:

Coastal shipping, canal boats, barges
• Oilbased special products in tankers (chem tank)
• Specialized container ships
Number of ships in the world merchant fleet as of January 1, 2018, by type
Number of merchant ships by type 2018

18000
16000
14000
Number of ships

12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
General Bulk cargo Crude oil Chemical Container Ro-Ro/ Liquefied
cargo ships carriers tankers tankers ships Passenger natural gas
ships tankers
4
Note: Worldwide
Source(s): ISL; Marine Flottenkommando; ID 264024
 Transported petroleum
types/characteristics

Crude oil - most commonly transported, e.g. Gullfaks, Ekofisk,

Arabian crude etc.
- composition varies with field of origin

Bunker oil (HFO) - high viscosity

- low solubility in water

Light oils - e.g. diesel, light gas oil (LGO), marine gas oil (MGO)
- evaporate and is easily dispergated
- often acute toxic to biota

Other oils - lubricants etc.

- often acute toxic to biota
 Sources, oil pollution in the marine environment
• Offshore production
• Land-based industry and urban environments
• Natural seeps
• Shipping large/small
– Accidents
– Operational discharges
– Wrecks containing petroleum products
 Sources, oil pollution in the marine environment
Total 1 250 000 tons year-1 (GESAMP 2007)
Natural seeps ~ 47%
Shipping ~34%
Accidents ~10%
Operational discharge ~24%

Farrington & McDowell, 2004

 Accidents
-Fire/Explosion
-Collisions
-Groundings
-Hull damages
Nowruz oil field, Iran, collision
between a tanker and an oil rig

ABT Summer, onboard explosion,

Amoco Cadiz grounding outside Frankrike outside Angola
Oil spills cont. -Modern tanker fleet
-Sectioned tanks
-Double-hulls
-TSS
-GPS
-AIS

Seaborne oil trade

Oil spills
>7 tonnes
 ITOPF 50 yrs 2018
”Over 80% of the incidents recorded since 1970 are small spills
(<7 tonnes). Unfortunately, reliable reporting of this category of spills is
often difficult to achieve as data available is often incomplete.”
 Oil spills cont.

https://www.itopf.org/fileadmin/data/Photos/News_Events/StatsPressRelease_Chart1.jpg
Time line regulations
Decrease of >7 ton spills

(Burgherr, 2007)
 Accidents, localities

(Burgherr, 2007)
The striped areas are ”highly sensitive ecosystems”.
Flight surveillance of oil spills in the Baltic Sea
Swedish Coastguard and HELCOM 2017
 Operational spills/discharges

Oil e.g. shaft lubricants,

motor oils, gear oils,
grease, fuel from:
• Bunker operations
• Loading/off-loading
• Stern tube oils
• Bilge water (max15
ppm oil content)
• Illegal, intentional
discharges e.g. tank
cleaning
 Operational spills/discharges
• Oil spills < 7 ton – difficult to get reliable statistics
• Operational discharge, incl leakage of stern tube oil, to the
world’s ocean have been estimated to be:
130-244 million litres = 117 000 -220 000 tonnes annually
(Etkin et al. 2010).
In the Baltic Sea it is estimated that
22 000 ton stern tube oil is discharged annually.
• “Every year chronic oiling amounts to 8 Exxon Valdez size spills
in the EU alone.” (Camphuysen, 2007)
Wrecks containing petroleum products
• Wrecks from WWII
• ~8000 in total
• Approx 50% >1000 gross tonnage
• 861 tankers
• In total 2.5-20.4 million tonnes petroleum products
• Sjöfartsverket: 31 high risk wrecks in Swedish waters
 Type of leakage
• Big leakage – structural hull
collapse due to ship accident
or wreck collapse.
- lethal effects, acute and chronic
effects

• Slow continuous leakage –

smaller whole in wrecks(pit
corrosion) operational spills
- non lethal effects, potential
chronic effects
Fate of oil and wheathering processes
 Fate of oil, cont.
• Evaporation: Light fractions, do not affect the marine environment
• Dispersion/dissolution:
– Towards smaller and smaller droplets of oil in water
– Increase natural degradation processes
– Increased toxicity for aquatic organisms as oil is dissolving in the water
– Can be intensified through use of chemicals
• Spreading:
– Increase evaporation from surface
– Increased area also increases the risk for birds and marine life
• Photolysis: oxidation by UV-radiation at surface. Toxic degradation
compunds are formed
• Emulsification: water + oil = increased volume
• Sedimentation: Heavy fractions are sinking and somewhat lighter fractions
may bind to particles and sink to the sea floor
• Biodegradation: oil is degraded by microorganisms
Time scale, fate of oil

Processes governed by
many factors, e.g.
• Temperature in
water and air
• Oil composition
• Wheater
• Geographical
conditions where the
spill occurs, (close to
the coast, out at sea
etc.)
 Effects on wildlife, large spills
• Acute toxic and lethal effects. Narkotic effect – lipohilic
molecules are concentrated in the cellmembranes, which
start to leak and homeostasis cannot be maintained
• Smothering (suffocation)
– Oil film at the sea surface:
-prevent oxygen exchange over air/water => anoxia
-reduced incoming sunlight => reduced photosynthesis
– Reduced insulation capacity: birds, mammals may
freeze to death
– Reduced buoyancy: seabirds
• Bioaccumulation/Biomagnification
• Accumulate and immobilise in anoxic sediment
• Losses of species, habitats and eventually lost
ecosystem services
 10 largest oil spills at sea
• 700 000 ton Deepwater Horizon, Mexikanska golfen, 2010
• 480 000 ton Ixtoc, Mexikanska golfen, 1979
• 287 000 ton Atlantic Empress, utanför Tobago, 1979
• 260 000 ton Nowruz, Persiska viken, Iran, 1983
• 260 000 ton ABT Summer, utanför Angolas kust, 1991
• 252 000 ton Castillo de Bellver, utanför Sydafrika, 1983
• 223 000 ton Amoco Cadiz, Bretagne-kusten, 1978
• 144 000 ton Haven, Genuakusten, Italien, 1991
• 132 000 ton Odyssey, Nova Scotia- kusten, Kanada, 1988
• 119 000 ton Torrey Canyon, Cornwallkusten, 1967
 Effects, small/operational discharges
• Sublethal effects
– PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons)
• Bioaccumulation/Biomagnification
• Carcinogenic effects
• Reduced growth/reproduction
• Increased sensitivity towards other pressures
• Losses of species, altered community composition
-lost ecologic och taxonomic diversity
 Effects operational discharges
Today recognized as a “operational discharges from
shipping and offshore installations
substantial problem are the most important sources of
marine wildlife casualties because
they occur all the time”
Potentially worse long-term “It is a misconception that large
spills cause greater environmental
effects than large spills. damage than small spills: what
Constant pressure on wildlife matters are when and where the
release happens and the type of oil
- Highly trafficked areas, that is spilled” (Camphuysen, 2007)

- Ecologically sensitive areas

- E.g. Baltic Sea; both intense
traffic and a sensitive area
 Factors governing the consequences
• Type of product: HFO - Diesel
• Dicharge volume: Black Tide – smaller leakage
• Local conditions: wind, current, depth, tide
• Geografical location of the spill:
-type of coast line e.g. sandy beaches/estuaries vs rocky shores
-climate – tropical vs Arctic (degradation rate)
-time of year/season
-population
-industry
• Remediation
-strategy
-effectiveness

Non-linear relation between discharge volume and remediation cost!

 Type of coast, importance
• Rocky shores:
Oil aggregates and sticks to shores. Costly to
remediate.
• Sandy beaches:
– Fine grains: Low vertical penetration. Easy to
remove. Rarely long-term effect on biota.
– Coarse grains: High vertical penetration. Easy to
remove. May have long-term effect on biota.

• Reed belts/marshes/estuaries/mangroves:
High vertical penetration. Impossible to remove.
Usually negative long-term effect on biota.
 Societal costs from major oil spills
• Direct costs:
Remediation, equipment, booms, personel, boats
• Indirect costs:
Lost tourism, fisheries, recreation, life quality and
inconvenience for individuals
• Ecological costs:
Killed animals (seals, birds), destroyed beaches and
habitats
 Ecological costs
Not included in the estimations of the
societal costs.
• Mass death of oiled birds, e.g. long-tailed
duck in the Baltic Sea
• Oil pollution on seafloor and beaches that
does not affect tourism or commercial
fishing
• Atmospheric pollution from volatile fractions
• Sublethal effects, e.g. reduced growth and
reduction

Extremely difficult (not to say impossible) to assess in

economic terms, but in the end paid by the society.
 Economic consequences, examples
• Exxon Valdez, 1989, Alaska, spilles ~40 000 ton crude oil
Remediation cost: 10 billion SEK.
Claims 2009: ~7 billion SEK
5000 otters, 300 seals, 22 killer whales, 150 eagles, 250 000 sea birds. At least 80
ton remains in the sediment, not degraded due to anoxia and low temperatures.

• Amoco Cadiz, 1978, southwest England, spill 233 000 ton crude oil
Remediation cost and economic damage: 2 billion SEK
Claim (by France): 700 million SEK

Amoco Cadiz vs. Exxon Valdez

• 6 times larger volume
• 20% lower remediation cost
• 10% lower claim
Potentially polluting shipwrecks, different
definitions - different figures
In Sweden; definition by Bergen Maritime Museum
• >100BRT
• Wrecked after 1914
• Petroleum as fuel
• Other wrecks containing
hazardous cargo

9/10/2023 Chalmers 45
Handling of polluting shipwrecks

• Recognition; many wrecks around

• Need for wreck inventory, prioritization and risk assessment
• No liable owners nor appointed responsible national authorities
• Need for inter- and transdisciplinary approaches to ensure
successful operations and overall resource efficiency

9/10/2023 Chalmers 46
Activities related to polluting shipwrecks

1/ Yes Yes Yes

Yes
2018 (?)
Yes
1/ Yes
1/ Yes Yes Yes
Yes

E. Svensson, 2010. Potential Shipwreck Pollution in the Baltic

Sea Overview of Work in the Baltic Sea States

Sweden should have had the same level as Estonia at the time, maybe with a
yes on Work on potential pollution risks within research projects.

9/10/2023 Chalmers 47
Swedish projects and reports

• Swedish Agency of Marine and Water Management coordinate

the national work ”Miljörisker med sjunkna vrak” 2016 -
• EU Interreg DAIMON 2016-2019
• Sjöfartsverket ”Miljörisker sjunkna vrak II” 2015
• Forskningsprojekt från BONUS (SWERA) 2014-2016
• Sjöfartsverket ”Miljörisker sjunkna vrak I” 2014
• Forskningsprojekt från Formas 2009-2013
• Sjöfartsverket ”Miljörisker med fartygsvrak” 2009-2011
• Statskontoret ”Vrak och Ägarlösa båtar” 2008
• Förstudie om vraksanering 2007
• EU projekt Forum Skagerrak II ”Vrak i Skagerrak” 2005
Risk assessment of shipwrecks requires an
interdisciplinary approach…

Corrosion science
Marine chemistry
Marine archaeology
Marine biology National Military history
Marine ecotoxicology Law International Nautical science
Maritime
Oceanography Insurances Maritime operations

Oil spill science Naval architecture Bathymetry

Marine engineering Underwater technology

Risk assessment

9/10/2023 Chalmers 49
… and transdisciplinarity

• Maritime Administration
• Coastguard
• Maritime museums
• Navy
Courtesy: Maritime Museum of Gothenburg
• Countyboards Courtesy: Swedish Maritime Administration

• Coastal municipalities
• SMHI
• Geological Survey
• Wreck divers
• Salvage enterprises
• …

9/10/2023 Chalmers 50
 Case study object S/S Skytteren
Used in the development of VRAKA at Chalmers

-1900, White Star Line (Titanic)

-12500 gt, 172m
-Australia – England
-1928, whaling factory
-prohibited from leaving port Gbg hamn WWII
-1942, operation Performance,
steel/ball bearings
- Sank by own crew Måseskär, 74m
-500 - 6000m3 lighter oil, diesel
 Release of hazardous
substances

VRAKA Opening in the wreck Hazardous substance is present

Intensity
Construction work
An opening must Probability of opening
Cargo/Bunker is
hazardous
Hazardous bunker/cargo
is still contained

occur AND there

Deterioration

must be oil left in Probability of opening

the wreck. Diving

Intensity

Probability of opening

Intensity
Landslides/
Calculation of Earth quakes
Probability of opening

probability for Intensity

Military activity
leakage. Probability of opening

Intensity
Ship traffic
Probability of opening

Intensity
Storms/ Extreme weather
AND-gate
Probability of opening

Intensity
Trawling OR-gate
Probability of opening
Risk = Probability x Consequence
 Sea Track Web – oil drift modeling
Collapse of Skytteren’s hull. Scenario with
three different wind speeds and directions:
W 13 m/s 2 days 3 days 4 days

S 7 m/s
O 7 m/s
S 7m/s

Orust Orust Orust

2 days 3 days
1 day 3 days

W 13m/s
O 7m/s

Orust Orust
Orust Orust
Digital Environmental
Atlas (Länsstyrelsen)
Oiled coast,
different beach types

• Beach type determines

chioce of remediation
technique and
associated costs

• Support during planning

of remediation
operations
 Environmental sensitivity index map
(International)
To identify sensitive areas, to elaborate protection plans and
increase preparedness prior to an oil spill
Contain information about:
• The coast’s sensitivity to oil pollution
• Biological resources
• Societal resources
Utvalt för närmare
undersökning X X
Utvalt och
undersökt 2015

X X
X
X
X X
X
X X
X
XX X X
X
X
X
X X
X Hoheneichen X
X XMinde
X
X
XX X X Från Ulf Olsson, Sjöfartsverket
 ”Måseskärsvraken”,
Eventuellt lastade med kemiska stridsmedel.

Från Ulf Olsson, Sjöfartsverket

• ”Måseskärsvraken”, ca 12 wrecks in an area marked with
“Warning for dangerous activities at the seafloor”
• Other wrecks, closer to the coast are suspected to also
originate from the post WWII-dumpings

Från Ulf Olsson, Sjöfartsverket

Side scan sonar
pictures to compare
with drawings and
photos for identification

Från Ulf Olsson, Sjöfartsverket

After a current
meter (RDCP) got
caught by a trawler
an analysis of AIS-
data was made for
the area. Hundreds
of trawling tracks
were visualized.

Från Ulf Olsson, Sjöfartsverket

Trawler tracks
superimposed
over the wrecks
positions.

Från Ulf Olsson, Sjöfartsverket

 Oil combating technology, at sea

• Mechanic removal: -Skimmers that collect and separate oil from water
-Manual collection, high viscosity, cold oil, e.g. scoop
-Absorbing material: oil sticks to or is sucked into, e.g.
polypropylene, flax, etc.
-Herders: chemiclas that contract the spill for easier
collection or burning

• Use of booms: -delimit/encapulate the oil slick from the surroundings

-keep the spill away from sensitive areas
 Technologies cont.
• In situ burning –
Combustion on site
Quick fix
0,5 - 3 mm oil slick thickness => water cools off and
counteract combustion

Cons: Smoke plume (soot particles), toxic restproducts

(PAHs, NOx, SOx), risk of spreading

• Dispersants
Tensides (detergents)
Oil break down in smaller fractions enables increased
natural degradation rate
Problem removed from surface
Early versions – more toxic than oil itself
Applied from ship or aircraft
 Dispersants, Sweden
Swedish EPA:
”At sea, outside 1 nm from the baseline defining Swedish inner water, dispersants for oil combatting
are allowed if…”

- Inside the border mentioned above dispersants are not allowed without
special permit
- Dispersants are allowed in Sweden during oil combatting, but are not used
- In Sweden, only mechanical technologies and herders are used

Oilgoneeasy.com
 Oil combatting on shore
• Mechanical removal – spades, rakes, collection of
oiled material etc.
- Use of machines when large scale spills
- adsorption- and absorption materials: straws, flax and
polypropylene fibers

• Beach cleaning
– high-pressure cleaners with cold water
– hot water, inappropriate, kills remaining wildlife

• Bioremediation
- Addition of nutrients (N/P) to naturally occuring
microorganisms
- Addition of nutrients AND oil degrading microorganisms
- Potentially very efficient

• Natural recovery (UV+bacteria)

- If possible this may actually be the best option from an
ecological viewpoint
 Bioremediation
• Microorganisms ndegradiation of oil (and its toxic substances), restores
the ecosystem
• Oil used as carbon source to build up biomass
• Used in remediation on land or in water, varying success
• Polycyclic PAHs are difficult to break down Benzo(a)Pyrene
• Degradation rate depends on:
oNumber of microorganisms
oWater temperature
oNutrient availability (N/P)
 Experiments/Sampling
Assessment of effects from small scale operational discharge/wrecks
• Sampling/current measurements close to S/S Skytteren
• Long-term effects of meiofauna/bacteria to oil in lab
– Diesel additions: 0.2, 2 and 20 times background conc in the
Gullmarsfjorden
– Effects analysed after 2, 30 and 60 days

Example of
experimental setup

Fredrik Lindgren,
PhD M2, Now at SWAM
 Effects on bacteria- and meiofauna
Meiofaunal community composition
community 2D Stress: 0.08

Bacterial community nitrification potential

C
L
M
Day 2 2 dagar H

2D Stress: 0.06

Day 30 30 dagar
2D Stress: 0.04

The encircled
C = Control, no diesel addition treatments are
L = 0.2 times background conc statistically different
from the control (C).
M = 2.0 times
H = 20 times
Day 60 60 dagar
Today, Hybrid Fuels (VLSFO, ULSFO) dominate the market

Source: VPS VLSFO Insights April 2021

Extremely little is known about their chemical

composition and their ecotoxicity. Ongoing research at
Chalmers, UGOT, Sw Coast Guard, Transport Agency and
Sw Agency for Marine and Water Management
Scrubbers Ex 12MW vessel discharge
OL: 13 000 m3/day
CL: 100 m3/day
Open loop
Closed loop

Modified from EGCSA (2012),

https://www.egcsa.com/resources/technical_gallery/
 Use of scrubbers:
increasing trend

Scrubbers by type 2023 Baltic Sea

Open 3541
Hybrid 753 2019:
Closed 68 17 open loop
Unknown 18
Dry 4 9 closed loop
65 hybrid
Source:
Finnish Meteorol. Inst.

Total number of ships with scrubbers (in operation and on order), and scrubbers by type for the year 2023.
Source: DNV GL, https://afi.dnvgl.com/
Baltic Sea load of PAH:s from
bilge and scrubber water 2019
N.B! 99 ships with scrubbers, >8000 ships in total
Baltic Sea load of metals from bilge,
grey-, black and scrubber water 2019
N.B! 99 ships with scrubbers, >8000 ships in total
 Scrubber challenges
• Compliance difficult to reach when starting
the system. How long time is ok?

• All scientifically published studies on

effects on the marine environment show
negative effects! (Excluded in the EMTER
report (!))

• Copepods sensitive

• Thor et al. 2021: None of the individual

PAHs or heavy metals analyzed in the
effluents occurred in concentrations which
could explain the high toxicity.

Global Washwater Discharges from

https://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/nauplius/media/copepedia/taxa/T4000145/photo
Scrubbers (arcgis.com) s/T4000145-001__cpi220-0000__Calanus-helgolandicus.jpg
 Summary
• Oil – formation/types
• Regultations
• Transports
• Sources of spills - shipping: accidents/operational spills/wrecks
• Fate in the environment and wheatering processes
• Effects on wildlife - acute toxic/sublethal
• Costs - direct/indirect
• Shipwrecks - risks/regulations
• Oil combatting – at sea/on shore
• Scrubbers have negative impact
on the marine environment