Unit III-Lesson 1

The LGBTQ+ Question

 Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
1. identify the details of a report on an attempt to change
legislation for same sex marriage;
2. reflect on concerns of the LGBTQ+ community as concrete
real-world issues; and
3. recognize the real-world issue as the context from which
we begin our study of the natural law theory.
 Common reasons given against the LGBTQ+
community vary, ranging from the opinion that it is
unsightly, to the statement that there is something
“irregular” about it, even to the judgment that two people
of the same sex being together is unnatural. But what
exactly do the words “natural” and “unnatural” mean?
(pp.55−56)
What Does LGBTQ+ Mean?

LGBTQ+ stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender,

queer (or sometimes questioning), and others. The "plus"
represents other sexual identities including pansexual and
Two-Spirit. The first four letters of the acronym have been
used since the 1990s, but in recent years there has been an
increased awareness of the need to be inclusive of other
sexual identities to offer better representation.
The acronym is used to represent a diverse range of
sexualities and gender-identities, referring to anyone who is
transgender and/or same/similar gender attracted.

What Does Each Letter Mean?

•L (Lesbian): A lesbian is a woman/woman-aligned person
who is attracted to only people of the same/similar gender.
•G (Gay): Gay is usually a term used to refer to men/men-
aligned individuals who are only attracted to people of the
same/similar gender. However, lesbians can also be referred
to as gay. The use of the term gay became more popular
during the 1970s. Today, bisexual and pansexual people
sometimes use gay to casually refer to themselves when
they talk about their similar gender attraction.
•B (Bisexual): Bisexual indicates an attraction to all
genders. The recognition of bisexual individuals is
important, since there have been periods when people
who identify as bi have been misunderstood as being
gay. Bisexuality has included transgender, binary and
nonbinary individuals since the release of the "Bisexual
Manifesto" in 1990.
•T (Transgender): Transgender is a term that indicates that a
person's gender identity is different from the gender
associated with the sex they were assigned at birth.
•Q (Queer or Questioning): Though queer may be used by
people as a specific identity, it is often considered an
umbrella term for anyone who is non-cisgender or
heterosexual. But it is also a slur. It should not be placed on
all members of the community, and should only be used by
cisgender and heterosexual individuals when referring to a
person who explicitly identifies with it. Questioning refers to
people who may be unsure of their sexual orientation
and/or gender identity.
•+ (Plus): The 'plus' is used to signify all of the gender
identities and sexual orientations that are not specifically
covered by the other five initials. An example is Two-Spirit,
a pan-Indigenous American identity.
History of the LGBTQ+ Acronym
Where a variety of orientations and identities had previously
been referred to as "the gay community" and later "the gay
and lesbian community," the acronym eventually evolved as
a way to be more inclusive of other identities.
The original acronym has gained more letters designed to
help better represent other identities related to sexual
orientation and gender identity.1
Why has the acronym changed over time? One important
thing to remember is that words and meanings are always
evolving. Bisexual, as defined by Sigmund Freud, originally
meant a person was both a man and a woman. Being both
a man and a woman is now referred to as bigender (under
the transgender umbrella), and bisexuality is attraction to
multiple/all genders.
Why the “Plus” Matters
While variations such as LGBT or LGBTQ are often used,
many advocates argue that the addition of the “plus” is
important and should not be overlooked. The purpose of
the acronym is to represent the tremendous diversity of
people who are same/similar gender attracted and
transgender. The addition of the plus is better able to fully
capture that diversity.
“Coverage of LGBTQ issues has moved beyond simplistic
political dichotomies and toward more fully realized
representations, not only of the diversity of the LGBTQ
community, but also of LGBTQ people’s lives, their families,
and their fundamental inclusion in the fabric of American
society,” explains GLAAD, or the Gay & Lesbian Alliance
Against Defamation.
Related Terms to Know:
Some other terms that you may see or hear related to the
LGBTQ+ community include:

•Asexual: Sometimes shorted to "ace," this term refers to

someone who has little or no sexual attraction; they may,
however, experience romantic attraction.
•Cisgender: This term refers to individuals whose gender
identity corresponds to the gender associated with the sex
they were assigned at birth.

•Intersex: A term to describe individuals who are born with

variations of sex characteristics that do not fit with binary
definitions of male or female bodies.
•Nonbinary: A person whose gender identity is neither
exclusively woman or man.

•Gender nonconforming: An individual whose gender identity

or expression is outside or beyond the traditional
masculine/feminine and woman/man norms.
A person's gender identity is their internal sense of gender,
whether that is woman, man, or a nonbinary gender.
A person's gender identity does not necessarily correspond
to their sex assigned at birth or with their gender
expression.
It is also important to understand that gender is not the
same as sex.
Sex is biological, while gender is influenced by social,
cultural, and environmental factors.
Why LGBTQ+ Representation Matters?

The LGBTQ+ acronym serves an important purpose—not

only is it designed to be more inclusive, but it also
represents the self-identities of people who are transgender
and/or similar gender attracted.
Uses of the LGBTQ+ Acronym:

The acronym LGBTQ+ has become more popular and

accepted. Terms such as queer are sometimes used as well,
but not all members of the community are comfortable with
it as it is still a slur.
Regardless of what terms people choose to use, what matters
is that people have choice in self-identification and that
others acknowledge that identity. If someone tells you how
they identify, focus on honoring their individual identity.
In our everyday use of language, and the expression of our
opinions and biases, we are accustomed to using the words
"natural" and "unnatural," perhaps without giving much
thought as to what exactly we mean by that. Maybe
reflecting on one occasion in which that kind of valuation is
impulsively made can prove to be the best time for us to
both reflect on what we might actually mean when we use
the term, and also to begin to learn about an ethical theory
that takes this notion of nature as its starting point.
THINK
October 2016, newspapers reported that Pantaleon Alvarez,
Speaker of the House of Representatives, was intending to draft a
bill which would amend the country's Family Code, thereby
allowing for the legalization of same-sex unions. This would result
in the possibility of two men together or two women together
being legally identified as a couple, with rights guaranteed and
protected by the law. However, as one newspaper report revealed,
even before anything could be formally proposed, other fellow
legislators had already expressed to the media their refusal to
support any such initiative."
 The reasons given in the news article (cited in the
notes) vary, ranging from the opinion that seeing two men
kiss is unsightly, to the statement that there is something
"irregular" about belonging to the lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transgender (LGBT) community, and positing the judgment
that two people of the same sex being together is unnatural.
We are used to hearing people justify doing some particular
thing by making the appeal that what they maintain is what
is "natural," and therefore acceptable. Likewise, people
would judge something as unacceptable on the basis that it is
supposedly "unnatural." Thus, we are no longer surprised
when we hear persons condemn and label many different
things as "unnatural": maybe receiving blood transfusions,
eating meat, or, as our news report shows, engaging in sexual
relations that one might consider deviant.
We also realize that sometimes we might find ourselves
astonished or perplexed as to what different people might
consider "unnatural." In order to proceed, it is therefore
necessary to ask: "What do the words 'natural' and
'unnatural' mean?"
 Sometimes, the word "natural" seems to be used to refer to
some kind of intuition that a person has, one which is so apparently
true to him that it is unquestioned. For example, a woman may claim
that it is simply "unnatural" to eat any kind of insect, and what this
means is that she has never done so, and when confronted with the
very idea of it, her immediate response is one of aversion. Along
similar lines, we also easily find people using the word "natural" to
refer to what seems common to them given their particular
environment. For instance, a Filipina may suppose that eating three
full meals of rice and ulam every day is what is "natural" because
everyone she knows behaves in that way.
 Somewhat differently, in other instances, the word is
used to try to justify a certain way of behaving by seeing its
likeness somewhere in the natural world. For example, a man
might claim that it is okay for him to have more than one
sexual partner, since, in a pride of lions, the alpha male gets
to mate with all the she-lions. In yet other instances, the
word "natural" is used as an appeal to something instinctual
or corporeal without it being directed by reason. For
example, a man may deem it all right if he were to urinate
just anywhere because after all he takes it to be a "natural"
function of the human body.
 Given these varied meanings of the term "natural," we
need to find a more solid and nuanced way to understand the
term. In this unit we explore how Thomas Aquinas provides
this, emphasizing the capacity for reason as what is essential
in our human nature. This understanding of human nature
anchored on our capacity for reason will become the basis of
the natural law theory, a theory which will provide us a
unique way of determining the moral status of our actions.
EXPERIENCE
Recall from your own experience what things or actions you
might be inclined to deem natural and unnatural. Once you
have listed these down, reflect on the further question of
what is the actual meaning that lies behind each particular
instance of the word's use.
ASSESS
Consider the following questions:
1. What reasons were given in the report for refusing to
support the same-sex initiative? Do you agree with those
reasons that were given?

2. What possible meanings of the word "natural" (or

"unnatural") were presented? Can you think of still other
ways that the word "natural" (or "unnatural") can be used?
CHALLENGE :
Thinking of the communities that you belong to-your
family, friends, classmates, clubs or organizations-what do
you think is the dominant attitude toward the concerns of
the LGBTQ+ community? Sympathy? Tolerance? Hostility?
Something else? Whatever your answer, provide your
reasons for it, and discuss.
HARNESS :
Not just in this country but around the world, the
question of the concerns of the LGBTQ+ community are a
hotly contested matter.
There are those who are fighting for LGBTQ+ rights, and
there are also those who are against them. It is very possible
that you happen to have strong opinions one way or the
other about this. Whatever your personal take on this matter
may be, it is best to learn everything that you can.
 Do research on the various issues under consideration
(rights, employment, discrimination, etc.) and try to
understand the contesting views, those for and those
against.

Avoid the temptation to pay attention only to those

who you know would confirm your own opinion on the
matter.
Unit III-Lesson 2:(a)

St. Thomas
Aquinas and the
Christian Context
 Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
1. be familiar with the philosopher in question in this unit,
St. Thomas Aquinas
2. show understanding of the Christian context to which
Thomas belonged; and
3. show understanding of the broader picture of Aquinas's
moral thought.
 The fundamental truth maintained and elaborated by
Aquinas is the promise right at the center of the Christian
faith: that we are created by God in order to ultimately
return to Him.
The Christian life, therefore, is about developing the
capacities given to us by God into a disposition of virtue
inclined toward the good.
Aquinas teaches that there is a sense of right and
wrong in us that we are obliged to obey, and this sense of
right and wrong must be informed, guided, and ultimately
grounded in an objective basis for morality.
 There have been various thinkers and systems of
thought emerging throughout history that could be said to
present a natural law theory. Among them, the one we will be
focusing on, is the medieval thinker Thomas Aquinas. It has to
be recognized, however, that this natural law theory is part of
a much larger discussion, which is his moral theory taken a
whole. This moral theory, in turn, is part of a larger project,
which is Aquinas's vision of the Christian faith. Before we turn
to the natural law theory, let us try to at least get some
glimpse of these contexts.
 The Philosophy of Thomas
Aquinas : between God and
Ethics
St. Thomas Aquinas, an
Italian philosopher, has produced
a major work, the Summa
Theologica, an attempt
to synthetize Aristotle’s
philosophy and writings of
Revelation.
Thomas Aquinas and metaphysics :

The Christian philosopher attempts to unify the

Christian themes and concepts of Aristotelianism. He
distinguishes the subject, that is to say, the various powers
and potentialities, not yet updated, and form, which, in the
subject matter organizes and gives it its true essence and
existence: c ‘ is due to the shape of the material that
everything is routed to its own existence.
 However, Aquinas goes beyond the purely Aristotelian
and it posits the existence, under which an act is reality. In
God’s existence and essence coincide (“I am who I am,”
declares the LORD in the Bible) on the contrary, essence and
existence are different in the various individual substances,
including humans.
Thomas Aquinas and morality:

His morality is also very close to that of Aristotle’s

thoughts on justice, which leads him to distinguish between
distributive justice (that which divides the honors, riches,
according to the qualities of each) and commutative justice
(the rule that economic exchanges under the equal
proportion principle).
THINK
In what follows we take a quick glance at our
philosopher, Thomas Aquinas, the Christian context within
which he lived and strove to make more comprehensible,
and the larger ethical framework within which one can find
the natural law theory.
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
Hailed as a doctor of the Roman Catholic Church, one
of the figures who have fundamentally shaped the way we
understand the Christian faith, Thomas Aquinas was a
Dominican friar who has become the preeminent
intellectual figure of the scholastic period of the Middle
Ages, arguably contributing to the doctrine of the faith
more than any other figure of his time, and perhaps even in
the whole history of the Church.
The Summa Theologiae, Aquinas's magnum opus, is a
voluminous work that comprehensively discusses many
significant points in Christian theology. He was canonized in
1323.
The Context of the Christian Story The fundamental truth
maintained and elaborated by Aquinas in all his works is the
promise right at the center of the Christian faith: that we are
created by God in order to ultimately return to Him. The
structure of his magnum opus Summa Theologiae follows the
trajectory of this story.
The Life of St. Thomas Aquinas and His Greatest Work
The Church has told us countless times to go to St. Thomas
for guidance in matters of philosophy and theology.
Over the centuries this authoritative counsel has been
a source of motivation for countless schools and seminaries,
teachers and scholars. But just who was this saint, what
were the main lines of his life, and what are the
characteristics of his major works? Such questions are ever
more relevant as fewer know their answers. That is the
reason for the following all-too-brief account.
The seventh son of a noble family:
Thomas was born in 1225 at Roccasecca in Italy, near
Aquino, not far from the Benedictine Abbey of Monte
Cassino, where as a boy he received instruction in liberal
arts, literature, and catechism. At the age of 14, Thomas
commenced his undergraduate studies at the University of
Naples, where newly-discovered works of Aristotle were
studied more eagerly and freely than was the case in Paris.
 As Thomas was a quiet and studious pupil
with a stout physique, he earned at this time the
nickname “dumb ox”; yet Albert, impressed by his
pupil’s unusual gifts, is said to have remarked: “We call
him the dumb ox, but the bellowing of that ox will
resound throughout the whole world.” Returning to
Paris in 1252 to complete his advanced degree, he was
granted special permission in 1256 to take a chair in
theology at the University, despite protests from the
incumbent professors who distrusted Dominican and
Franciscan “upstarts.”
Obedience is the only criterion for him, as it was for Christ
in the Garden of Gethsemane.
Thomas is completely detached from all his work, all
his writings, all his life; he asks the Church to decide what is
worth saving and what should be discarded. The humanistic
concept of authorship, which is not far from Pilate’s “what I
have written, I have written,” is absent from his mind. I am
sure we could all use a dose of this unshakable confidence in
the divinely-guided wisdom of the Catholic Church.
Thomas the Saint
Our picture of the life of this great thinker would be
incomplete if we failed to remember several things about
Thomas the saint. As a “Master of Theology”—which in the
Middle Ages meant one who had attained great proficiency in
understanding and interpreting the Bible—Thomas not only
taught classes on the word of God but preached many
sermons, often to simple unlettered people, and wrote
detailed commentaries on Scripture for the benefit of fellow
preachers
 As those who knew him testified, Thomas was a man
of palpable holiness, humble, obedient, and selfless in
seeking the kingdom of God. Nor was he a cold reasoner,
however rationalistic some of his later disciples may have
been. In response to a request from Pope Urban IV he
composed a magnificent Office for the Feast of Corpus
Christi, containing hymns which are counted among the
most beautiful specimens of medieval poetry, full of
unction and tender devotion.
 Synthesis of faith and reason
The hallmark of Thomas’s approach to theology is the
synthesis of reason and faith. To speak of such a synthesis
means that sacred theology, while based firmly on the word
of God, employs truths known by reason in order to
understand more deeply the mysteries God has revealed
and to refute errors concerning them. More fundamentally,
however, it means that both reason and revelation are gifts
of God intended to illuminate one another as man
progresses on his pilgrimage towards heaven.
 A man whose will and intellect were absolutely
corrupted—deaf to any truth, hardened to all goodness—
would be no different from a plank of wood. God creates
man with an immortal soul, a reasoning mind, a capacity to
know the truth and choose the good; this is the very
essence of man as imago Dei (image of God).
 Sin damages human nature, it cannot corrupt its
essence: “nature is wounded, not destroyed”
(Augustine). It is precisely what is good and uncorrupted in
man that enables him to recognize the truth when he
encounters it. The grace of God does not work by external
imposition but by a renewal of the inner man and all his
faculties; it confers new sanctity and confirms old sanity,
joining man to God and restoring man to himself.
Thomas’s theology is centered on God alone, the first
beginning and last end of all things (the First Part of
the Summa theologiae); from this vantage, it focuses on man
striving to perfect the imago Dei within him by a harmonious
interaction of free will and grace (the Second Part of
the Summa); and in between the infinite God and finite man
stands the figure of Jesus Christ, true God and true man, the
Mediator who is God’s perfect self-revelation and the path
and goal of human righteousness (the Third Part
(the Third Part ) The fact that man can acquire natural
knowledge of God shows that the Creator has remained, as
he always was and is, closer to us than we to ourselves. As
St. Paul declared to the Athenians: “He is not far from each
one of us, for in him we live and move and have our being,
as even some of your poets have said, for we are indeed his
offspring” (Acts 17:27-28). Even the pagans are without
excuse if they fail to gain true knowledge of God from His
creation (Rom. 1:20-21, Wis. 13:1-9).
 The Summa theologiae
The Summary of Theology, arguably the greatest work of St.
Thomas and one of the most influential books in Catholic
intellectual history, comprises some 3,122 articles or specific
queries on doctrine, grouped into thematic questions.
 There are three parts to this voluminous work.
There are three parts to this voluminous work. In the first part,
Aquinas speaks of God, and although we acknowledge that our
limited human intellect cannot fully grasp Him, we nevertheless
are able to say something concerning His goodness, His might,
and His creative power. Recognizing then that we are created by
God, we move on to the second part, which deals with man or
the dynamic of human life. the presence of God's grace and that
grace has become perfectly incarnate in the person of Jesus. Thus,
the third part focuses on Jesus as our Savior.
The Christian life, therefore, is about developing the capacities
given to us by God into a disposition of virtue inclined toward
the good. Aquinas also puts forward that there is within us a
conscience that directs our moral thinking. This does not refer
to some simple intuition or gut feeling. For Aquinas, there is a
sense of right and wrong in us that we are obliged to obey.
However, he also adds that this sense of right and wrong must
be informed, guided, and ultimately grounded in an objective
basis for morality.
We can recall how the ethical approach called the divine
command theory urges one toward an unthinking
obedience to religious precepts. Given the problems of this
simplistic approach to ethics, we can contrast how the
moral theory of Aquinas requires the judicious use of
reason. In doing so, one's sense of right and wrong would
be grounded on something stable: human nature itself.
EXPERIENCE
Given that the Philippines is a predominantly Christian
country, there is a good chance that you either had a
Christian upbringing, or at least would have some familiarity
with Christianity. Does your understanding of Christian
doctrine coincide with what we find stated on the previous
pages? Were you surprised by anything in that discussion?
ASSESS
Consider the following questions:
1. What details can you recall about St. Thomas Aquinas?
2. Explain how the structure of the Summa Theologiae itself
is based on the main message of the Christian faith.
3. Explain the dynamic between acts and habits and why this
is important in ethics.
CHALLENGE
The term "conscience" has entered into popular thinking as
vaguely being something within us that is somehow involved
in our moral thinking. Consider some of the common ways
that people might construe this term. Now do some online
research on conscience as discussed by Thomas Aquinas, and
compare and contrast our philosopher's discussion of it with
the popular notions.
Unit III-Lesson 2 (b)
The Greek Heritage
 Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
1. understand the sense of transcendence introduced by
Neoplatonic sources;
2. understand the Aristotelian notion of causality in its four forms,
as well as the dynamic of potentiality and act; and
3. understand the synthesis made by Thomas Aquinas that
integrates the Greek sources into a framework to better
understand the Christian story.
 The integration of Greek ideas by Thomas will provide us a
way by which we can understand what we are called on to do,
and what we are called on to become. God’s will and love is the
creative act by which every existing thing comes into being as
good but imperfect beings. God, in His infinite wisdom, directs to
each being in the very way each being is created how it reaches
its highest good, its perfection. The unique way that we have
been created can be called our nature.
The recognition of Thomas Aquinas as a Christian thinker is
sometimes an obstacle to appreciating what he has given us in his
ethics; it is easy to make the simplistic assumption that all he is
telling us to do is to abide by the commandments and obey the
Church.

This lesson is about going into some detail about the Greek
thinkers whose work was utilized and synthesized by Thomas,
such that it will provide us the background necessary to better
understand the natural law theory.
The Idea of the Good
Excerpt from The Republic
Plato
Now, that which imparts truth to the known and the power of knowing to the
knower is what would have you term the idea of good, and this you will deem
to be the cause of science, and of truth in so far as the latter becomes the
subject of knowledge; beautiful too, as are both truth and knowledge, you
will be right in esteeming this other nature as more beautiful than either;
and, as in the previous instance, light and sight may be truly said to be like the
sun, and yet not to be the sun, so in this other sphere, science and truth may
be deemed to be like the good, but not the good; the good has a place of
honor yet higher.
In his work The Republic, it is often supposed that Plato is trying to
envision the ideal society. But that plan is only part of a more
fundamental concern that animates the text, which is to provide
an objective basis and also standard for the striving to be moral. In
other words, it can be said that Plato was trying to answer
questions such as, "Why should bother trying to be good?" and
"Why cannot 'good' be just whatever I say it is?" His answer,
placed in the mouth of the main character Socrates, is that the
good is real and not something that one can pretend to make up or
ignore.
Through Neoplatonists like Plotinus, the Platonic idea of the
good would continue from the Classical Greek era well into the
Christian Middle Ages, inspiring later thinkers and allowing it to
be thought anew in a more personal way as a creative and loving
God.
The Good and the One
Excerpt from The Enneads¹
Plotinus
So do not, I urge you, look for The Good through any of these
other things; if you do, you will see not itself but its trace: you
must form the idea of that which is to be grasped cleanly
standing to itself not in any combination, the un held in which
all have hold; for no other is such, yet one such there must be.
Now it is clear that we cannot possess ourselves of the power of
this principle in its concentrated fulness: so to do one must be
identical with it: but some partial attainment is within our reach.
You who make the venture will throw forward all your being but you
will never tell it entire-for that, you must yourself be the divine
Intellect in Act and at your utmost success it will still pass from you
or, rather, you from it. In ordinary vision you may think to see the
object entire: in this intellective act, all, less or more, that you can
take to mind you may set down as The Good.
First, we recognize that any being we can see around is
corporeal, possessed of a certain materiality or physical
"stuff." We can refer to this as the material cause. A being is
individuated-it become the unique, individual being that it is-
because it is made up of this particular stuff. Yet, we also
realize that this material takes on a particular shape: so a bird
is different from a cat, which is different from a man, The
"shape" that makes a being a particular kind can be called its
form. Thus, each being also has a formal cause.
One can also realize that a being does not simply "pop up" from
nothing, but comes from another being which is prior to it.
Parents beget a child. A mango tree used to be a seed that itself
came from an older tree. A chair is built as the product of a
carpenter. Thus, there is something which brings about the
presence of another being. This can be referred to as the
efficient cause. Also, since a being has an apparent end or goal, a
chair to be sat on, a pen for writing, a seed to become a tree, or
a child to become an adult, one can speak of the final cause of
each being.
Identifying these four causes

• Material cause
• Formal cause
• Efficient cause
• Final cause
In one sense, then,
(1) that out of which a thing comes to be and which persists, is
called "cause," for example, the bronze of the statue, the
silver of the bowl, and the genera of which the bronze and the
silver are species.
In another sense
(2) the form or the archetype, that is, the statement of the
essence and its genera are called "causes" (e.g., of the octave the
relation of 2:1, and generally number), and the parts in the
definition.
(3) the primary source of the change or coming to rest; for
example, the man who gave advice is a cause, the father is
cause of the child, and generally what makes of what is made
and what causes change of what is changed.
(4) in the sense of end or "that for the sake of which" a thing
is done, for example, health is the cause of walking about.
• ("Why is he walking about?" we say.
"To be healthy," and, having said that, we think we have
assigned the cause.)
• The same is true also of all the intermediate steps which
are brought about through the action of something else as
means towards the end
Synthesis
The idea of a transcendent good prior to all being resurfaces in
Aquinas in the form of the good and loving God, who is Himself
the fullness of being and of goodness; as Aquinas puts it, God is
that which essentially is and is essentially good. So, we
recognize that all beings are only possible as participating in the
first being, which is God Himself, God's act, like an emanation
of light, is the creation of beings.
Insofar as God is that from which all beings come, it is possible
for us to speak of Him as the first efficient cause. Insofar as
God is that toward which all beings seek to return, it is possible
for us to speak of Him as the final cause. We can see here the
beginning of the synthesis by noting how the Neoplatonic
movement from-and back to-the transcendent is being fused
with the Aristotelian notion of causes.
It must be noted, though, that this is not some mechanistic
unthinking process. It is God's will and love that are the true
cause of all things; the creative act by which every existing
thing comes into being is a matter of God willing some good
10 Creation is the activity of the outpouring or overflowing of
God's goodness. Since each being in this way participates in
God's goodness, each being is in some sense good.
However, while beings are good because they are created by God,
the goodness possessed by beings remains imperfect. Only God in
the fullness of His being and goodness is perfect; all other beings
are participating in this goodness, and are good to that extent, but
are imperfect since they are limited in their participation." But,
once again, God did not create us to simply be imperfect and to
stay that way as He leaves us alone. Instead, God, in His infinite
wisdom, directs how we are to arrive at our perfection.
This nature, as a participation in God's goodness, is both
good and imperfect at the same time. Coming from God, it
is good, but in its limitations, it has yet to be perfected. This
means there is a need to fulfil our nature the best we can,
in order to fully realize what God had intended for us to be.
We accomplish this by fulfilling or actualizing the potencies
that are already present in our nature.
While all beings are created by God in order to return to Him, the
way the human being is directed toward God is unique.15 Given
that we are beings with a capacity for reason, our way of reaching
God is by knowing and loving him. It is of key importance then that
the presence of a capacity for reason is the prime characteristic of
the kind of beings we are, and how that capacity for reason is the
very tool which God had placed in our human nature as the way
toward our perfection and return to Him.
EXPERIENCE
The Christian message and metaphysical picture contain an
affirmation that since all beings are created by God, all beings
are fundamentally good. Does your own personal experience
make you more inclined to agree with this belief or to
question it? Explain your reasons.
Unit III-Lesson 2c
The Essence and Varieties of Law
 Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
1. define the essence of law;
2. identify the varieties of law; and
3. explain the relations among each other of the different
varieties of law.
A law is concerned with the common good. The making of a
law belongs either to the whole people or to a public person
who has care for the common good or is tasked with the
concern for the good of the community or of the whole
people.
THINK
In what follows, we try to make sense of what the law is, not by
immediately positing a one-sentence definition, but arriving at
it after a discussion on the use of reason to pursue goods, and
how this requires proper measure. Once this brings us to the
essence of law, we explore the varieties of law designated by
Thomas, which will later allow us to better focus on the natural
law.
Varieties
• We have noted earlier how God, by His wisdom, is the Creator of all
beings. By saying this, we do not only recognize God as the source of
these beings, but also acknowledge the way they have been created and
the way they could return to Him, which is the work of His divine reason
itself.
• Aquinas writes: "He governs all the acts and movements that are to be
found in each single creature...so the type of Divine Wisdom, as moving
all things to their due end, bears the character of law." This line involves
the assertion that the divine wisdom that directs each being toward its
proper end can be called the eternal law.
"Eternal law“
• refers to what God wills for creation, how each participant in it is
intended to return to Him. Given our limitations, we cannot grasp the
fullness of the eternal law.
• We can and should recognize that first, we are part of the eternal law,
• all beings are already created by God in a certain way intended to return
to Him.
• can be determined in the very inclinations that they possess, directing
their acts toward their proper ends.
On the other hand, the human being's participation is different.
The human being, as rational, participates more fully and perfectly
in the law given our capacity for reason. The unique imprint upon
us, upon our human nature by God, is the capacity to think about
what is good and what is evil, and to choose and direct ourselves
appropriately. So Aquinas writes: "Wherefore it has a share of the
Eternal Reason, whereby it has a natural inclination to its proper
act and end: and this participation of the eternal law in the rational
creature is called the natural law."
Therefore, by looking at our human nature, at the natural
inclinations given to us by God, we can, with the use of
reason, determine the rule and measure that should be
directing our acts.
EXPERIENCE
From your own experience and observation, which of the
following do you think seems to have the greatest influence on
the behavior of people: natural law, human law, or divine law?
Explain your answer.
Unit III-Lesson 2d
Natural Law
 Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
1. identify the aspect of the natural law referring to what is
shared by all beings;
2. identify the aspect of the natural law referring to what is shared
by animals; and
3. identify the aspect of the natural law referring to what is
uniquely human.
 There is in our nature, common with all other beings, a
desire to preserve one’s own being. There is also in our human
nature, common with other animals, a desire that has to do with
sexual intercourse and the care of one’s offspring. After the first
two inclinations, Aquinas teaches that we have an inclination to
good according to the nature of our reason, a natural inclination
to know the truth about God and to live in society.
We have seen in earlier lessons the metaphysical picture of the
Christian story reframed using the concepts and terms of ancient
Greek thinkers. We then noted the recapitulation of this picture
using the more accessible political analogy, thinking of the same,
but now in terms of governance and rules. Since the topic of law
in its essence and its varieties have already been introduced, we
are now in a position to assess the details of the natural law
theory, and look more closely at how it provides a basis for moral
valuation..
THINK:
The Natural Law - Summa Theologiae 1-2, Question 94, Article 2
Thomas Aquinas:
• the nature of an end, and evil, the nature of a contrary, hence it is that all
those things to which man has a natural inclination, are naturally
apprehended by reason as being good, and consequently as objects of
pursuit, and their contraries as evil, and objects of avoidance..
• natural inclinations, is the order of the precepts of the natural law.
Because in man there is first of all an inclination to good in accordance
with the nature which he has in common with all substances
• an inclination to things that pertain to him more specially,
according to that nature which he has in common with other
animals: and in virtue of this inclination, those things are said
to belong to the natural law, "which nature has taught to all
animals," such as sexual intercourse, education of off spring
and so forth.

• an inclination to good, according to the nature of his reason,

which nature is proper to him: thus man has a natural
inclination to know the truth about God, and to live in society:
and in this respect, whatever pertains to this inclination
belongs to the natural law
In Common with Other Beings
• human beings, are both unique and at the same time participating
in the community of the rest of creation, Our presence in the rest
of creation does not only mean that we interact with creatures that
are not human, but that there is also in our created nature
something that shares in the nature of all other created beings.
In Common with Other Animals
• common with other animals, a desire that has to do with
sexual intercourse and the care of one's off spring.
• In human beings, too, that natural inclination to engage in
the sexual act and to reproduce exists
• An ethical issue that is hotly contested in some parts of the world is
whether abortion is acceptable. From the stance of the natural law, the
act of preventing the emergence of new life would be considered
unacceptable.
• On the other hand, it is bad to abuse the young, to force children into
hard labor, or to deprive them of basic needs or otherwise abuse them
in a physical or emotional way.
Aquinas presents a third point which states that we
have an inclination to good according to the nature
of our reason. With this, we have a natural inclination
to know the truth about God and to live in society. It
is of interest that this is followed by matters of both
an epistemic and a social concern.
First, we had been presented with these three inclinations as
bases for moral valuation. In light of this, we know that
preserving the self is good. Contrary to common
misconception, the sexual inclination and the sexual act are
considered good things, not something to be deplored or
dismissed. However, reason is not only another inclination
that we have that is in par with the others. Instead, reason is
the defining part of human nature.
Second, recognizing how being rational is what is proper to man,
the apparent vagueness of the third inclination that Aquinas
mentions is counter-balanced by the recognition that he is not
interested in providing precepts that one would simply.
unthinkingly, follow. To say that the human being is rational is to
recognize that we should take up the burden of thinking
carefully how a particular act may or may not be a violation of
our nature. It is to take the trouble to think carefully about how
our acts would either contribute to, or detract from, the
common good.
ASSESS
Consider the following questions:
1. What is characteristic of the nature shared by all beings?
2. What is characteristic of the nature shared by all animals?
3. What concerns emerge from the nature of human beings as
rational?