Introduction to Vectors

Topic 3 A matrix with only one column is

called a column vector, or simply a
vector.
The entries of a vector are called
Elementary Vector Analysis
components.
The set of all column vectors with n
components is denoted by ℜn

Vectors in ℜ2 and ℜ 3 Equivalent Vectors

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Examples of vectors in ℜ with two entries Two vectors are equal if and only if
are 3 0.2  w 1 
u =  , v =  , w =   their corresponding entries are equal.
 − 1 0.3  w 2 
3 4  7 
Examples of vectors in ℜ with three Thus,   and   are not equal.
entries are 3 0.5  w 1  7  4 
u = − 1, v = 1.6 , w = w 2 
   
 2  0.3  w 3 
Where w1 and w2 are any real numbers.

Sum of Vectors Scalar Multiple of Vectors

Given two vectors u and v, their sum Given a vector u and a real number, c,
is the vector u + v obtained by adding the scalar multiple of u by c is the
corresponding entries of u and v. vector cu obtained by multiplying
each entry in u by c.
Example: 3 2 
u =   and v =   Example:
3
−
 1 3  if u =   and c =5
 − 1
 3 + 2  5   3   15 
u +v =  =  Then cu = 5   =  
- 1 + 3  2   − 1  − 5 

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 Vectors: Parentheses Form
Vectors: Parentheses Form
(2-space)
Sometimes, for convenience (and also to Equivalent
save space) we write a column vector two vectors v = (v1 , v2 ) and w = ( w1 , w2 ) are
such as  3  in the form (3, -1).
 − 1 equivalent if and only if v1 = w1 and v2 = w2
  Addition, difference and scalar
In this case we use parentheses and
comma to distinguish the vector (3, -1) multiple
from the 1 x 2 row matrix [3 -1], two vectors v = (v1 , v2 ) and w = ( w1 , w2 )then
written with brackets and no comma. addition vector, v + w = (v1 + w1 , v 2 + w 2 )
difference vector, v - w = (v1 - w1 , v 2 - w 2 )
3
− 1 ≠ [3 − 1]
Thus scalar multiple, kv = (kv1 , kv 2 )
 

Vectors: Parentheses Form

Exercise 1
(3-space)
If v = (v1 , v 2 , v3 ) and w = ( w1 , w2 , w3 ) are Compute u + v and u- 2v for the following:
two vectors in 3-space, the arguments similar 1. u = (4, 6), v = (7, 4)
to those used for vectors in a plane can be 2. u = (- 1, 5, 9), v = (8,- 3,6)
used to establish the following results:
Vector v and w are equivalent if and only if  − 1 − 3 
v1 = w1 , v2 = w2 , v3 = w3 ) 3. u =  , v = 
v + w = (v1 + w1 , v 2 + w2 , v3 + w3 )
2 − 1
kv = (kv1 , kv2 , kv3 ) where k is any scalar 4. u = 3  , v =  2 
2   − 1
   
8   7 

Geometric Descriptions
Geometric Description
(2-space)
Vector can be represented geometrically as Let v be any vector in the plane, and
directed line segments or arrows in 2-space or 3-
space. assume that v has been positioned so its
B
initial point is at the origin of a rectangular
coordinate system. The coordinates of the
A
terminal point of v are called the
The direction of the arrow specifies the direction
of the vector, and the length of the arrow components of v and it is written as v(v1 , v2 )
describes the magnitude of the vector. y
The tail of the arrow (A) is called initial point of
the vector, and the tip of the arrow (B) is the (v1,v2)
terminal point. So the vector is written as
→
v = AB x

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Geometric Descriptions
Equivalent Vectors
(3-space)
Vectors in 3- ps ace can be described by Vectors with the same length and same direction are called
equivalent.
triples of real numbers by introducing a
Since vector is determined solely by its length and
rectangular coordinate system usually direction, equivalent vectors are regarded as equal even
refers to point O and axes x, y and z. though they may be located in different positions.
S
y
v
R
Q
w
x
P equivalent, it is written as v = w.
If vector v and w are
The vector of a length zero is called the zero vector and
z denoted by 0.

Sum of Vectors Sum of Vectors

Addition of two vectors will resulting new vector

that called unify vector.
w
If v and w are any two vectors, then the sum v + w v w+v v
is the vector determined as follows: v+w
w
Position the vector w so that its initial point
coincides with the terminal point of v. The vector v
+ w is represented by the arrow from the initial
point of v to the terminal point of w.
v+w=w+v
w
v v
w v+w

Negative vector (-v) Vector Difference (-)

If v is any non zero vector,- vis the If v and w are any two vectors, then the
negative of vector v. difference of w from v is defined by v −w= v +(−w)
It is defined to have the same magnitude there are 2 method to obtain v – w:
as v but in the opposite direction. This
vector has the property v + ( −v ) = 0. v w

v method 1: method 2:
-w w
-v v v-w
w v+(-w) v

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Scalar Multiple (kv) Exercise 2

If v is a non zero vector and k is a non zero Draw the vectors in Exercise 1 with
scalar, then the product kv is defined to be the the initial points located at the origin
vector whose length is k times the length of v
and whose direction is the same as that of v.

v
2v

Magnitude of a vector (norm) Magnitude of a vector (norm)

Example:
The length of the vector u is often called the norm or
magnitude of u and denoted as Given u = (0, 4, 3) and v = (1, -2, 1),
u find u , v and u + v
The norm of a vector u in 2-space, let u = (u1 , u 2 )
Solution: u = 0 + 4 + 3 v = 12 + (-2)2 +12
2 2 2

2 2
u = u1 + u 2 = 0 + 16 + 9 = 1 + 4 +1
The norm of a vector u in 3-space, let u = (u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) = 25
= 6
=5
2 2 2
u = u1 + u 2 + u 3 u + v = (0 + 1) 2 + (4 + (-2))2 + (3 + 1) 2
A vector of norm 1 is called a unit vector. = 1 + 4 + 16
= 21

Distance Exercise 3

If P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y 2 ) are two points in For each of the following, find the magnitude of u
and v, and the distance between u and v.
2-space, then the distance d between → 1. u = (4, 6), v = (7, 4)
the points is the norm of the vector P1 P2
2. u = (- 1, 5, 9), v = (8,- 3,6)
is given by d = ( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2
 − 1 − 3 
Similarly, if P1 ( x1 , y1 , z 1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y 2 , z 2 )  
3. u =  2  , v =  − 1 
are points in 3-space, then the distance
between them is given by 3  2
4. u =   , v =  
d = ( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z 2 − z1 ) 2 2   − 1
8   7 

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Dot Product of Vectors Angle θ between two vectors

Formula to calculate the dot product of two vectors is If θ is the angle between u and v, u
as below: u.v θ
so, cos θ =
u ⋅ v = u1v1 + u 2 v2 + u3v3 for vectors in 3-space v
u v
u ⋅ v = u1v1 + u 2 v2 for vectors in 2-space From the previous example,find the angle θ between vector u
and v where u= (2,-2) and v=(5,8)
Solution: u . v = 2(5) + (-2)(8) u = 22 + (-2)2 v = 52 +82
Example: = 10 + (-16)
Given u= (2,-2), v=(5,8), find u . v = -6 = 4 + 4 = 8 = 25+64= 89
-6
cos θ =
Solution: u . v = 2(5) + (-2)(8) 8 89
= 10 + (-16) -6
θ = cos -1 = 102.99o
= -6 8 89

Cross Product of Vectors Cross Product

Cross product will defined a type of vector Instead of memorizing the formula, you can obtain the
multiplication that produces a vector as the product, components of u×v by:
u1 u2 u3 
but which applicable only in 3-space. v v v 
Form the 2 x 3 matrix  1 2 3 whose first row
If u = (u1 , u 2 , u 3 )and v = (v1 , v 2 , v3 ) are vectors in 3-space, contains the components of u and the second row
then the cross product u × v is the vector defined by contains the components of v.
u × v = (u2v3 − u3v2 , u3v1 − u1v3 , u1v2 − u2 v1 ) To find the first component of u x v, delete the first
column and take the determinant, to find the second
or in determinant notation
component, delete the second column and take the
 u2 u3 u1 u3 u1 u2  negative of the determinant and to find the third
u × v =  ,− ,  component, delete the third column and take the
 v2 v3 v1 v3 v1 v2  determinant.

Connection between dot

Cross Product
product and cross product
Example: Find u x v where u = (1, 2, -2) Dot product and cross product of 2
and v = (3, 0, 1). vectors can be visualized as follows:
1 2 -2 uxv
3 0 1

 2 −2 1 −2 1 2
u × v =  ,− ,  = (2,−7,−6)
 u
0 1 3 1 3 0 θ
v

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Exercise 4

1. Find the dot product of the following vector

a. u = (2,-4,4), v = (-8,0,4)
b. u = (4,-6,2), v = (8,2,-6)
2. In each question in no 1, find the cosine of the angle θ
between u and v
3. Find the cross product of the following vector
a. a = (4,6,8), b = (8,-4,2)
b. u =( 3,5,-2), v = (4,2,1)
4. Given u = (2, -2), v = (5,8), and w = (-4,3), find each of the
following.
a. u . v
b. (u . v)w
c. u . (2v)
d. ||w||²