styleguide

Google Python Style Guide

Table of Contents
1 Background
Python is the main dynamic language used at Google. This style guide is a list of dos and don’ts
for Python programs.
To help you format code correctly, we’ve created a settings file for Vim. For Emacs, the default
settings should be fine.
Many teams use the Black or Pyink auto-formatter to avoid arguing over formatting.
2 Python Language Rules
2.1 Lint
Run pylint over your code using this pylintrc.
2.1.1 Definition
pylint is a tool for finding bugs and style problems in Python source code. It finds problems that
are typically caught by a compiler for less dynamic languages like C and C++. Because of the
dynamic nature of Python, some warnings may be incorrect; however, spurious warnings should
be fairly infrequent.
2.1.2 Pros
Catches easy-to-miss errors like typos, using-vars-before-assignment, etc.
2.1.3 Cons
pylint isn’t perfect. To take advantage of it, sometimes we’ll need to write around it, suppress
its warnings or fix it.
2.1.4 Decision
Make sure you run pylint on your code.
Suppress warnings if they are inappropriate so that other issues are not hidden. To suppress
warnings, you can set a line-level comment:
def do_PUT(self): # WSGI name, so pylint: disable=invalid-name
...

pylint warnings are each identified by symbolic name ( empty-docstring ) Google-specific

warnings start with g- .
If the reason for the suppression is not clear from the symbolic name, add an explanation.
Suppressing in this way has the advantage that we can easily search for suppressions and revisit
them.
You can get a list of pylint warnings by doing:
pylint --list-msgs

To get more information on a particular message, use:

pylint --help-msg=invalid-name

Prefer pylint: disable to the deprecated older form pylint: disable-msg .

Unused argument warnings can be suppressed by deleting the variables at the beginning of the
function. Always include a comment explaining why you are deleting it. “Unused.” is sufficient. For
example:
def viking_cafe_order(spam: str, beans: str, eggs: str | None = None) -> str:
del beans, eggs # Unused by vikings.
return spam + spam + spam

Other common forms of suppressing this warning include using ‘ _ ’ as the identifier for the
unused argument or prefixing the argument name with ‘ unused_ ’, or assigning them to ‘ _ ’.
These forms are allowed but no longer encouraged. These break callers that pass arguments by
name and do not enforce that the arguments are actually unused.
2.2 Imports
Use import statements for packages and modules only, not for individual types, classes, or
functions.
2.2.1 Definition
Reusability mechanism for sharing code from one module to another.
2.2.2 Pros
The namespace management convention is simple. The source of each identifier is indicated in a
consistent way; x.Obj says that object Obj is defined in module x .
2.2.3 Cons
Module names can still collide. Some module names are inconveniently long.
2.2.4 Decision
Use import x for importing packages and modules.
Use from x import y where x is the package prefix and y is the module name with no
prefix.
Use from x import y as z in any of the following circumstances:
Two modules named y are to be imported.
y conflicts with a top-level name defined in the current module.

y conflicts with a common parameter name that is part of the public API (e.g.,
features ).

y is an inconveniently long name.

y is too generic in the context of your code (e.g., from storage.file_system import
options as fs_options ).

Use import y as z only when z is a standard abbreviation (e.g., import numpy as np ).

For example the module sound.effects.echo may be imported as follows:
from sound.effects import echo
...
echo.EchoFilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

Do not use relative names in imports. Even if the module is in the same package, use the full
package name. This helps prevent unintentionally importing a package twice.
2.2.4.1 Exemptions
Exemptions from this rule:
Symbols from the following modules are used to support static analysis and type checking:
typing module

collections.abc module

typing_extensions module

Redirects from the six.moves module.

2.3 Packages
Import each module using the full pathname location of the module.
2.3.1 Pros
Avoids conflicts in module names or incorrect imports due to the module search path not being
what the author expected. Makes it easier to find modules.
2.3.2 Cons
Makes it harder to deploy code because you have to replicate the package hierarchy. Not really a
problem with modern deployment mechanisms.
2.3.3 Decision
All new code should import each module by its full package name.
Imports should be as follows:
Yes:
# Reference absl.flags in code with the complete name (verbose).
import absl.flags
from doctor.who import jodie

_FOO = absl.flags.DEFINE_string(...)

Yes:
# Reference flags in code with just the module name (common).
from absl import flags
from doctor.who import jodie

_FOO = flags.DEFINE_string(...)

(assume this file lives in doctor/who/ where jodie.py also exists)

 No:
# Unclear what module the author wanted and what will be imported. The actual
# import behavior depends on external factors controlling sys.path.
# Which possible jodie module did the author intend to import?
import jodie

The directory the main binary is located in should not be assumed to be in sys.path despite that
happening in some environments. This being the case, code should assume that import jodie
refers to a third-party or top-level package named jodie , not a local jodie.py .
2.4 Exceptions
Exceptions are allowed but must be used carefully.
2.4.1 Definition
Exceptions are a means of breaking out of normal control flow to handle errors or other
exceptional conditions.
2.4.2 Pros
The control flow of normal operation code is not cluttered by error-handling code. It also allows
the control flow to skip multiple frames when a certain condition occurs, e.g., returning from N
nested functions in one step instead of having to plumb error codes through.
2.4.3 Cons
May cause the control flow to be confusing. Easy to miss error cases when making library calls.
2.4.4 Decision
Exceptions must follow certain conditions:
Make use of built-in exception classes when it makes sense. For example, raise a
ValueError to indicate a programming mistake like a violated precondition (such as if you
were passed a negative number but required a positive one). Do not use assert statements
for validating argument values of a public API. assert is used to ensure internal correctness
or to verify expectations in pytest based tests, not to enforce correct usage nor to indicate
that some unexpected event occurred. If an exception is desired in the latter cases, use a
raise statement. For example:
Yes:
def connect_to_next_port(self, minimum: int) -> int:
 """Connects to the next available port.

Args:
minimum: A port value greater or equal to 1024.

Returns:
The new minimum port.

Raises:
ConnectionError: If no available port is found.
"""
if minimum < 1024:
# Note that this raising of ValueError is not mentioned in the doc
# string's "Raises:" section because it is not appropriate to
# guarantee this specific behavioral reaction to API misuse.
raise ValueError(f'Min. port must be at least 1024, not {minimum}.')
port = self._find_next_open_port(minimum)
if port is None:
raise ConnectionError(
f'Could not connect to service on port {minimum} or higher.')
assert port >= minimum, (
f'Unexpected port {port} when minimum was {minimum}.')
return port

No:
def connect_to_next_port(self, minimum: int) -> int:
"""Connects to the next available port.

Args:
minimum: A port value greater or equal to 1024.

Returns:
The new minimum port.
"""
assert minimum >= 1024, 'Minimum port must be at least 1024.'
port = self._find_next_open_port(minimum)
assert port is not None
return port

Libraries or packages may define their own exceptions. When doing so they must inherit from
an existing exception class. Exception names should end in Error and should not introduce
repetition ( foo.FooError ).
Never use catch-all except: statements, or catch Exception or StandardError , unless
you are
re-raising the exception, or
 creating an isolation point in the program where exceptions are not propagated but are
recorded and suppressed instead, such as protecting a thread from crashing by guarding
its outermost block.
Python is very tolerant in this regard and except: will really catch everything including
misspelled names, sys.exit() calls, Ctrl+C interrupts, unittest failures and all kinds of other
exceptions that you simply don’t want to catch.
Minimize the amount of code in a try / except block. The larger the body of the try , the
more likely that an exception will be raised by a line of code that you didn’t expect to raise an
exception. In those cases, the try / except block hides a real error.
Use the finally clause to execute code whether or not an exception is raised in the try
block. This is often useful for cleanup, i.e., closing a file.
2.5 Mutable Global State
Avoid mutable global state.
2.5.1 Definition
Module-level values or class attributes that can get mutated during program execution.
2.5.2 Pros
Occasionally useful.
2.5.3 Cons
Breaks encapsulation: Such design can make it hard to achieve valid objectives. For example,
if global state is used to manage a database connection, then connecting to two different
databases at the same time (such as for computing differences during a migration) becomes
difficult. Similar problems easily arise with global registries.
Has the potential to change module behavior during the import, because assignments to
global variables are done when the module is first imported.
2.5.4 Decision
Avoid mutable global state.
In those rare cases where using global state is warranted, mutable global entities should be
declared at the module level or as a class attribute and made internal by prepending an _ to the
name. If necessary, external access to mutable global state must be done through public
functions or class methods. See Naming below. Please explain the design reasons why mutable
global state is being used in a comment or a doc linked to from a comment.
Module-level constants are permitted and encouraged. For example:
_MAX_HOLY_HANDGRENADE_COUNT = 3 for an internal use constant or
SIR_LANCELOTS_FAVORITE_COLOR = "blue" for a public API constant. Constants must be named
using all caps with underscores. See Naming below.
2.6 Nested/Local/Inner Classes and Functions
Nested local functions or classes are fine when used to close over a local variable. Inner classes
are fine.
2.6.1 Definition
A class can be defined inside of a method, function, or class. A function can be defined inside a
method or function. Nested functions have read-only access to variables defined in enclosing
scopes.
2.6.2 Pros
Allows definition of utility classes and functions that are only used inside of a very limited scope.
Very ADT-y. Commonly used for implementing decorators.
2.6.3 Cons
Nested functions and classes cannot be directly tested. Nesting can make the outer function
longer and less readable.
2.6.4 Decision
They are fine with some caveats. Avoid nested functions or classes except when closing over a
local value other than self or cls . Do not nest a function just to hide it from users of a module.
Instead, prefix its name with an _ at the module level so that it can still be accessed by tests.
2.7 Comprehensions & Generator Expressions
Okay to use for simple cases.
2.7.1 Definition
List, Dict, and Set comprehensions as well as generator expressions provide a concise and
efficient way to create container types and iterators without resorting to the use of traditional
loops, map() , filter() , or lambda .
2.7.2 Pros
Simple comprehensions can be clearer and simpler than other dict, list, or set creation
techniques. Generator expressions can be very efficient, since they avoid the creation of a list
entirely.
2.7.3 Cons
Complicated comprehensions or generator expressions can be hard to read.
2.7.4 Decision
Comprehensions are allowed, however multiple for clauses or filter expressions are not
permitted. Optimize for readability, not conciseness.
Yes:
result = [mapping_expr for value in iterable if filter_expr]

result = [
is_valid(metric={'key': value})
for value in interesting_iterable
if a_longer_filter_expression(value)
]

descriptive_name = [
transform({'key': key, 'value': value}, color='black')
for key, value in generate_iterable(some_input)
if complicated_condition_is_met(key, value)
]

result = []
for x in range(10):
for y in range(5):
if x * y > 10:
result.append((x, y))

return {
x: complicated_transform(x)
for x in long_generator_function(parameter)
if x is not None
}

return (x**2 for x in range(10))

unique_names = {user.name for user in users if user is not None}

 No:
result = [(x, y) for x in range(10) for y in range(5) if x * y > 10]

return (
(x, y, z)
for x in range(5)
for y in range(5)
if x != y
for z in range(5)
if y != z
)

2.8 Default Iterators and Operators

Use default iterators and operators for types that support them, like lists, dictionaries, and files.
2.8.1 Definition
Container types, like dictionaries and lists, define default iterators and membership test operators
(“in” and “not in”).
2.8.2 Pros
The default iterators and operators are simple and efficient. They express the operation directly,
without extra method calls. A function that uses default operators is generic. It can be used with
any type that supports the operation.
2.8.3 Cons
You can’t tell the type of objects by reading the method names (unless the variable has type
annotations). This is also an advantage.
2.8.4 Decision
Use default iterators and operators for types that support them, like lists, dictionaries, and files.
The built-in types define iterator methods, too. Prefer these methods to methods that return lists,
except that you should not mutate a container while iterating over it.
Yes: for key in adict: ...
if obj in alist: ...
for line in afile: ...
for k, v in adict.items(): ...
 No: for key in adict.keys(): ...
for line in afile.readlines(): ...

2.9 Generators
Use generators as needed.
2.9.1 Definition
A generator function returns an iterator that yields a value each time it executes a yield statement.
After it yields a value, the runtime state of the generator function is suspended until the next value
is needed.
2.9.2 Pros
Simpler code, because the state of local variables and control flow are preserved for each call. A
generator uses less memory than a function that creates an entire list of values at once.
2.9.3 Cons
Local variables in the generator will not be garbage collected until the generator is either
consumed to exhaustion or itself garbage collected.
2.9.4 Decision
Fine. Use “Yields:” rather than “Returns:” in the docstring for generator functions.
If the generator manages an expensive resource, make sure to force the clean up.
A good way to do the clean up is by wrapping the generator with a context manager PEP-0533.
2.10 Lambda Functions
Okay for one-liners. Prefer generator expressions over map() or filter() with a lambda .
2.10.1 Definition
Lambdas define anonymous functions in an expression, as opposed to a statement.
2.10.2 Pros
Convenient.
2.10.3 Cons
Harder to read and debug than local functions. The lack of names means stack traces are more
difficult to understand. Expressiveness is limited because the function may only contain an
expression.
2.10.4 Decision
Lambdas are allowed. If the code inside the lambda function spans multiple lines or is longer than
60-80 chars, it might be better to define it as a regular nested function.
For common operations like multiplication, use the functions from the operator module instead
of lambda functions. For example, prefer operator.mul to lambda x, y: x * y .
2.11 Conditional Expressions
Okay for simple cases.
2.11.1 Definition
Conditional expressions (sometimes called a “ternary operator”) are mechanisms that provide a
shorter syntax for if statements. For example: x = 1 if cond else 2 .
2.11.2 Pros
Shorter and more convenient than an if statement.
2.11.3 Cons
May be harder to read than an if statement. The condition may be difficult to locate if the
expression is long.
2.11.4 Decision
Okay to use for simple cases. Each portion must fit on one line: true-expression, if-expression,
else-expression. Use a complete if statement when things get more complicated.
Yes:
one_line = 'yes' if predicate(value) else 'no'
slightly_split = ('yes' if predicate(value)
else 'no, nein, nyet')
the_longest_ternary_style_that_can_be_done = (
'yes, true, affirmative, confirmed, correct'
if predicate(value)
else 'no, false, negative, nay')
 No:
bad_line_breaking = ('yes' if predicate(value) else
'no')
portion_too_long = ('yes'
if some_long_module.some_long_predicate_function(
really_long_variable_name)
else 'no, false, negative, nay')

2.12 Default Argument Values

Okay in most cases.
2.12.1 Definition
You can specify values for variables at the end of a function’s parameter list, e.g., def foo(a,
b=0): . If foo is called with only one argument, b is set to 0. If it is called with two arguments,
b has the value of the second argument.

2.12.2 Pros
Often you have a function that uses lots of default values, but on rare occasions you want to
override the defaults. Default argument values provide an easy way to do this, without having to
define lots of functions for the rare exceptions. As Python does not support overloaded
methods/functions, default arguments are an easy way of “faking” the overloading behavior.
2.12.3 Cons
Default arguments are evaluated once at module load time. This may cause problems if the
argument is a mutable object such as a list or a dictionary. If the function modifies the object (e.g.,
by appending an item to a list), the default value is modified.
2.12.4 Decision
Okay to use with the following caveat:
Do not use mutable objects as default values in the function or method definition.
Yes: def foo(a, b=None):
if b is None:
b = []
Yes: def foo(a, b: Sequence | None = None):
if b is None:
b = []
 Yes: def foo(a, b: Sequence = ()): # Empty tuple OK since tuples are immutable.
...

from absl import flags

_FOO = flags.DEFINE_string(...)

No: def foo(a, b=[]):

...
No: def foo(a, b=time.time()): # Is `b` supposed to represent when this module was
...
No: def foo(a, b=_FOO.value): # sys.argv has not yet been parsed...
...
No: def foo(a, b: Mapping = {}): # Could still get passed to unchecked code.
...

2.13 Properties
Properties may be used to control getting or setting attributes that require trivial computations or
logic. Property implementations must match the general expectations of regular attribute access:
that they are cheap, straightforward, and unsurprising.
2.13.1 Definition
A way to wrap method calls for getting and setting an attribute as a standard attribute access.
2.13.2 Pros
Allows for an attribute access and assignment API rather than getter and setter method calls.
Can be used to make an attribute read-only.
Allows calculations to be lazy.
Provides a way to maintain the public interface of a class when the internals evolve
independently of class users.
2.13.3 Cons
Can hide side-effects much like operator overloading.
Can be confusing for subclasses.
2.13.4 Decision
Properties are allowed, but, like operator overloading, should only be used when necessary and
match the expectations of typical attribute access; follow the getters and setters rules otherwise.
For example, using a property to simply both get and set an internal attribute isn’t allowed: there
is no computation occurring, so the property is unnecessary (make the attribute public instead).
In comparison, using a property to control attribute access or to calculate a trivially derived value
is allowed: the logic is simple and unsurprising.
Properties should be created with the @property decorator. Manually implementing a property
descriptor is considered a power feature.
Inheritance with properties can be non-obvious. Do not use properties to implement
computations a subclass may ever want to override and extend.
2.14 True/False Evaluations
Use the “implicit” false if at all possible (with a few caveats).
2.14.1 Definition
Python evaluates certain values as False when in a boolean context. A quick “rule of thumb” is
that all “empty” values are considered false, so 0, None, [], {}, '' all evaluate as false in a
boolean context.
2.14.2 Pros
Conditions using Python booleans are easier to read and less error-prone. In most cases, they’re
also faster.
2.14.3 Cons
May look strange to C/C++ developers.
2.14.4 Decision
Use the “implicit” false if possible, e.g., if foo: rather than if foo != []: . There are a few
caveats that you should keep in mind though:
Always use if foo is None: (or is not None ) to check for a None value. E.g., when
testing whether a variable or argument that defaults to None was set to some other value.
The other value might be a value that’s false in a boolean context!
Never compare a boolean variable to False using == . Use if not x: instead. If you need
to distinguish False from None then chain the expressions, such as if not x and x is
not None: .
 For sequences (strings, lists, tuples), use the fact that empty sequences are false, so if
seq: and if not seq: are preferable to if len(seq): and if not len(seq):
respectively.
When handling integers, implicit false may involve more risk than benefit (i.e., accidentally
handling None as 0). You may compare a value which is known to be an integer (and is not
the result of len() ) against the integer 0.
Yes: if not users:
print('no users')

if i % 10 == 0:
self.handle_multiple_of_ten()

def f(x=None):
if x is None:
x = []

No: if len(users) == 0:
print('no users')

if not i % 10:
self.handle_multiple_of_ten()

def f(x=None):
x = x or []

Note that '0' (i.e., 0 as string) evaluates to true.

Note that Numpy arrays may raise an exception in an implicit boolean context. Prefer the
.size attribute when testing emptiness of a np.array (e.g. if not users.size ).

2.16 Lexical Scoping

Okay to use.
2.16.1 Definition
A nested Python function can refer to variables defined in enclosing functions, but cannot assign
to them. Variable bindings are resolved using lexical scoping, that is, based on the static program
text. Any assignment to a name in a block will cause Python to treat all references to that name as
a local variable, even if the use precedes the assignment. If a global declaration occurs, the name
is treated as a global variable.
An example of the use of this feature is:
def get_adder(summand1: float) -> Callable[[float], float]:
"""Returns a function that adds numbers to a given number."""
def adder(summand2: float) -> float:
return summand1 + summand2

return adder

2.16.2 Pros
Often results in clearer, more elegant code. Especially comforting to experienced Lisp and
Scheme (and Haskell and ML and …) programmers.
2.16.3 Cons
Can lead to confusing bugs, such as this example based on PEP-0227:
i = 4
def foo(x: Iterable[int]):
def bar():
print(i, end='')
# ...
# A bunch of code here
# ...
for i in x: # Ah, i *is* local to foo, so this is what bar sees
print(i, end='')
bar()

So foo([1, 2, 3]) will print 1 2 3 3 , not 1 2 3 4 .

2.16.4 Decision
Okay to use.
2.17 Function and Method Decorators
Use decorators judiciously when there is a clear advantage. Avoid staticmethod and limit use of
classmethod .

2.17.1 Definition
Decorators for Functions and Methods (a.k.a “the @ notation”). One common decorator is
@property , used for converting ordinary methods into dynamically computed attributes.
However, the decorator syntax allows for user-defined decorators as well. Specifically, for some
function my_decorator , this:
class C:
@my_decorator
def method(self):
# method body ...

is equivalent to:
class C:
def method(self):
# method body ...
method = my_decorator(method)

2.17.2 Pros
Elegantly specifies some transformation on a method; the transformation might eliminate some
repetitive code, enforce invariants, etc.
2.17.3 Cons
Decorators can perform arbitrary operations on a function’s arguments or return values, resulting
in surprising implicit behavior. Additionally, decorators execute at object definition time. For
module-level objects (classes, module functions, …) this happens at import time. Failures in
decorator code are pretty much impossible to recover from.
2.17.4 Decision
Use decorators judiciously when there is a clear advantage. Decorators should follow the same
import and naming guidelines as functions. Decorator pydoc should clearly state that the function
is a decorator. Write unit tests for decorators.
Avoid external dependencies in the decorator itself (e.g. don’t rely on files, sockets, database
connections, etc.), since they might not be available when the decorator runs (at import time,
perhaps from pydoc or other tools). A decorator that is called with valid parameters should (as
much as possible) be guaranteed to succeed in all cases.
Decorators are a special case of “top-level code” - see main for more discussion.
Never use staticmethod unless forced to in order to integrate with an API defined in an existing
library. Write a module-level function instead.
Use classmethod only when writing a named constructor, or a class-specific routine that
modifies necessary global state such as a process-wide cache.
2.18 Threading
Do not rely on the atomicity of built-in types.
While Python’s built-in data types such as dictionaries appear to have atomic operations, there
are corner cases where they aren’t atomic (e.g. if __hash__ or __eq__ are implemented as
Python methods) and their atomicity should not be relied upon. Neither should you rely on atomic
variable assignment (since this in turn depends on dictionaries).
Use the queue module’s Queue data type as the preferred way to communicate data between
threads. Otherwise, use the threading module and its locking primitives. Prefer condition
variables and threading.Condition instead of using lower-level locks.
2.19 Power Features
Avoid these features.
2.19.1 Definition
Python is an extremely flexible language and gives you many fancy features such as custom
metaclasses, access to bytecode, on-the-fly compilation, dynamic inheritance, object
reparenting, import hacks, reflection (e.g. some uses of getattr() ), modification of system
internals, __del__ methods implementing customized cleanup, etc.
2.19.2 Pros
These are powerful language features. They can make your code more compact.
2.19.3 Cons
It’s very tempting to use these “cool” features when they’re not absolutely necessary. It’s harder
to read, understand, and debug code that’s using unusual features underneath. It doesn’t seem
that way at first (to the original author), but when revisiting the code, it tends to be more difficult
than code that is longer but is straightforward.
2.19.4 Decision
Avoid these features in your code.
Standard library modules and classes that internally use these features are okay to use (for
example, abc.ABCMeta , dataclasses , and enum ).
2.20 Modern Python: from __future__ imports
New language version semantic changes may be gated behind a special future import to enable
them on a per-file basis within earlier runtimes.
2.20.1 Definition
Being able to turn on some of the more modern features via from __future__ import
statements allows early use of features from expected future Python versions.
2.20.2 Pros
This has proven to make runtime version upgrades smoother as changes can be made on a per-
file basis while declaring compatibility and preventing regressions within those files. Modern code
is more maintainable as it is less likely to accumulate technical debt that will be problematic
during future runtime upgrades.
2.20.3 Cons
Such code may not work on very old interpreter versions prior to the introduction of the needed
future statement. The need for this is more common in projects supporting an extremely wide
variety of environments.
2.20.4 Decision
from __future__ imports
Use of from __future__ import statements is encouraged. It allows a given source file to start
using more modern Python syntax features today. Once you no longer need to run on a version
where the features are hidden behind a __future__ import, feel free to remove those lines.
In code that may execute on versions as old as 3.5 rather than >= 3.7, import:
from __future__ import generator_stop

For more information read the Python future statement definitions documentation.
Please don’t remove these imports until you are confident the code is only ever used in a
sufficiently modern environment. Even if you do not currently use the feature a specific future
import enables in your code today, keeping it in place in the file prevents later modifications of the
code from inadvertently depending on the older behavior.
Use other from __future__ import statements as you see fit.
2.21 Type Annotated Code
You can annotate Python code with type hints according to PEP-484, and type-check the code at
build time with a type checking tool like pytype.
Type annotations can be in the source or in a stub pyi file. Whenever possible, annotations should
be in the source. Use pyi files for third-party or extension modules.
2.21.1 Definition
Type annotations (or “type hints”) are for function or method arguments and return values:
def func(a: int) -> list[int]:

You can also declare the type of a variable using similar PEP-526 syntax:
a: SomeType = some_func()

2.21.2 Pros
Type annotations improve the readability and maintainability of your code. The type checker will
convert many runtime errors to build-time errors, and reduce your ability to use Power Features.
2.21.3 Cons
You will have to keep the type declarations up to date. You might see type errors that you think
are valid code. Use of a type checker may reduce your ability to use Power Features.
2.21.4 Decision
You are strongly encouraged to enable Python type analysis when updating code. When adding or
modifying public APIs, include type annotations and enable checking via pytype in the build
system. As static analysis is relatively new to Python, we acknowledge that undesired side-effects
(such as wrongly inferred types) may prevent adoption by some projects. In those situations,
authors are encouraged to add a comment with a TODO or link to a bug describing the issue(s)
currently preventing type annotation adoption in the BUILD file or in the code itself as appropriate.
3 Python Style Rules
3.1 Semicolons
Do not terminate your lines with semicolons, and do not use semicolons to put two statements on
the same line.
3.2 Line length
Maximum line length is 80 characters.
Explicit exceptions to the 80 character limit:
Long import statements.
URLs, pathnames, or long flags in comments.
Long string module-level constants not containing whitespace that would be inconvenient to
split across lines such as URLs or pathnames.
Pylint disable comments. (e.g.: # pylint: disable=invalid-name )
Do not use a backslash for explicit line continuation.
Instead, make use of Python’s implicit line joining inside parentheses, brackets and braces. If
necessary, you can add an extra pair of parentheses around an expression.
Note that this rule doesn’t prohibit backslash-escaped newlines within strings (see below).
Yes: foo_bar(self, width, height, color='black', design=None, x='foo',
emphasis=None, highlight=0)

Yes: if (width == 0 and height == 0 and

color == 'red' and emphasis == 'strong'):

(bridge_questions.clarification_on
.average_airspeed_of.unladen_swallow) = 'African or European?'

with (
very_long_first_expression_function() as spam,
very_long_second_expression_function() as beans,
third_thing() as eggs,
):
place_order(eggs, beans, spam, beans)

No: if width == 0 and height == 0 and \

color == 'red' and emphasis == 'strong':
 bridge_questions.clarification_on \
.average_airspeed_of.unladen_swallow = 'African or European?'

with very_long_first_expression_function() as spam, \

very_long_second_expression_function() as beans, \
third_thing() as eggs:
place_order(eggs, beans, spam, beans)

When a literal string won’t fit on a single line, use parentheses for implicit line joining.
x = ('This will build a very long long '
'long long long long long long string')

Prefer to break lines at the highest possible syntactic level. If you must break a line twice, break it
at the same syntactic level both times.
Yes: bridgekeeper.answer(
name="Arthur", quest=questlib.find(owner="Arthur", perilous=True))

answer = (a_long_line().of_chained_methods()
.that_eventually_provides().an_answer())

if (
config is None
or 'editor.language' not in config
or config['editor.language'].use_spaces is False
):
use_tabs()

No: bridgekeeper.answer(name="Arthur", quest=questlib.find(

owner="Arthur", perilous=True))

answer = a_long_line().of_chained_methods().that_eventually_provides(
).an_answer()

if (config is None or 'editor.language' not in config or config[

'editor.language'].use_spaces is False):
use_tabs()

Within comments, put long URLs on their own line if necessary.

Yes: # See details at
 # http://www.example.com/us/developer/documentation/api/content/v2.0/csv_file_n

No: # See details at

# http://www.example.com/us/developer/documentation/api/content/\
# v2.0/csv_file_name_extension_full_specification.html

Make note of the indentation of the elements in the line continuation examples above; see the
indentation section for explanation.
In all other cases where a line exceeds 80 characters, and the Black or Pyink auto-formatter does
not help bring the line below the limit, the line is allowed to exceed this maximum. Authors are
encouraged to manually break the line up per the notes above when it is sensible.
3.3 Parentheses
Use parentheses sparingly.
It is fine, though not required, to use parentheses around tuples. Do not use them in return
statements or conditional statements unless using parentheses for implied line continuation or to
indicate a tuple.
Yes: if foo:
bar()
while x:
x = bar()
if x and y:
bar()
if not x:
bar()
# For a 1 item tuple the ()s are more visually obvious than the comma.
onesie = (foo,)
return foo
return spam, beans
return (spam, beans)
for (x, y) in dict.items(): ...

No: if (x):
bar()
if not(x):
bar()
return (foo)

3.4 Indentation
Indent your code blocks with 4 spaces.
Never use tabs. Implied line continuation should align wrapped elements vertically (see line length
examples), or use a hanging 4-space indent. Closing (round, square or curly) brackets can be
placed at the end of the expression, or on separate lines, but then should be indented the same as
the line with the corresponding opening bracket.
Yes: # Aligned with opening delimiter.
foo = long_function_name(var_one, var_two,
var_three, var_four)
meal = (spam,
beans)

# Aligned with opening delimiter in a dictionary.

foo = {
'long_dictionary_key': value1 +
value2,
...
}

# 4-space hanging indent; nothing on first line.

foo = long_function_name(
var_one, var_two, var_three,
var_four)
meal = (
spam,
beans)

# 4-space hanging indent; nothing on first line,

# closing parenthesis on a new line.
foo = long_function_name(
var_one, var_two, var_three,
var_four
)
meal = (
spam,
beans,
)

# 4-space hanging indent in a dictionary.

foo = {
'long_dictionary_key':
long_dictionary_value,
...
}
 No: # Stuff on first line forbidden.
foo = long_function_name(var_one, var_two,
var_three, var_four)
meal = (spam,
beans)

# 2-space hanging indent forbidden.

foo = long_function_name(
var_one, var_two, var_three,
var_four)

# No hanging indent in a dictionary.

foo = {
'long_dictionary_key':
long_dictionary_value,
...
}

3.4.1 Trailing commas in sequences of items?

Trailing commas in sequences of items are recommended only when the closing container token
] , ) , or } does not appear on the same line as the final element, as well as for tuples with a
single element. The presence of a trailing comma is also used as a hint to our Python code auto-
formatter Black or Pyink to direct it to auto-format the container of items to one item per line
when the , after the final element is present.
Yes: golomb3 = [0, 1, 3]
golomb4 = [
0,
1,
4,
6,
]

No: golomb4 = [
0,
1,
4,
6,]

3.5 Blank Lines

Two blank lines between top-level definitions, be they function or class definitions. One blank line
between method definitions and between the docstring of a class and the first method. No
blank line following a def line. Use single blank lines as you judge appropriate within functions or
methods.
Blank lines need not be anchored to the definition. For example, related comments immediately
preceding function, class, and method definitions can make sense. Consider if your comment
might be more useful as part of the docstring.
3.6 Whitespace
Follow standard typographic rules for the use of spaces around punctuation.
No whitespace inside parentheses, brackets or braces.
Yes: spam(ham[1], {'eggs': 2}, [])

No: spam( ham[ 1 ], { 'eggs': 2 }, [ ] )

No whitespace before a comma, semicolon, or colon. Do use whitespace after a comma,

semicolon, or colon, except at the end of the line.
Yes: if x == 4:
print(x, y)
x, y = y, x

No: if x == 4 :
print(x , y)
x , y = y , x

No whitespace before the open paren/bracket that starts an argument list, indexing or slicing.
Yes: spam(1)

No: spam (1)

Yes: dict['key'] = list[index]

 No: dict ['key'] = list [index]

No trailing whitespace.
Surround binary operators with a single space on either side for assignment ( = ), comparisons
( ==, <, >, !=, <>, <=, >=, in, not in, is, is not ), and Booleans ( and, or, not ). Use
your better judgment for the insertion of spaces around arithmetic operators ( + , - , * , / , // ,
% , ** , @ ).

Yes: x == 1

No: x<1

Never use spaces around = when passing keyword arguments or defining a default parameter
value, with one exception: when a type annotation is present, do use spaces around the = for the
default parameter value.
Yes: def complex(real, imag=0.0): return Magic(r=real, i=imag)
Yes: def complex(real, imag: float = 0.0): return Magic(r=real, i=imag)

No: def complex(real, imag = 0.0): return Magic(r = real, i = imag)

No: def complex(real, imag: float=0.0): return Magic(r = real, i = imag)

Don’t use spaces to vertically align tokens on consecutive lines, since it becomes a maintenance
burden (applies to : , # , = , etc.):
Yes:
foo = 1000 # comment
long_name = 2 # comment that should not be aligned

dictionary = {
'foo': 1,
'long_name': 2,
}

No:
foo = 1000 # comment
long_name = 2 # comment that should not be aligned
 dictionary = {
'foo' : 1,
'long_name': 2,
}

3.7 Shebang Line

Most .py files do not need to start with a #! line. Start the main file of a program with
#!/usr/bin/env python3 (to support virtualenvs) or #!/usr/bin/python3 per PEP-394.

This line is used by the kernel to find the Python interpreter, but is ignored by Python when
importing modules. It is only necessary on a file intended to be executed directly.
3.8 Comments and Docstrings
Be sure to use the right style for module, function, method docstrings and inline comments.
3.8.1 Docstrings
Python uses docstrings to document code. A docstring is a string that is the first statement in a
package, module, class or function. These strings can be extracted automatically through the
__doc__ member of the object and are used by pydoc . (Try running pydoc on your module to
see how it looks.) Always use the three-double-quote """ format for docstrings (per PEP 257). A
docstring should be organized as a summary line (one physical line not exceeding 80 characters)
terminated by a period, question mark, or exclamation point. When writing more (encouraged),
this must be followed by a blank line, followed by the rest of the docstring starting at the same
cursor position as the first quote of the first line. There are more formatting guidelines for
docstrings below.
3.8.2 Modules
Every file should contain license boilerplate. Choose the appropriate boilerplate for the license
used by the project (for example, Apache 2.0, BSD, LGPL, GPL).
Files should start with a docstring describing the contents and usage of the module.
"""A one-line summary of the module or program, terminated by a period.

Leave one blank line. The rest of this docstring should contain an
overall description of the module or program. Optionally, it may also
contain a brief description of exported classes and functions and/or usage
examples.
 Typical usage example:

foo = ClassFoo()
bar = foo.FunctionBar()
"""

3.8.2.1 Test modules

Module-level docstrings for test files are not required. They should be included only when there is
additional information that can be provided.
Examples include some specifics on how the test should be run, an explanation of an unusual
setup pattern, dependency on the external environment, and so on.
"""This blaze test uses golden files.

You can update those files by running

`blaze run //foo/bar:foo_test -- --update_golden_files` from the `google3`
directory.
"""

Docstrings that do not provide any new information should not be used.
"""Tests for foo.bar."""

3.8.3 Functions and Methods

In this section, “function” means a method, function, generator, or property.
A docstring is mandatory for every function that has one or more of the following properties:
being part of the public API
nontrivial size
non-obvious logic
A docstring should give enough information to write a call to the function without reading the
function’s code. The docstring should describe the function’s calling syntax and its semantics, but
generally not its implementation details, unless those details are relevant to how the function is to
be used. For example, a function that mutates one of its arguments as a side effect should note
that in its docstring. Otherwise, subtle but important details of a function’s implementation that
are not relevant to the caller are better expressed as comments alongside the code than within
the function’s docstring.
The docstring may be descriptive-style ( """Fetches rows from a Bigtable.""" ) or imperative-
style ( """Fetch rows from a Bigtable.""" ), but the style should be consistent within a file. The
docstring for a @property data descriptor should use the same style as the docstring for an
attribute or a function argument ( """The Bigtable path.""" , rather than """Returns the
Bigtable path.""" ).

Certain aspects of a function should be documented in special sections, listed below. Each
section begins with a heading line, which ends with a colon. All sections other than the heading
should maintain a hanging indent of two or four spaces (be consistent within a file). These
sections can be omitted in cases where the function’s name and signature are informative enough
that it can be aptly described using a one-line docstring.
Args:
List each parameter by name. A description should follow the name, and be separated by a
colon followed by either a space or newline. If the description is too long to fit on a single 80-
character line, use a hanging indent of 2 or 4 spaces more than the parameter name (be
consistent with the rest of the docstrings in the file). The description should include required
type(s) if the code does not contain a corresponding type annotation. If a function accepts
*foo (variable length argument lists) and/or **bar (arbitrary keyword arguments), they
should be listed as *foo and **bar .
Returns: (or Yields: for generators)
Describe the semantics of the return value, including any type information that the type
annotation does not provide. If the function only returns None, this section is not required. It
may also be omitted if the docstring starts with Returns or Yields (e.g. """Returns row from
Bigtable as a tuple of strings.""" ) and the opening sentence is sufficient to describe
the return value. Do not imitate older ‘NumPy style’ (example), which frequently documented
a tuple return value as if it were multiple return values with individual names (never
mentioning the tuple). Instead, describe such a return value as: “Returns: A tuple (mat_a,
mat_b), where mat_a is …, and …”. The auxiliary names in the docstring need not necessarily
correspond to any internal names used in the function body (as those are not part of the API).
Raises:
List all exceptions that are relevant to the interface followed by a description. Use a similar
exception name + colon + space or newline and hanging indent style as described in Args:.
You should not document exceptions that get raised if the API specified in the docstring is
violated (because this would paradoxically make behavior under violation of the API part of
the API).
def fetch_smalltable_rows(
table_handle: smalltable.Table,
keys: Sequence[bytes | str],
 require_all_keys: bool = False,
) -> Mapping[bytes, tuple[str, ...]]:
"""Fetches rows from a Smalltable.

Retrieves rows pertaining to the given keys from the Table instance
represented by table_handle. String keys will be UTF-8 encoded.

Args:
table_handle: An open smalltable.Table instance.
keys: A sequence of strings representing the key of each table
row to fetch. String keys will be UTF-8 encoded.
require_all_keys: If True only rows with values set for all keys will be
returned.

Returns:
A dict mapping keys to the corresponding table row data
fetched. Each row is represented as a tuple of strings. For
example:

{b'Serak': ('Rigel VII', 'Preparer'),

b'Zim': ('Irk', 'Invader'),
b'Lrrr': ('Omicron Persei 8', 'Emperor')}

Returned keys are always bytes. If a key from the keys argument is
missing from the dictionary, then that row was not found in the
table (and require_all_keys must have been False).

Raises:
IOError: An error occurred accessing the smalltable.
"""

Similarly, this variation on Args: with a line break is also allowed:

def fetch_smalltable_rows(
table_handle: smalltable.Table,
keys: Sequence[bytes | str],
require_all_keys: bool = False,
) -> Mapping[bytes, tuple[str, ...]]:
"""Fetches rows from a Smalltable.

Retrieves rows pertaining to the given keys from the Table instance
represented by table_handle. String keys will be UTF-8 encoded.

Args:
table_handle:
An open smalltable.Table instance.
keys:
A sequence of strings representing the key of each table row to
fetch. String keys will be UTF-8 encoded.
 require_all_keys:
If True only rows with values set for all keys will be returned.

Returns:
A dict mapping keys to the corresponding table row data
fetched. Each row is represented as a tuple of strings. For
example:

{b'Serak': ('Rigel VII', 'Preparer'),

b'Zim': ('Irk', 'Invader'),
b'Lrrr': ('Omicron Persei 8', 'Emperor')}

Returned keys are always bytes. If a key from the keys argument is
missing from the dictionary, then that row was not found in the
table (and require_all_keys must have been False).

Raises:
IOError: An error occurred accessing the smalltable.
"""

3.8.3.1 Overridden Methods

A method that overrides a method from a base class does not need a docstring if it is explicitly
decorated with @override (from typing_extensions or typing modules), unless the
overriding method’s behavior materially refines the base method’s contract, or details need to be
provided (e.g., documenting additional side effects), in which case a docstring with at least those
differences is required on the overriding method.
from typing_extensions import override

class Parent:
def do_something(self):
"""Parent method, includes docstring."""

# Child class, method annotated with override.

class Child(Parent):
@override
def do_something(self):
pass

# Child class, but without @override decorator, a docstring is required.

class Child(Parent):
def do_something(self):
pass
 # Docstring is trivial, @override is sufficient to indicate that docs can be
# found in the base class.
class Child(Parent):
@override
def do_something(self):
"""See base class."""

3.8.4 Classes
Classes should have a docstring below the class definition describing the class. If your class has
public attributes, they should be documented here in an Attributes section and follow the same
formatting as a function’s Args section.
class SampleClass:
"""Summary of class here.

Longer class information...

Longer class information...

Attributes:
likes_spam: A boolean indicating if we like SPAM or not.
eggs: An integer count of the eggs we have laid.
"""

def __init__(self, likes_spam: bool = False):

"""Initializes the instance based on spam preference.

Args:
likes_spam: Defines if instance exhibits this preference.
"""
self.likes_spam = likes_spam
self.eggs = 0

def public_method(self):
"""Performs operation blah."""

All class docstrings should start with a one-line summary that describes what the class instance
represents. This implies that subclasses of Exception should also describe what the exception
represents, and not the context in which it might occur. The class docstring should not repeat
unnecessary information, such as that the class is a class.
# Yes:
class CheeseShopAddress:
"""The address of a cheese shop.
 ...
"""

class OutOfCheeseError(Exception):
"""No more cheese is available."""

# No:
class CheeseShopAddress:
"""Class that describes the address of a cheese shop.

...
"""

class OutOfCheeseError(Exception):
"""Raised when no more cheese is available."""

3.8.5 Block and Inline Comments

The final place to have comments is in tricky parts of the code. If you’re going to have to explain it
at the next code review, you should comment it now. Complicated operations get a few lines of
comments before the operations commence. Non-obvious ones get comments at the end of the
line.
# We use a weighted dictionary search to find out where i is in
# the array. We extrapolate position based on the largest num
# in the array and the array size and then do binary search to
# get the exact number.

if i & (i-1) == 0: # True if i is 0 or a power of 2.

To improve legibility, these comments should start at least 2 spaces away from the code with the
comment character # , followed by at least one space before the text of the comment itself.
On the other hand, never describe the code. Assume the person reading the code knows Python
(though not what you’re trying to do) better than you do.
# BAD COMMENT: Now go through the b array and make sure whenever i occurs
# the next element is i+1

3.8.6 Punctuation, Spelling, and Grammar

Pay attention to punctuation, spelling, and grammar; it is easier to read well-written comments
than badly written ones.
Comments should be as readable as narrative text, with proper capitalization and punctuation. In
many cases, complete sentences are more readable than sentence fragments. Shorter comments,
such as comments at the end of a line of code, can sometimes be less formal, but you should be
consistent with your style.
Although it can be frustrating to have a code reviewer point out that you are using a comma when
you should be using a semicolon, it is very important that source code maintain a high level of
clarity and readability. Proper punctuation, spelling, and grammar help with that goal.
3.10 Strings
Use an f-string, the % operator, or the format method for formatting strings, even when the
parameters are all strings. Use your best judgment to decide between string formatting options. A
single join with + is okay but do not format with + .
Yes: x = f'name: {name}; score: {n}'
x = '%s, %s!' % (imperative, expletive)
x = '{}, {}'.format(first, second)
x = 'name: %s; score: %d' % (name, n)
x = 'name: %(name)s; score: %(score)d' % {'name':name, 'score':n}
x = 'name: {}; score: {}'.format(name, n)
x = a + b

No: x = first + ', ' + second

x = 'name: ' + name + '; score: ' + str(n)

Avoid using the + and += operators to accumulate a string within a loop. In some conditions,
accumulating a string with addition can lead to quadratic rather than linear running time. Although
common accumulations of this sort may be optimized on CPython, that is an implementation
detail. The conditions under which an optimization applies are not easy to predict and may
change. Instead, add each substring to a list and ''.join the list after the loop terminates, or
write each substring to an io.StringIO buffer. These techniques consistently have amortized-
linear run-time complexity.
Yes: items = ['<table>']
for last_name, first_name in employee_list:
items.append('<tr><td>%s, %s</td></tr>' % (last_name, first_name))
items.append('</table>')
employee_table = ''.join(items)
 No: employee_table = '<table>'
for last_name, first_name in employee_list:
employee_table += '<tr><td>%s, %s</td></tr>' % (last_name, first_name)
employee_table += '</table>'

Be consistent with your choice of string quote character within a file. Pick ' or " and stick with
it. It is okay to use the other quote character on a string to avoid the need to backslash-escape
quote characters within the string.
Yes:
Python('Why are you hiding your eyes?')
Gollum("I'm scared of lint errors.")
Narrator('"Good!" thought a happy Python reviewer.')

No:
Python("Why are you hiding your eyes?")
Gollum('The lint. It burns. It burns us.')
Gollum("Always the great lint. Watching. Watching.")

Prefer """ for multi-line strings rather than ''' . Projects may choose to use ''' for all non-
docstring multi-line strings if and only if they also use ' for regular strings. Docstrings must use
""" regardless.

Multi-line strings do not flow with the indentation of the rest of the program. If you need to avoid
embedding extra space in the string, use either concatenated single-line strings or a multi-line
string with textwrap.dedent() to remove the initial space on each line:
No:
long_string = """This is pretty ugly.
Don't do this.
"""

Yes:
long_string = """This is fine if your use case can accept
extraneous leading spaces."""

Yes:
long_string = ("And this is fine if you cannot accept\n" +
"extraneous leading spaces.")
 Yes:
long_string = ("And this too is fine if you cannot accept\n"
"extraneous leading spaces.")

Yes:
import textwrap

long_string = textwrap.dedent("""\
This is also fine, because textwrap.dedent()
will collapse common leading spaces in each line.""")

Note that using a backslash here does not violate the prohibition against explicit line continuation;
in this case, the backslash is escaping a newline in a string literal.
3.10.1 Logging
For logging functions that expect a pattern-string (with %-placeholders) as their first argument:
Always call them with a string literal (not an f-string!) as their first argument with pattern-
parameters as subsequent arguments. Some logging implementations collect the unexpanded
pattern-string as a queryable field. It also prevents spending time rendering a message that no
logger is configured to output.
Yes:
import tensorflow as tf
logger = tf.get_logger()
logger.info('TensorFlow Version is: %s', tf.__version__)

Yes:
import os
from absl import logging

logging.info('Current $PAGER is: %s', os.getenv('PAGER', default=''))

homedir = os.getenv('HOME')
if homedir is None or not os.access(homedir, os.W_OK):
logging.error('Cannot write to home directory, $HOME=%r', homedir)

No:
import os
from absl import logging
 logging.info('Current $PAGER is:')
logging.info(os.getenv('PAGER', default=''))

homedir = os.getenv('HOME')
if homedir is None or not os.access(homedir, os.W_OK):
logging.error(f'Cannot write to home directory, $HOME={homedir!r}')

3.10.2 Error Messages

Error messages (such as: message strings on exceptions like ValueError , or messages shown to
the user) should follow three guidelines:
1. The message needs to precisely match the actual error condition.
2. Interpolated pieces need to always be clearly identifiable as such.
3. They should allow simple automated processing (e.g. grepping).
Yes:
if not 0 <= p <= 1:
raise ValueError(f'Not a probability: {p!r}')

try:
os.rmdir(workdir)
except OSError as error:
logging.warning('Could not remove directory (reason: %r): %r',
error, workdir)

No:
if p < 0 or p > 1: # PROBLEM: also false for float('nan')!
raise ValueError(f'Not a probability: {p!r}')

try:
os.rmdir(workdir)
except OSError:
# PROBLEM: Message makes an assumption that might not be true:
# Deletion might have failed for some other reason, misleading
# whoever has to debug this.
logging.warning('Directory already was deleted: %s', workdir)

try:
os.rmdir(workdir)
except OSError:
# PROBLEM: The message is harder to grep for than necessary, and
# not universally non-confusing for all possible values of `workdir`.
# Imagine someone calling a library function with such code
 # using a name such as workdir = 'deleted'. The warning would read:
# "The deleted directory could not be deleted."
logging.warning('The %s directory could not be deleted.', workdir)

3.11 Files, Sockets, and similar Stateful Resources

Explicitly close files and sockets when done with them. This rule naturally extends to closeable
resources that internally use sockets, such as database connections, and also other resources
that need to be closed down in a similar fashion. To name only a few examples, this also includes
mmap mappings, h5py File objects, and matplotlib.pyplot figure windows.
Leaving files, sockets or other such stateful objects open unnecessarily has many downsides:
They may consume limited system resources, such as file descriptors. Code that deals with
many such objects may exhaust those resources unnecessarily if they’re not returned to the
system promptly after use.
Holding files open may prevent other actions such as moving or deleting them, or unmounting
a filesystem.
Files and sockets that are shared throughout a program may inadvertently be read from or
written to after logically being closed. If they are actually closed, attempts to read or write
from them will raise exceptions, making the problem known sooner.
Furthermore, while files and sockets (and some similarly behaving resources) are automatically
closed when the object is destructed, coupling the lifetime of the object to the state of the
resource is poor practice:
There are no guarantees as to when the runtime will actually invoke the __del__ method.
Different Python implementations use different memory management techniques, such as
delayed garbage collection, which may increase the object’s lifetime arbitrarily and
indefinitely.
Unexpected references to the file, e.g. in globals or exception tracebacks, may keep it around
longer than intended.
Relying on finalizers to do automatic cleanup that has observable side effects has been
rediscovered over and over again to lead to major problems, across many decades and multiple
languages (see e.g. this article for Java).
The preferred way to manage files and similar resources is using the with statement:
with open("hello.txt") as hello_file:
for line in hello_file:
print(line)
For file-like objects that do not support the with statement, use contextlib.closing() :
import contextlib

with contextlib.closing(urllib.urlopen("http://www.python.org/")) as front_page:

for line in front_page:
print(line)

In rare cases where context-based resource management is infeasible, code documentation must
explain clearly how resource lifetime is managed.
3.12 TODO Comments
Use TODO comments for code that is temporary, a short-term solution, or good-enough but not
perfect.
A TODO comment begins with the word TODO in all caps, a following colon, and a link to a
resource that contains the context, ideally a bug reference. A bug reference is preferable because
bugs are tracked and have follow-up comments. Follow this piece of context with an explanatory
string introduced with a hyphen - . The purpose is to have a consistent TODO format that can be
searched to find out how to get more details.
# TODO: crbug.com/192795 - Investigate cpufreq optimizations.

Old style, formerly recommended, but discouraged for use in new code:
# TODO(crbug.com/192795): Investigate cpufreq optimizations.
# TODO(yourusername): Use a "\*" here for concatenation operator.

Avoid adding TODOs that refer to an individual or team as the context:

# TODO: @yourusername - File an issue and use a '*' for repetition.

If your TODO is of the form “At a future date do something” make sure that you either include a
very specific date (“Fix by November 2009”) or a very specific event (“Remove this code when all
clients can handle XML responses.”) that future code maintainers will comprehend. Issues are
ideal for tracking this.
3.13 Imports formatting
Imports should be on separate lines; there are exceptions for typing and collections.abc
imports.
E.g.:
Yes: from collections.abc import Mapping, Sequence
import os
import sys
from typing import Any, NewType

No: import os, sys

Imports are always put at the top of the file, just after any module comments and docstrings and
before module globals and constants. Imports should be grouped from most generic to least
generic:
1. Python future import statements. For example:
from __future__ import annotations

See above for more information about those.

2. Python standard library imports. For example:
import sys

3. third-party module or package imports. For example:

import tensorflow as tf

4. Code repository sub-package imports. For example:

from otherproject.ai import mind

5. Deprecated: application-specific imports that are part of the same top-level sub-package as
this file. For example:
from myproject.backend.hgwells import time_machine
 You may find older Google Python Style code doing this, but it is no longer required. New
code is encouraged not to bother with this. Simply treat application-specific sub-package
imports the same as other sub-package imports.
Within each grouping, imports should be sorted lexicographically, ignoring case, according to
each module’s full package path (the path in from path import ... ). Code may optionally
place a blank line between import sections.
import collections
import queue
import sys

from absl import app

from absl import flags
import bs4
import cryptography
import tensorflow as tf

from book.genres import scifi

from myproject.backend import huxley
from myproject.backend.hgwells import time_machine
from myproject.backend.state_machine import main_loop
from otherproject.ai import body
from otherproject.ai import mind
from otherproject.ai import soul

# Older style code may have these imports down here instead:
#from myproject.backend.hgwells import time_machine
#from myproject.backend.state_machine import main_loop

3.14 Statements
Generally only one statement per line.
However, you may put the result of a test on the same line as the test only if the entire statement
fits on one line. In particular, you can never do so with try / except since the try and except
can’t both fit on the same line, and you can only do so with an if if there is no else .
Yes:

if foo: bar(foo)

No:
 if foo: bar(foo)
else: baz(foo)

try: bar(foo)
except ValueError: baz(foo)

try:
bar(foo)
except ValueError: baz(foo)

3.15 Getters and Setters

Getter and setter functions (also called accessors and mutators) should be used when they
provide a meaningful role or behavior for getting or setting a variable’s value.
In particular, they should be used when getting or setting the variable is complex or the cost is
significant, either currently or in a reasonable future.
If, for example, a pair of getters/setters simply read and write an internal attribute, the internal
attribute should be made public instead. By comparison, if setting a variable means some state is
invalidated or rebuilt, it should be a setter function. The function invocation hints that a potentially
non-trivial operation is occurring. Alternatively, properties may be an option when simple logic is
needed, or refactoring to no longer need getters and setters.
Getters and setters should follow the Naming guidelines, such as get_foo() and set_foo() .
If the past behavior allowed access through a property, do not bind the new getter/setter
functions to the property. Any code still attempting to access the variable by the old method
should break visibly so they are made aware of the change in complexity.
3.16 Naming
module_name , package_name , ClassName , method_name , ExceptionName , function_name ,
GLOBAL_CONSTANT_NAME , global_var_name , instance_var_name , function_parameter_name ,
local_var_name , query_proper_noun_for_thing , send_acronym_via_https .

Function names, variable names, and filenames should be descriptive; avoid abbreviation. In
particular, do not use abbreviations that are ambiguous or unfamiliar to readers outside your
project, and do not abbreviate by deleting letters within a word.
Always use a .py filename extension. Never use dashes.
3.16.1 Names to Avoid
 single character names, except for specifically allowed cases:
counters or iterators (e.g. i , j , k , v , et al.)
e as an exception identifier in try/except statements.

f as a file handle in with statements

private type variables with no constraints (e.g. _T = TypeVar("_T") , _P =

ParamSpec("_P") )

Please be mindful not to abuse single-character naming. Generally speaking, descriptiveness

should be proportional to the name’s scope of visibility. For example, i might be a fine name
for 5-line code block but within multiple nested scopes, it is likely too vague.
dashes ( - ) in any package/module name
__double_leading_and_trailing_underscore__ names (reserved by Python)

offensive terms
names that needlessly include the type of the variable (for example: id_to_name_dict )
3.16.2 Naming Conventions
“Internal” means internal to a module, or protected or private within a class.
Prepending a single underscore ( _ ) has some support for protecting module variables and
functions (linters will flag protected member access). Note that it is okay for unit tests to
access protected constants from the modules under test.
Prepending a double underscore ( __ aka “dunder”) to an instance variable or method
effectively makes the variable or method private to its class (using name mangling); we
discourage its use as it impacts readability and testability, and isn’t really private. Prefer a
single underscore.
Place related classes and top-level functions together in a module. Unlike Java, there is no
need to limit yourself to one class per module.
Use CapWords for class names, but lower_with_under.py for module names. Although there
are some old modules named CapWords.py, this is now discouraged because it’s confusing
when the module happens to be named after a class. (“wait – did I write import StringIO or
from StringIO import StringIO ?”)

New unit test files follow PEP 8 compliant lower_with_under method names, for example,
test_<method_under_test>_<state> . For consistency(*) with legacy modules that follow
CapWords function names, underscores may appear in method names starting with test to
 separate logical components of the name. One possible pattern is
test<MethodUnderTest>_<state> .

3.16.3 File Naming

Python filenames must have a .py extension and must not contain dashes ( - ). This allows them
to be imported and unittested. If you want an executable to be accessible without the extension,
use a symbolic link or a simple bash wrapper containing exec "$0.py" "$@" .
3.16.4 Guidelines derived from Guido’s Recommendations
Type Public Internal
Packages lower_with_under

Modules lower_with_under _lower_with_under

Classes CapWords _CapWords

Exceptions CapWords

Functions lower_with_under() _lower_with_under()

Global/Class Constants CAPS_WITH_UNDER _CAPS_WITH_UNDER

Global/Class Variables lower_with_under _lower_with_under

Instance Variables lower_with_under _lower_with_under (protected)

Method Names lower_with_under() _lower_with_under() (protected)

Function/Method Parameters lower_with_under

Local Variables lower_with_under

3.16.5 Mathematical Notation

For mathematically heavy code, short variable names that would otherwise violate the style guide
are preferred when they match established notation in a reference paper or algorithm. When
doing so, reference the source of all naming conventions in a comment or docstring or, if the
source is not accessible, clearly document the naming conventions. Prefer PEP8-compliant
descriptive_names for public APIs, which are much more likely to be encountered out of
context.
3.17 Main
In Python, pydoc as well as unit tests require modules to be importable. If a file is meant to be
used as an executable, its main functionality should be in a main() function, and your code
should always check if __name__ == '__main__' before executing your main program, so that it
is not executed when the module is imported.
When using absl, use app.run :
from absl import app
...

def main(argv: Sequence[str]):

# process non-flag arguments
...

if __name__ == '__main__':
app.run(main)

Otherwise, use:
def main():
...

if __name__ == '__main__':
main()

All code at the top level will be executed when the module is imported. Be careful not to call
functions, create objects, or perform other operations that should not be executed when the file is
being pydoc ed.
3.18 Function length
Prefer small and focused functions.
We recognize that long functions are sometimes appropriate, so no hard limit is placed on
function length. If a function exceeds about 40 lines, think about whether it can be broken up
without harming the structure of the program.
Even if your long function works perfectly now, someone modifying it in a few months may add
new behavior. This could result in bugs that are hard to find. Keeping your functions short and
simple makes it easier for other people to read and modify your code.
You could find long and complicated functions when working with some code. Do not be
intimidated by modifying existing code: if working with such a function proves to be difficult, you
find that errors are hard to debug, or you want to use a piece of it in several different contexts,
consider breaking up the function into smaller and more manageable pieces.
3.19 Type Annotations
3.19.1 General Rules
Familiarize yourself with PEP-484.
In methods, only annotate self , or cls if it is necessary for proper type information. e.g.,
@classmethod
def create(cls: Type[_T]) -> _T:
return cls()

Similarly, don’t feel compelled to annotate the return value of __init__ (where None is the
only valid option).
If any other variable or a returned type should not be expressed, use Any .
You are not required to annotate all the functions in a module.
At least annotate your public APIs.
Use judgment to get to a good balance between safety and clarity on the one hand, and
flexibility on the other.
Annotate code that is prone to type-related errors (previous bugs or complexity).
Annotate code that is hard to understand.
Annotate code as it becomes stable from a types perspective. In many cases, you can
annotate all the functions in mature code without losing too much flexibility.
3.19.2 Line Breaking
Try to follow the existing indentation rules.
After annotating, many function signatures will become “one parameter per line”. To ensure the
return type is also given its own line, a comma can be placed after the last parameter.
def my_method(
self,
first_var: int,
second_var: Foo,
third_var: Bar | None,
 ) -> int:
...

Always prefer breaking between variables, and not, for example, between variable names and type
annotations. However, if everything fits on the same line, go for it.
def my_method(self, first_var: int) -> int:
...

If the combination of the function name, the last parameter, and the return type is too long, indent
by 4 in a new line. When using line breaks, prefer putting each parameter and the return type on
their own lines and aligning the closing parenthesis with the def :
Yes:
def my_method(
self,
other_arg: MyLongType | None,
) -> tuple[MyLongType1, MyLongType1]:
...

Optionally, the return type may be put on the same line as the last parameter:
Okay:
def my_method(
self,
first_var: int,
second_var: int) -> dict[OtherLongType, MyLongType]:
...

pylint allows you to move the closing parenthesis to a new line and align with the opening one,
but this is less readable.
No:
def my_method(self,
other_arg: MyLongType | None,
) -> dict[OtherLongType, MyLongType]:
...

As in the examples above, prefer not to break types. However, sometimes they are too long to be
on a single line (try to keep sub-types unbroken).
 def my_method(
self,
first_var: tuple[list[MyLongType1],
list[MyLongType2]],
second_var: list[dict[
MyLongType3, MyLongType4]],
) -> None:
...

If a single name and type is too long, consider using an alias for the type. The last resort is to
break after the colon and indent by 4.
Yes:
def my_function(
long_variable_name:
long_module_name.LongTypeName,
) -> None:
...

No:
def my_function(
long_variable_name: long_module_name.
LongTypeName,
) -> None:
...

3.19.3 Forward Declarations

If you need to use a class name (from the same module) that is not yet defined – for example, if
you need the class name inside the declaration of that class, or if you use a class that is defined
later in the code – either use from __future__ import annotations or use a string for the class
name.
Yes:
from __future__ import annotations

class MyClass:
def __init__(self, stack: Sequence[MyClass], item: OtherClass) -> None:

class OtherClass:
...
 Yes:
class MyClass:
def __init__(self, stack: Sequence['MyClass'], item: 'OtherClass') -> None:

class OtherClass:
...

3.19.4 Default Values

As per PEP-008, use spaces around the = only for arguments that have both a type annotation
and a default value.
Yes:
def func(a: int = 0) -> int:
...

No:
def func(a:int=0) -> int:
...

3.19.5 NoneType
In the Python type system, NoneType is a “first class” type, and for typing purposes, None is an
alias for NoneType . If an argument can be None , it has to be declared! You can use | union type
expressions (recommended in new Python 3.10+ code), or the older Optional and Union
syntaxes.
Use explicit X | None instead of implicit. Earlier versions of PEP 484 allowed a: str = None to
be interpreted as a: str | None = None , but that is no longer the preferred behavior.
Yes:
def modern_or_union(a: str | int | None, b: str | None = None) -> str:
...
def union_optional(a: Union[str, int, None], b: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
...

No:
def nullable_union(a: Union[None, str]) -> str:
...
 def implicit_optional(a: str = None) -> str:
...

3.19.6 Type Aliases

You can declare aliases of complex types. The name of an alias should be CapWorded. If the alias
is used only in this module, it should be _Private.
Note that the : TypeAlias annotation is only supported in versions 3.10+.
from typing import TypeAlias

_LossAndGradient: TypeAlias = tuple[tf.Tensor, tf.Tensor]

ComplexTFMap: TypeAlias = Mapping[str, _LossAndGradient]

3.19.7 Ignoring Types

You can disable type checking on a line with the special comment # type: ignore .
pytype has a disable option for specific errors (similar to lint):

# pytype: disable=attribute-error

3.19.8 Typing Variables

Annotated Assignments
If an internal variable has a type that is hard or impossible to infer, specify its type with an
annotated assignment - use a colon and type between the variable name and value (the same
as is done with function arguments that have a default value):
a: Foo = SomeUndecoratedFunction()

Type Comments
Though you may see them remaining in the codebase (they were necessary before Python
3.6), do not add any more uses of a # type: <type name> comment on the end of the line:
a = SomeUndecoratedFunction() # type: Foo

3.19.9 Tuples vs Lists

Typed lists can only contain objects of a single type. Typed tuples can either have a single
repeated type or a set number of elements with different types. The latter is commonly used as
the return type from a function.
a: list[int] = [1, 2, 3]
b: tuple[int, ...] = (1, 2, 3)
c: tuple[int, str, float] = (1, "2", 3.5)

3.19.10 Type variables

The Python type system has generics. A type variable, such as TypeVar and ParamSpec , is a
common way to use them.
Example:
from collections.abc import Callable
from typing import ParamSpec, TypeVar
_P = ParamSpec("_P")
_T = TypeVar("_T")
...
def next(l: list[_T]) -> _T:
return l.pop()

def print_when_called(f: Callable[_P, _T]) -> Callable[_P, _T]:

def inner(*args: _P.args, **kwargs: _P.kwargs) -> _T:
print("Function was called")
return f(*args, **kwargs)
return inner

A TypeVar can be constrained:

AddableType = TypeVar("AddableType", int, float, str)
def add(a: AddableType, b: AddableType) -> AddableType:
return a + b

A common predefined type variable in the typing module is AnyStr . Use it for multiple
annotations that can be bytes or str and must all be the same type.
from typing import AnyStr
def check_length(x: AnyStr) -> AnyStr:
if len(x) <= 42:
return x
raise ValueError()

A type variable must have a descriptive name, unless it meets all of the following criteria:
 not externally visible
not constrained
Yes:
_T = TypeVar("_T")
_P = ParamSpec("_P")
AddableType = TypeVar("AddableType", int, float, str)
AnyFunction = TypeVar("AnyFunction", bound=Callable)

No:
T = TypeVar("T")
P = ParamSpec("P")
_T = TypeVar("_T", int, float, str)
_F = TypeVar("_F", bound=Callable)

3.19.11 String types

Do not use typing.Text in new code. It’s only for Python 2/3 compatibility.
Use str for string/text data. For code that deals with binary data, use bytes .
def deals_with_text_data(x: str) -> str:
...
def deals_with_binary_data(x: bytes) -> bytes:
...

If all the string types of a function are always the same, for example if the return type is the same
as the argument type in the code above, use AnyStr.
3.19.12 Imports For Typing
For symbols (including types, functions, and constants) from the typing or collections.abc
modules used to support static analysis and type checking, always import the symbol itself. This
keeps common annotations more concise and matches typing practices used around the world.
You are explicitly allowed to import multiple specific symbols on one line from the typing and
collections.abc modules. For example:

from collections.abc import Mapping, Sequence

from typing import Any, Generic, cast, TYPE_CHECKING
Given that this way of importing adds items to the local namespace, names in typing or
collections.abc should be treated similarly to keywords, and not be defined in your Python
code, typed or not. If there is a collision between a type and an existing name in a module, import
it using import x as y .
from typing import Any as AnyType

Prefer to use built-in types as annotations where available. Python supports type annotations
using parametric container types via PEP-585, introduced in Python 3.9.
def generate_foo_scores(foo: set[str]) -> list[float]:
...

3.19.13 Conditional Imports

Use conditional imports only in exceptional cases where the additional imports needed for type
checking must be avoided at runtime. This pattern is discouraged; alternatives such as refactoring
the code to allow top-level imports should be preferred.
Imports that are needed only for type annotations can be placed within an if TYPE_CHECKING:
block.
Conditionally imported types need to be referenced as strings, to be forward compatible with
Python 3.6 where the annotation expressions are actually evaluated.
Only entities that are used solely for typing should be defined here; this includes aliases.
Otherwise it will be a runtime error, as the module will not be imported at runtime.
The block should be right after all the normal imports.
There should be no empty lines in the typing imports list.
Sort this list as if it were a regular imports list.
import typing
if typing.TYPE_CHECKING:
import sketch
def f(x: "sketch.Sketch"): ...

3.19.14 Circular Dependencies

Circular dependencies that are caused by typing are code smells. Such code is a good candidate
for refactoring. Although technically it is possible to keep circular dependencies, various build
systems will not let you do so because each module has to depend on the other.
Replace modules that create circular dependency imports with Any . Set an alias with a
meaningful name, and use the real type name from this module (any attribute of Any is Any ).
Alias definitions should be separated from the last import by one line.
from typing import Any

some_mod = Any # some_mod.py imports this module.

...

def my_method(self, var: "some_mod.SomeType") -> None:

...

3.19.15 Generics
When annotating, prefer to specify type parameters for generic types; otherwise, the generics’
parameters will be assumed to be Any .
# Yes:
def get_names(employee_ids: Sequence[int]) -> Mapping[int, str]:
...

# No:
# This is interpreted as get_names(employee_ids: Sequence[Any]) -> Mapping[Any, Any]
def get_names(employee_ids: Sequence) -> Mapping:
...

If the best type parameter for a generic is Any , make it explicit, but remember that in many cases
TypeVar might be more appropriate:

# No:
def get_names(employee_ids: Sequence[Any]) -> Mapping[Any, str]:
"""Returns a mapping from employee ID to employee name for given IDs."""

# Yes:
_T = TypeVar('_T')
def get_names(employee_ids: Sequence[_T]) -> Mapping[_T, str]:
"""Returns a mapping from employee ID to employee name for given IDs."""

4 Parting Words
BE CONSISTENT.
If you’re editing code, take a few minutes to look at the code around you and determine its style. If
they use _idx suffixes in index variable names, you should too. If their comments have little
boxes of hash marks around them, make your comments have little boxes of hash marks around
them too.
The point of having style guidelines is to have a common vocabulary of coding so people can
concentrate on what you’re saying rather than on how you’re saying it. We present global style
rules here so people know the vocabulary, but local style is also important. If code you add to a
file looks drastically different from the existing code around it, it throws readers out of their
rhythm when they go to read it.
However, there are limits to consistency. It applies more heavily locally and on choices unspecified
by the global style. Consistency should not generally be used as a justification to do things in an
old style without considering the benefits of the new style, or the tendency of the codebase to
converge on newer styles over time.