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PAPER

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 Agricultural Sciences Daily Class Preparation and Presentation {ASDCPP)

PAPER One and PaPer Two.

Grade 11
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This is the solution to grade problems on their daily class preparation and presentation with
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this ASDCpp you can be effective and productive in your class and
you can also finish the
syllabus in tirne
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The aim of this Agricultural Science Daily Class Preparation is not what
are looking for as a grade 11 educator.

Paper One

L. CHEMICAL CONCEPTS
2. SOIL SCIENCE.

Paper Two

L. PLANT STUDIES
1.1 Plant nutrition and plant reproduction
1.2 Soil micro-organism
1.3 Plant protection

2.OPTIMAL RESOURCE UTILIZATION

l

2.l.Controlled agricultural production

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PAPER ONE

s$EMrcAL CONCEPTS

Thq constituents of matter

Matter is anything that occupy space and has mass

Ehvsical properties of matter

,t
f
a

Matter has +i
c r!: .1

E
g . ,
',:
E

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d

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f Elementi - are the simplest chemical substances that cannot be broken down into simpler units r

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,
r, - Carbon C
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Hydrogen (H)

E
f - Oxygen (O)
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.a!';.- .!::i.'.-..-:rl: -. !:'-

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The following elements are essential to life but occur in small quantities
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I II III IV .V VI VII
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Rb Sr pl
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Nb Mo Te Ru rRh Pd Ag Un
37 38 AN 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 .50
{'}
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Cs Ba Os Ir P* Au ,,Bi Po,
55 -56 72 73 74 75 t6 77 78 79 83 84.
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87 88 104 il).5

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Group l; Sltinv nrerqls: (exccpt H)

Elements are substance thot connot

be hroken down in simprer units or
Element ore substonce that consists of
only one type of atoms.
Elements ore made up o! atams
Atoms are the basic unit of matter

-All atoms of a particurar erement

are identicar a. have same atomic number
 i

b. atomic mass

c. size

d. structure

"Atoms one element differ in their physicaland chemical properties

Atoms consist of 3 twes of particles

Protons (p+/
i

Neutrons (n/

Electrons (e-l

Two or more different atoms join to from molecule or molecule is made

up of two or more atoms
bonded together
 THE NUCLEUS

-The nucleus is the is dense ,heavy ,positively charged core of each atom
-The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons
-The number of protons in the nucleus is unique to each element.
-The number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of a particular element can vary

lsoToPEs
ls when an element with the same atomic number but different atomic mass
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E' ELECTRONS
5
Are the fundamental unit of electricity
E
s
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-* *
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-* e.g. sodium 11
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CHEMICAL BONDING

s
Chemical bonds are the forces that hold the atoms together in a molecule
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E Tvpes of bonds
E
a
{
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a. Covelent bond - is when two unstable atoms share their electrons
+ - (i) Non-polarcovalent
1s 1 | Ptoler coi,'s"ttl.f

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6o shared with orygen naving
the strongest attraction.

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ii. Polar covalent

Qlle_gQNAUG
ls when one atom loses an electron completely to another atom
 An atom from Group 1 An atom from group 7
(i.e. th€ shiny metals) (1.€. the halogens)

E
-E
g
x
*
*E
**
* These have 7 electrons
* in lheir Outer shells.
t '. The shiny m€tal donatss an sl€ctron to the halogen.
g6
s€
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s
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s The shiny metal now has
x a full outer shell and a
E
F nel positive (+) charge. a full outer shell and a
.s #
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€ Elec'trostatic attraction
-trg
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 Sodium atom (!!Na) Chloriac arom (17C1)

Na donates its slsclron ro th€ Cl atom

,l' ---,-- '.,

q i . ,F
i: ffi:
e. \ v /t
\' ./
Nar

e)@ l*laol molecule (table satt)

7 €los'trons on thB
outer shell of rzCl
@2 cleclrons on
outer shejl ot
the
zo0a
7 elottrons on the
outer shell of i?CI
Calcium donatas 1 eloctron lo asc-h ot thg 2 chbrin€ atoms.
All the atoms have full qrter shalls hrt gain an electk ctrarge.

/,j,ftr
^ \ /l-r^
/-/\\. \
/ / t--r.t,\ .//-^\\
(// \\&
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(-)
Eleclrostatic forces lorm CaCb

u;wrs STRUCTURE

It shows the electrons in the outer shellthat is affected but bonding

and it is represented by a dot.

10
 Name Symbol Atomic Lewis Electrons
number structure

H 1 H. l1
lHydrogen
lc"rbon c €' .c. I

12+ 4
I

lruttrogen N ? :N' ir*o

:
lOxygen o 8 :o. '
3*q
Sodium Na 11 Na. 2+8+ 1
Phosphorus P 15 .P: 2+8+5
Sulphur E 16 rs. 2+8+6
Potassiurn K 19 K. 2+8+8+1
Calciurn Ca w Ca. 2+8+8+2

Compounds

Are substances that can be broken down into simpler units or

-compounds are substances made up of a number of different types of atoms.

TJpes of compounds

a. inorganic compounds - are non-living compounds

b. Organic compounds- are living compounds

lnorganic compounds

e.s. water (H20)- is made up of oxygen and two hydrogen atoms bonded together

QllqlIencelf water

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The importance of water in plants
i'

'r lt cool down the plants

'r lt dissoives minerals salts and nutrients
r More than 80% of plants content consist of water

71.
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and oxygen elements
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6 _fhe importance of CO2
r

ORGANTC COM pOUNDS (alkanes

(pa raffin))
Methane

it is also called marsh gas

.s (b)
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Functionalgroup
'-T-
H-C-H
I Butane CHs{CHz)zCHs
H-C-l{
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H_C-H
t,
H-C-H.,1"
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ri

.H H

r?a I --r ,*l- -- - ,

LU- ? -Ltr.! I C:O

lll
I

_t_ -,
p_l: L9I- -i
,rrthanol methanoic acld
HCOOH

I'-epeE!es-s1-c8a!9!

ALCOHOLS

f hey are derived from alkanes

Tvpes of alEqhql

a. Methanol
b. Ethanol
c. Propanol
d. Butane

H
I ,-l----- -,
rHr-c
L-r --.
-rHi
I C:O i

,i- I
oHi
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loH
L--^-, *-i
nrothanol mathanoic acld
'HCOOH

13
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H-C-H
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H L--

(b)
lirl L-o-r-i
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H_C_H H-C-H
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H_C-H prop€na ;
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itEi-q-L!j i c:o i

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cth'snol
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sc€lic eoid
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,--:- "1"----:: __t__---.
I ill- -ilr I-i-:or
joH i I

!*--.-r---r--_J
ol{
l-propanol propanolc acid
cHscHecooH
propionic acid

H H
I I
H-C-H H-C-H
I I
H-c-H H_C-H
I I
H-*C-H H-C-l{

ill-. tE
__L- __-_-
rli
r e:er
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,

lt:
Jt
;

OH
is____"i
1 - butanol bstanolc acid
CHeGHzlzCOOr
bstytic acid

i rity acids are hydrocarbons which have a carboxyl group (CooH)AS A FUNCTIONAL GROUP

srlly ;1;ifl are classified according to the number of carboxyl group

,.i. Metlranoic acid

lr I (lra noic acid
( l)rr:panoic acid
rl [Juta noic acid

fti
Palmitic acid= C16, H32 02 Page 21

Stearic acid= C18, H36 02

PROTEIN

Proteins are the building blocks of amino acid

Carbohvdrates

Carbohydrates are energy suppliers in the food

-Carbohydrates are essential for maintenance

-Carbohydrates are needed for growth

Carbohydrates are in the forms of monosaccharides e'g'

- Disaccharides. E.g. maltose, sacrose

- PolYsaccharides

Tvpes of polvsaccharides

- Glycogen - Dextrin -Cellulose Lignin

Disaccharides can be hydrolyzed in two different environment

i'e' in living matter( in vivo) or in non-
living medium (in vitro)

Solution

ls a mixture of a solute(e.g sugar or salt) and a solvent(water)

Tvpes of solution

dissolved

ACID AND ALKALNEI

Acids are protons donors
Alikaline or bases are proton acceptors

16
coLtotDs

Are smallest particles that cannot be influenced by gravity

Characteristi cs of colloids

17
 Tvpes of colloids
Tsoir- a solid disPersed in liquid

Flocculation and deflocculatine

amalgamation and settling

out of particles in a colloid'
Flocculation is the process of
and settle out as a
join ,r"ioo targe to be colloidal in nature
. overcome. The particles then
susPension

Deflocculating_istheprocessofbreakingdownflocculatedparticlesintosmallparticles

Alcohol
:

SOIL SCIENCE

and its properties

Morphology- is the study of soil
.l

the rock and the soil which

,i

whii exist between the type of

) . There i. u
"to."
,"lationship

*n"3 or georo gicar, bioro gicar and'

" 3*[*fff"Ji"*#;il1[Tffi;'#!]
(
hydrologicaladditions soil formation
"
removal (erosion)
and
rock
originates (develops) such as
parent material - is the material from which soil

18
 Topsoil

Subsoil

Substrata

Iigure.3.2 Major soil horizons

!f_ol'izon

soil)
'r Soil profile is the vertical exposure of the soil with
its various horizons

1.9
[{ottled coloured soil

Iiflctors responsible for the origin of soil colour

[irctors responsible for minerals to undergo colour change

'r suitable for chemical reaction

#rut, TEXTUBE
$-rriltexture- refers to the relative amount of the different particle size in the soil. Coarseness and
lirics olthe soil

lcxture is classified as follows

il. sand - 2mm to 0,02mm or 0,05mm

h. silt (loam) - 0,02mm to 0,05 to 0,002mm
r-r. clay - < 0,002mm (smaller than

22
 Tlze Texture Diagrarn used in the RSA

Hs+
Ie.
-\-
50
l.

4A

zo L,

l.o

4Zeo

S()tI. SAMPLE SAND CLAY

L( )AM 50 30 20

I.0AM SAND 70 20 10

:iil,I'-CLAY 30 30 40

, drainage and aeration

i. water retention
i crcdabilify
'to tillability
, i'ltcrnical reactivity

12

Aller i tow days

 .{,.:::..:....:......::..:'..::::]:]:---reffi
,.:
:.'.
.

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a _&uubrot rrr,_

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r,::'r#fii;*
1s)cla!.or,
ootot's
warer yo*-
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6cc"t
**. -..:::',::' " r :, u' "
" tr sc, c
*:t;"#,,
ruse's
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t
t t; t
pa', ^," r t i,.:
tc

;?;:;:{:; *, r::"f$ o j.
-,,
::;:','i;;;yii!"y::,
:,:: "v c/osc'/t
.(utoam."ir'..1-t^" *, u ,^^ t,itt.1,,.,,

;::;':l:r,.,,,.,',;,,,')'!!*,,;,;":;,#**a/ons,errbo 'waterevaporatr"s
''rr holds
saad,,sor/=^^ 'r,r, *r ***;": /jtsft)
/'t''';r
rt)jr,^-"
t.,;;;,:i,lnu"" Iexrur"e o'' perrod
''t-l r*r*"
-"ne ,i'ose/-vpac(c,,r
IDe
lexrure lrsparz.,""
c/a,,^ -"o €re
,r* vc.v
, o,
r.r;
'sandy /exrure
Iexlure tirr,,.ttr\!
*,
"::1-Tnesr
^-".t"'
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Ir ;:::::,,:: all r&es
ti *,. :: ;,::rian
'"**#
Li l
a
t

f
f I
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:

u*orrlH
"'u+'4.,"fj.;'g;",[H,,;:;" r,re riurab
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srtallsausag_rrff;;

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2q IF
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 factors' parlicularly
are the results of environmental
The horizontal layers of soil horizons
vegetation, topographv and
ilffi3:i#ffi:ence of soil forming factors such as climate,
the earth's crust
man(crop cultivation,liting and
inigation) the surface material of
undergoes continuous changes

sified u headinss ( th
horizon!

!=)::.!ru'rzon

ts Contains high percentage of organic matter

e irs
ts NotusuallY found in South Africa

tose& 'r Becomes the topsoil in the absence

of Ohorizon
't, Darkened by thl accumulation of humus (organic -un-"-! iti
minerals have been leached rrom
; :ffi:T:,1lllLt,"fi":;;';"*oounds 'uch
as

.rConcentrationofclayorothersolublecompounds
.r calred alruviar norizon enriched by minerals leached from ( A soil
Iru rizon
't; (weathered rock)
Consist of unconsolidated material

ts This is the underlYing rock

F Consist of consolidated materials

sol

&. Younf soil (under developed soil) A

ORA
C R

13adly drained soil (waterlogged) A orOorA

G GG
C

!',. l.lroded soil B

C

o A A
,1. ltlcal soil
2t)
 A E B
C B C
R C

,tl O and A are usually removed by erosion

COLO
COLOI]R
seil colour depends on preceding soil-forming processes, as well as existing conditions

the presence of large quantities of minerals rich in iron oxides.

F Non-homogenous soil colour- refers to mixture of the color described as mottled

nce of

ured soil
,-' Itich in iron oxides t tl/-
. l' 1

,t i Ll-
'_,/ .'-J
_,, / t,
-tt

d soil

t- Iron underwent chemical changes

colour soil.

llnrh coloured soil

5i#

'). wann and very fertile

',, suitable for any crop cultivation

U-rsr:l[g!r
'ts iron underwent chemical changes
i shortage ofoxygen
 relatio{'rsllip:
illustrates the
The tollowirrE table

hard to ti1l
F Clay soils are very
occurs easilY
F w;i"t logged
slow of plants
r ,q,r.ir."fution is verv limit root penetration"u*'^To*n
in
F Clav soils layer 'f-'l "i'"if *'formation of crust
r cray fraction of th1;{:lf::i:.:
is extremelY 1ow
r ;;ffi;tion

IP

F
P
ts
.F
rthitl

:.,.ffithegroupin,.::".1i:"i,",^1:]:"aggtegation,soi1partic1esrv
bj electrostatic attractron
crittcs are held
1,r
'o"tf'J'
latY (flattened)
and *"-:,::,:::tt-t
l'laty sttlrLturv "'- -' ^ -^+6.- t,rill;tt's
tlrilllr's))
Sorizon platel
, aggregates
- 1:r.^\ -er1s are verrically orientated (blt'c k shaltctl rv r
. ou",
t, ri snr atic srrucrure
qrism-trt<; l-i1tl"T r-.;;i;.;r.r.
strucrure) -' peos
rsrvrrrvr- --r
, ;;;;;blocky(blocky i . . \

F :tlllllvrv'D--
F

F Amorphous- single grain structures like drain sand

rs that influe soil stru

Colloidal matter in the soil- binds and lightens soil particles

Type of clay mineral- cohesive forces between clay particles
'P Alternate moisture and drought ( wetting and drying)- swell and shrink results in cracks,
breaking into small aggregates
Climate - influences the weathering
Plant roots- penetrate clods and assist in the forrnation of aggregates

Correct method of cultivation

Adding organic matter
Cultivating the soil when it not too wet or too dry
Correct irri gation methods
Balanced fertilization

.[!g1ggrqs t-o destroy soil structure

'r Raindrops batter aggregates
'r' Over --cuitivation damages soil structure
i Cultivating the soil when it is too wet or too dry
'r- Presence of alkaline salts results in a single grain structure
')r The pH leads to distraction of soil structure

l|-,1f'c space soit wa

I !rq: total pore space is that volume of soil which is occupied bv air and water

! The total pore space of a soil varies with soil depth

! ilrcs of spore
ir. Macro pores( dominant in sandy soil

t_iullctions

Air movement (filled with air

Seepage water

l., N4icro-pores (dominant in clay soii

!lr,u-tt-qrtl
('apillary movement of water (restrict water

26

')
N.
-

- ('lrcrnicalprocesses

D:M
V

E.g. 'l'lrc rttass of the soil is 2009 and the volume of the came soil is 400cm. calculate bulk
density

D:M

:2009
400crn
:0.5g/cnr

Soil rvitte:r' (ground water

Thc ptrrpcrties of soil determines how much water is lost by subterranean drainage and by
surilir.,., r'u rr-olf

Four l<inds of soil water (ground water

a Ilygroscopic / adhesive water

Always present in soil
No1 accessible (available) to plant roots

t) Cap i ll arylcohesive water

Accessible to plant roots
Main sources of water for plants

c. Free/gravitational water
- Downwards movement of water in the gravitation
- Water accessible (available to plants for a short time
- Water infiltrated the soil after rainfall
d., Vapor
- Water available in the atrnosphere in a gas state
- Available only after rainfall

Factors influencing the speed of water in soil

) Water capacity of the soil

 in Plants
Functions of rvater

; i*ro*unt during Photo.slmthests )

after the
a given quantity of water
soil to retain
#::
nas been
soil has
soll wvr^^r--'ou"*^*'- -
oeEu compteLEry .. 1-- certarn conditions
nditions
^^.+ain co
or .is defined
t c^^Aoo volume of water in the soil under
rhe
as the vo
itrliwr**"-

has higlr waler

retaining capacity
fine texture
a. Texture-
b. Structure- spheroid
*i*"*" retains:T:i,Ili+*
malt.,r ' rubsv^
water retention
more orgailc
c. ;;!Ioi" *utter content-

(wP)
y4LTrNG PorNT
;tothestageinwhichthesoildoesnotprovideenoughwatertotheplatltttt
Wilting Points retert
*uU[ir to retain its rurgiditY

ffigpo.,,,.,.--+1^otrnttestoartofthedayduetoexcessivetratrspira1,ittlrtrl.
the hottest part
of the t

Plants
"'" ";;;;iiJa"'*t
water
b during coorer parts
orthe dav
fin::::'";llttl':;":'"*"
f(,

r\' r
\ \\ ,'
,,t\\ \ \-
-\--_ J
 moisture above wilting Point

pennanent wilting Point

Water losses and possible solution (prevention

a.Run-offreferstothefasterapplicationofwaterinthesoilthantheinfiltration
Prevention

to the
b. Evaporation - the process by which water is lost from the soil surface
atmosPhere
Prevention

c.Percolation(seepage).thedownwardsmovementsofwateroutofthesoil
Prevention

due to evaporation througlt tho

d. Transpiration- the loss of water to the atmosphere
stomata of the leaves
Prevention

')il
 -Water lapqur losses E0precipiration
li
ddd
Transpiration
losses
d{ {
ant
dd 0
6tt
ttt

Soil surface
ll t\ . tffeeds
o'u,
o oo
6d6

fil
- eviaporation sd0
att
tl2 '**

I
v'

lt tt / I Sk,
l Perctlation (seepage)
and leaching (liquid losses)

SOIL AIR
Comparison between the composition of soil air and atmosphere air
Soil air
20.97%
Nitrogen N) 79.1%(79% 79%
Carbon dioxide 0.3%-1.0% 0.03%

Necessity of soil air

Oxyqen

Nitrogen

Carbon dioxide
SOIL TEMPERATURE

ofthesun,thetopographyofthesoilandthedegreeofcoverexperienced.

Radiation and reflection of the sun's energy (absorption and

loss
a.

water from the soil surface

h. Soil colour

c. Vegetation

d. Soil water content

temPerature

e. Seasonal changes

f. Soil slope

I Moufltain :!
Fig,228 How sun rays are re{l€cted frorn lhe soil sudacB'

3'l
 -.
--

//
// // /t /./,/
r'*"''"'
////i//
///,/,,//
/// /,/,i
//ii/',/ 1'

/''//

(t Soil depth
b'
Topsoil absorb more heat and warmer
Subsoil receives less heat and cooler

a. Seed germination * seeds ger:rninate faster at higher temperature than at lower

temperature
b. Plant growth - plants grow faster in warmer climate of about 25 C
c. Microbial activities - microbe activities increase at higher temperature
.d.Fristdamage-southernslopearemoresusceptibletofrostdamageandslrotrltl
be avoided
e. Early crops early crops require warrn sand soil or soil on a northern slope
- greater the evaporatiotl itutl
f. Evaporation and transpiration- the higher the temperature ,the
transpiration

|()LLOpIAL SYSTEM
enough to be influenced bY
S,ril colloids are extremely fine soil particles which are not large
prlrvily

.lrpslplsslleids

r. Inorganic colloids
I{epresented bY claY
 which is divided into five grouPs, kaoliuitc'
Most important flpe of clay is silicate
clay
montrnoillonite, iliite, vermiculite and chlorite

b. Organic colloids btou'n colloidal

organic colloids ref'ers to a complex and a stable mixture of dark
substance knorn'n as humus
through microbes
Originates from plant and animal matter
Hrirm has no specific shape, form or composition

Characteristics of colloids

Factors ofthe force ofabsorPtion

proPerties of soil
Examples
- Acid soil- hydrogen ions (H) ., .,. r^*:-
-Neutralsoil-calciumions(Ca)andmagnesiumions(Mg)arethepredominantcalttltts
predominant catit'rts
- Alkaline soil(brackish)- sodium 6a; ana potassium (k) are the
Ciuua{'S-_9}qh34s9:referstotheexchangeofausoruedcationsbyothercationsfromtlrcstlil
solution

*,, +
.-Ho
C"++ irh].

-++
Lollold
Colloid _ Colloid
rvG'
CG+

Ut*
r )

Sweet soil Brackish soil

Factors of the speed of cations exchanse

a. The tYPe of cation

b. The concentration of cautions on the soil colloid

Base saturation
fraction (clay and humus)
Refers to the relative amount bases absorbed on the colloids

Cation exchanee capacit)'

Refers to the amount of charge on clay per unit mass of soil

Exchangeable acids
Soil acidity can be divided into two groups
a. Active acidity - H* ions in the soil solution
b. Reverse acidity- H+ and AL3+ ions are absorbed on the soil colloids
e.g.
Dvnamic equilibrium
Absorbed H+ ions :::::: H* ions in soil solution
(Reverse acidity) (Active acidity)

Soil acidity
Ikfers to the amount of hydrogen ions in the soil
-soil acidity is measured in pH unils

t.prmulq&1aH
Ilefers to the negative iogarithm of the hydrogen ions
(H) concentratton
i.c. pH: -log (H+)
1H,) - hydrogen ion concentration

'!tiq_pU-seale
(base)
ls a scale used to express the strength of acidity or alkalinity

'r than oH in the soluliott

A pH of lower plan 7 refers to an acid soil with more H* ions

'r A pH of higher than 7 refers to an alkaline soil with more (oH) than H* ions
> Active hydrogen ions (H+) are the ions in the solution
'y lnactive hydrogen ions are the ions absorbed and not measured with PH metet'
ORIGIN OF SOIL ACIDITY
soil
a. Organic acid - weak organic acids are formed when plant material ploughed in the
decay (humus)
b. Carbon dioxide - when carbon dioxide dissolve in water it forms carbonic acids
c. Fertilization- fertilization (fertilizers) have an acidifying effect on soil e.g' ammonium
sulphate

Alkalinity and saiinitv

Alkalinity or non-saiine (black brack)

Effects of alkalinitv in the soil

harmful to plant tissues

greatly limited

Salinitv of soil (.white brack)

Effects of salinitv in the soil
of neutral soluble salts (e.g. sodium chlorides ancl

sodium sulphates)

the upper parts of the soil

to extremely high concentration of salts

ORGANIC MATTER
rvilh
Organic matter - refers to any plant or animal refuse (dead matter) that comes into contacl
soiI

'r Organic matter is an active and important component of soil

'r Organic matter occurs mainly in the topsoil and exefis an important influence on soil
characteristics

'r Organic matter can also be consisted of different organic compound like lignin,
proteins.
runino acid and cellulose

AE
 hemicellulose, cellulose, fats and lignin decay very slowly

Humus is a complex and resistant mixture of brown or dark coloured amorphous and colloidal
substances modified from organic tissues or slmthesis by soil microbes (microbes)

The phvsical influence of organic \fatter on soil

i

The chemical influence of orsanic l4affer on soil

A major source of Plat nutrients

Important contribution to the cation exchange capacity
High absorption capacity results in less leaching of nutrients
During decomposition of organic matteq acids are formed (e.g. humic acids and nitrous
acid)
High protein content of organic matter increases accessible nitrogen in soil
Decay of organic matter release other nuffients in soil(e.g. P, K Ca and Mg)
Humic acids react on reserve plant food and make them available
High soil temperature results in chemical reactions taking place more rapidly

SOIL FORMING PROCESSES TFACTORS)

-Soil is formed from the parent material of the earth and also through organism which live in
it
and on it.
-The formation process of soil takes place with the passage of time and under the influence
o1

environmental factors such as topography and climate

-soil is therefore the result or function of differed soil formation factors and can be represented
follows

S:f(P,R,C,O,T)
S:soil
F:function
l)-ltarenl material

36
R:topographY (region)
C:climate
O:organism
T:time
erosion and under influcuc:r-: ol
of the parent material which is formed through
Soil- is a function takes placc
the topography; the climate and the
micro and macro-organism in the soil, which
with the passage of time

Weathering

bY soil or residual soil'

Regoliteisthepartlyerodedsoilwhichcanberegardedastheparentmatter(material)ol.stlils'

Twes of weatherine
process'
a. Physical weathering- is basically a disintegration
Factors of physical weatherinq i^+i^- ia ramn.rrr.re cks, possiblc:
a.T"*p.,u*,""ff""t,-suddenvariationintemperaturecausesstressesrnro
resulting in cracks subseclttcttt
and drying causes stresses, because
b. Influence of ice and water- weathering
sweliing urrO results in abrasion among rocks
"ot'*"ting with wind
c. Wind- very small particles are carried
particles results in disintegration
d. Grindins actions the frictions of moving
-
e.Plants-thegainingofelectronsandthe,"au."oelementbecomemorenegative

ffiquisite(requirement)forthe3|f1tiveandoptionaluti1izationof
of soil with the same properties into categoriex
division
available agriculture tuoa ,oit. It is the

) For scientific Planning of a farm

South Africa binorninal classification system consist of fwo categories or levels of classification

a. Soil forms

b. Soil series

The procedures for soil identification and classification

a. First master horizons in the soil profile are demarcated

b. Diagnostic horizons are identified
c. Soil forms are determined
d. Series characteristics are determined
e. Soil series can now be detennined

Soil horizons
a. Oreanic O horizon- found in moist region where much organic matter accumulates.
b. Hurnic A horizon - occurs in cool moist regions
c. Melanic A horizon * occurs in humid regions where leaching takes place
-dark in colour

Vertical A horizon
Develop under hot semi-humid conditions
Usually dark in color
e. Othic A horizon .

Occurs most commonlY

Includes a wide of characteristics

Texture
Line content
pH (base status)
organic matter content
soil colour

Jtf
---_
,* -+:*++*t';:+* o*:**g*:t*n'*4',tq;ji#

PAPER TWO

PLANT NUTRITION

PHOTOSYNTESIS minerals are converted into

low-energy carbon dioxide, water and
@emical presence of chlorophyll by radiant
(solar) energy and enzymes
Uigf, -"rr"rgy carbohydrates in the
wlth the release of oxygen to the atmosphere'
atmosPhe.e

carlcon dioxide (COz)

1

radiant

oxygen (O2)
mesophyll tissue of leaf
containing chloroplasts

stored cad3ohydrates

roots absorb v./a1er

Figure 4.1 Diagram of photosynthesis

Pigment in leaves
Th'."*-poundscapableofabsorbinglightenergyinplantsare

EnergY conversion
take place during photosyrthesis
Tu,o general groups of reactions which
a. rhe light reaction
b. the dark reaction
39
 The lisht reaction
Steps of the,lieht reaction

The dark reaction

Steps of the dark reaction

Importance of photosvnthesis

Requirements of photosynthesis

Storase of food in plants

Organs of food storage are

Manipulation to increase photosvnthesis

a. trellising- ensure that leaves receives adequate sunlight

40
 Exarnple of trellising are as lollou,s

Figure 4.2a Espalier tnctJrod

a. Espalicr / Jralnrctic

b, Fan-methorl

b. pruning- creates the desired shape of a tree or bush

e. plant density- adequate density ( distance) increase light intensity
c. Single-pole rnethod

groen houses- regulates the climate ( temperature, light and humidity

ttltsorbed from the soil by the process of osmosis through a semi-permeable membrane
I oo( hairs

f water b
ll sap in plant is more concentrated than soil water
water potential in plant ceil
rvater potential in the soil
rrlr:r' llows the outside (soil) to the inside (plant)
l)r()Lrcss icls callecl osmosis (endosmosis)

41
K

rtheu
a. capillary
b. rootPressure
c. transpiration

Essential in the light reaction of photoslmthesis

Essential in the dark reaction of photosynthesis
Medium for chemical reaction
Provides mechanic"al rigidity to plant cells
Important in hydrolysis of stored plant nutrients(solvent
Lnportant in procurement of inorganic nutrients from the
soil
Lnportant in translocation (transportation) of nutrients
Stabilizes the Plant temPerature
Maintain the structure of Plant

Mineral nutrition

Plants require mineral for normal development and

manufacturing of organic compound
from carbohydrates
Plants absorb nutrients elements from the soil water
Minerals are divided into two types
a. Macro-nutrients
b. Micro-nutrients

Macro-nutrients

i > Required by plant in small quantities

acro-nutrients
Deficiencv s

a. Nitrogen (N)

b. Phosphorus(P)

production

c. Potassium(k)
d. Magaesiunr (Mg)

e. Calcium (Ca)

L Sulphur (S)

-minerals
l nutrient
a. iron (Fe) chlorosis in young leaves

inter-vein(mottled) chlorosisi

c. copper (Cu) boiling water disease in wheat

chlorosis at leafedge and cup-shape
cracked skin in oranges

tl. zinc(Zn) (little lea! resetting

Small leaf fruit tress
Dwarfing (resetting) In mealies

Whiptail disease in cauliflower

Saucer leaf-climbing tress

baron (B) Black heart in root crops

Internal cork in apples

cobalt (Co) Wasting disease or pining

v Organic phosphate
Inorganic phosphate (e.g. , or tricalcium phosphate

43
 d. MagnesiLrnr (Mg)
V-pafrern on leave
: 9:"n base
e. Caiciurn (Ca)
(blossom end ror)
: in the tomaloes
f,, Sulphur (S) Breakdown of merisrematic
: rissue

ir:ro-minerals

a. rron (Fe)

b. rnanganese(Mn)

r'. copper (Cu)

boiting warer disease
: in wheat

rl zinc(Zn)
(iirile leal) resetting
: Small leaf fruir rress
:F Dwarfing (resening)
In mealies
Whiprail disease in
: cauliflower
f , baron (B)

:l.O hean
: .lntemal
F in roor crops
cork in apples
cobalt (Co)

,j
i
.j
j

E
ich

Organic phosphate
)> Inorganic phosphate
(e.g. mono_.di_
, or tricalcium phosphate

43
 \/
tti,l
'rJ

Non-svmbiotic fi xatiQlr
Is a process in which micro-organisms assimulate nitrogen gas in the soil without trelp tion.
othcr organisms

Smbiosis or mutualism

ls a situation in which two organism's line together supporting each other in some way or the
other i

Parasite

Is the situation where one organisms benefit from the host and cause serious harm

PI,ANT IIROTE_CTTON

Th e fgl I owiqg fa ctolg ca u s e dec reas e i UJr roiu.c-tion

Diseases
:
:l

\
,:

t
tlI microscope

Methods of transmission of plants vital disease

I
I
l

There are three main fitres of plant diseases

a. Fungal diseases
The1, can be seen without microscope
b Bacterial diseases - they can only be seen with a microscope
!
\'#, C. Virai diseases- they are much smalier than bacterial diseases and can only be seen with a

porverfu I el ectron microscope

66