8 VectorSpace01

Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space
Chapter Contents
Introduction to Vectors (Geometric)

Norm of a Vector; Vector Arithmetic
Dot Product; Projections
Cross Product
Lines and Planes in 3-Space
1 Introduction to Vectors
(Geometric)
Geometric Vectors
Symbolically, we shall denote vectors in lowercase
boldface type. All our scalars will be real numbers and
will be denoted in lowercase italic type
terminal point • The vector of length

zero is called the zero
initial point vector and is denoted
by 0.
• Since there is no
natural direction for
the zero vector
• the negative of v, is
defined to be the
vector having the
same magnitude as v,
but oppositely directed.
Definition
If v and w are any two
vectors, then the sum v+w
is the vector determined as
follows: Position the vector
w so that its initial point
coincides with the terminal
point of v. The vector v+w
is represented by the arrow
from the initial point of v to
the terminal point of w.
Definition
If v and w are any

two vectors, then the
difference of w from
v is defined by
v – w = v + (-w)
Definition
If v is a nonzero vector and
k is nonzero real number
(scalar), then the product kv
is defined to be the vector
whose length is |k| times
the length of v and whose
direction is the same as that
of v if k > 0 and opposite to
that of v if k < 0. We define
kv =0 if k = 0 or v = 0.
A vector of the form kv is

called a scalar multiple.
Vectors in coordinate Systems(1/2)
In Figure 3.1.6, that v has

been positioned so its
initial point is at the origin
of a rectangular
coordinate system. The
coordinates v1 , v2 of
the terminal point of v are
called the components of
v, and we write
v = (v1 , v2 )
Vectors in coordinate
Systems(2/2)
If v = (v1 , v2 ) and w = ( w1 , w2 )
two vectors are equivalent if
and only if v1 = w1 and v2 = w2
and
Vectors in 3-Space (1/4)
coordinate axes
• Each pair of coordinate
axes determines a plane
called a coordinate
origin plane. These are
referred to as the xy-
plane, the xz-plane,
and the yz-plane.
• To each point P in 3-
space we assign a triple
of numbers (x, y, z),
called the coordinates
rectangular coordinate system of P.
Rectangular coordinate
systems in 3-space fall
into two categories,
left-handed and right-
handed.
In this book we shall use
only right-handed
coordinate systems.
A vector v in 3-space is positioned
so its initial point is at the origin of a
rectangular coordinate system. The
coordinates of the terminal point of
v are called the components of v,
and we write v = (v1 , v2 , v3 )
If v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) and w = ( w1 , w2 , w3 ) are two vectors

in 3-space, then
v and w are equivalent if and only if v1 = w1 , v2 = w2 , v3 = w3
v + w = (v1 + w1 , v2 + w2 , v3 + w3 )
kv = (kv1 , kv2 , kv3 ), where k is any scalar
Sometimes a vector is positioned so that
its initial point is not at the origin.
If the vector P1 P2 has initial point P1 = ( x1 , y1 , z1 )
and terminal point P2 ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ), then
P1 P2 = ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) − ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) = ( x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z 2 − z1 )
In 2 - space the vector with initial point P1 ( x1 y1 ) and terminal point

P1 ( x1 y1 ) is
P1 P2 = ( x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 )
Example 1
Vector Computations with Components
If v=(1,-3,2) and w=(4,2,1),then
v + w=(5,-1,3), 2v=(2,-6,4) -w=(-4,-2,-1),

v – w=v + (-w)=(-3,-5,1)
Example 2
Finding the components of a Vector
The components of the vector v = P1 P2 with initial point P1 = (2,−1,4)

and terminal point P2 (7,5,−8) are
v = (7 − 2,5 − (−1), (−8) − 4) = (5,6,−12)
Translation of Axes
In Figure 3.1.14a we have translated
the axes of an xy-coordinate system to
obtain an x’y’-coordinate system whose
O’ is at point (x ,y)=(k ,l ).
A point P in 2-space now has both (x ,y)

coordinates and (x’ ,y’) coordinates.
x’= x – k , y’= y – l , these formulas

are called the translation equations.
In 3-space the translation equations

are x’= x – k , y’= y – l , z’= z – m
where ( k, l, m ) are the xyz-
coordinates of the x’y’z’-origin.
Example 3
Using the Translation Equations (1/2)
Suppose that an xy-coordinate system is translated

to obtain an x’y’-coordante system whose origin has
xy-coordinates (k ,l )=(4,1).
(a) Find the x’y’-coordinate of the point with

the xy-coordinates P(2,0)
(b) Find the xy-coordinate of the point with
the x’y’-coordinates Q(-1,5)
Example 3
Using the Translation Equations (2/2)
Solution (a). The translation equations are
x’=x-4, y’=y-1
so the x’y’-coordinate of P(2,0) are x’=2-4=-2 and
y’=0-1=-1.
Solution (b). The translation equations in (a) can be
written as
x=x’+4, y=y’+1
so the xy-coordinate of Q are x=-1+4=3 and
y=5+1=6.
2 Norm of a Vector;
Vector Arithmetic
Theorem 2.1
Properties of Vector Arithmetic
If u, v and w are vectors

in 2- or 3-space and k
and l are scalars, then
the following relationship
Norm of a Vector (1/2)
The length of a vector u is often called
the norm of u and is denoted by u .
Figure (a): it follows from the Theorem

of Pythagoras that the norm of a vector
u = (u1 , u2 ) in 2-space is u = u12 + u22
Figure (b): Let u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) be a

vector in 3-space.
u = u12 + u 22 + u32
A vector of norm 1 is called a unit vector.

Norm of a Vector (2/2)
If P1 = ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 )
are two points in 3-space, then
the distance s between them is
the norm of vector P1 P2
P1 P2 = ( x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z 2 − z1 )
Similarly in 2-space:
the length of the vector ku : ku = k u

Example 1
Finding Norm and Distance
The norm of the vector u = (-3,2,1 ) is
u = (−3) 2 + (2) 2 + (1) 2 = 14
The distance d betwwen the points P1 (2,-1,5) and P2 = (4,−3,1) is
d = (4 − 2) 2 + (−3 + 1) 2 + (1 + 5) 2 = 44 = 2 11

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Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

 Introduction to Vectors (Geometric)

terminal point • The vector of length

 If v and w are any

 A vector of the form kv is

 In Figure 3.1.6, that v has

 If v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) and w = ( w1 , w2 , w3 ) are two vectors

In 2 - space the vector with initial point P1 ( x1 y1 ) and terminal point

v + w=(5,-1,3), 2v=(2,-6,4) -w=(-4,-2,-1),

The components of the vector v = P1 P2 with initial point P1 = (2,−1,4)

 A point P in 2-space now has both (x ,y)

 x’= x – k , y’= y – l , these formulas

 In 3-space the translation equations

 Suppose that an xy-coordinate system is translated

(a) Find the x’y’-coordinate of the point with

 If u, v and w are vectors

 Figure (a): it follows from the Theorem

 Figure (b): Let u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) be a

 A vector of norm 1 is called a unit vector.

 the length of the vector ku : ku = k u

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Introduction to Vectors (Geometric)

If v and w are any

A vector of the form kv is

In Figure 3.1.6, that v has

If v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) and w = ( w1 , w2 , w3 ) are two vectors

A point P in 2-space now has both (x ,y)

x’= x – k , y’= y – l , these formulas

In 3-space the translation equations

Suppose that an xy-coordinate system is translated

If u, v and w are vectors

Figure (a): it follows from the Theorem

Figure (b): Let u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) be a

A vector of norm 1 is called a unit vector.

the length of the vector ku : ku = k u