AN INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH

A Comprehensive Course Book

Designed for LLB-1

Compiled by: Afshan Ishfaq

M.Phil. Applied Linguistics
Lecturer
Reviewed by: Humaira Jahangir
PHD Scholar (Applied Linguistics)
Lancaster University
Lecturer
 Content List
Part 1: Grammar
1. Parts of Speech
2. Phrases and Clauses
3. Clause Pattern
4. Sentence Structures and Patterns
5. Sentence Type
6. Transitive and Intransitive
7. Active and Passive Voice
8. Direct and Indirect Speech
9. Punctuations
Part 2: Language Skills
Reading Skills
1. Types of Reading Skills
2. Speed Reading
3. Summary and Precise Writing
4. Comprehension Reading
Writing Skills
 1. Paragraph Writing
2. Essay Writing and its Types
3. Translational Skills

Listening Skills
1. Note Taking
2. Notes Making
3. Smart Notes
Speaking Skills
1. Conversational Codes
2. Presentation skills
3. Effective Speaking Skills
Part 3: Technical Writing
1. Letter Writing
2. Memo Writing
3. CV Making
4. Minutes of Meeting
5. Formal and Informal Report writing
 Part 1
Grammar
 1. Parts of Speech
1. Noun and Its Types

Anything that refers to a Place, person, thing or an idea

Persons, places, animals: Tom, Australia, Cat
Objects and substances: chair, water, table
Qualities: beauty, kindness, arrogance
Actions (as nouns): cooking, dancing, sleeping
Types of Nouns
1. Common and Proper Nouns
2. Countable and Non-Countable Nouns
3. Collective Nouns
4. Abstract Nouns
5. Possessive Nouns
Common and Proper Nouns:
A common noun is the word used for a class of person, place or thing.
Example: car, man, city, iron, liquid, company, etc.
A proper noun is the name of a particular or specific person, place or thing. A proper
noun always starts with a capital letter.
Example: Alfred, Asia, Brazil

Countable and Non-Countable Nouns:

I. A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form,
and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count.
Example: John painted the table red and the chairs blue.
II. A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun that does not have a plural form
and that refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count.
Example: Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.

Collective Nouns:
A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You could
count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as one
unit.
Example: The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight.

Abstract Nouns:
Abstract nouns are used to describe emotions, qualities or feelings.
Examples: Honesty, goodness, kindness, etc.

Possessive Nouns:
When we want to show that something belongs to somebody or something, we
usually add ('s) to a singular noun and an apostrophe to a plural noun.
Example: The boy's ball.

Nouns as adjectives:
Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, the first noun acts
as an adjective.
Example: Race horse.
 2. Pronouns and Its Types

A pronoun is defined as a word or phrase that is used as a substitution for a noun or

noun phrase, which is known as the pronoun’s antecedent. Pronouns are short words
and can do everything that nouns can do and are one of the building blocks of a
sentence.
Types of Pronouns
1. Indefinite pronouns
2. Personal pronouns
3. Reflexive pronouns
4. Demonstrative pronouns
5. Possessive pronouns
6. Relative pronouns
7. Interrogative pronouns
8. Reciprocal pronouns
9. Intensive pronouns
Indefinite pronouns:
Those referring to one or more unspecified objects, beings, or places, such as
someone, anybody, nothing. Notice in the examples below that there is no set
position for where an indefinite pronoun will appear in a sentence.
Indefinite pronoun examples:
1. Anyone
2. Somebody
3. Whichever
4. Whoever
5. Other
6. Something
7. Nobody
Indefinite pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.
• Would anyone like a coffee?
• Take whatever you like. Jamie took one cookie and Ben took the other.
• Whoever owns this is in big trouble! I want someone to move this now.
Indefinite pronouns can also be used to create sentences that are almost abstract.
Examples could include: this, all, such and something.
• All was not lost.
• Such is life.
• Something tells me this won’t end well.
Personal pronouns:
Those associated with a certain person, thing, or group; all except you have distinct
forms that indicate singular or plural number. Personal pronouns are always specific
and are often used to replace a proper noun (someone’s name) or a collective group
of people or things. Personal pronouns have two main groups, one referring to the
subject of the sentence and one to the object.
The first is used to replace the subject of the sentence: I, you, he, she, it, we, you and
they. Notice that ‘you’ is repeated as you can be singular, addressing one person, or
plural, addressing a group of people.
Personal pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.
Jack and David are friends. They play basketball together.
I have more money than he
We will be late if you don’t hurry up.
The second group of pronouns replaces the object of the sentence: me, you, him, her,
it, us, you, them. Consider the sentence again:
We will be late if you don’t hurry up.
In the above example, ‘we’ is the subject of the sentence, but ‘you’ is the object.
Other examples of pronouns replacing the object:
Peter sang the song to me.
Missing the train will cause us to be late.
She packed them tightly in the suitcase.
Reflexive pronouns:
Those preceded by the adverb, adjective, pronoun, or noun to which they refer, and
ending in –self or –selves. Reflexive pronouns are used to refer back to the subject
or clause of a sentence. The list of reflexive pronouns includes: Myself, yourself,
himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
Reflexive pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.
Count yourselves
Annie only had herself to blame.
Peter and Paul had baked themselves cakes.
Demonstrative pronouns:
Those used to point to something specific within a sentence. There are only four
demonstrative pronouns – this, that, these, those – but the usage can be a bit tricky
at times. This and that are singular, whereas these and those are plural. As you may
have noticed, there can be some crossover with indefinite pronouns when using this
and that.
Demonstrative pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.
I prefer this.
These are beautiful, but those belong to Danny.
Did you see that?
While it can be confusing, this, that, these and those can sometimes be used as
demonstrative adjectives. The difference between the two is that a demonstrative
pronoun replaces the noun and a demonstrative adjective qualifies the noun.
I prefer this photo. These flowers are beautiful, but those vases belong to Danny.
Did you see that rainbow?
It should be clear that this, that, these and those in the example above are not
pronouns because they are being used to qualify the noun, but not replace it. A good
trick for remembering the difference is that a demonstrative pronoun would still
make sense if the word one or ones followed it in the sentence.
I prefer this (one). These (ones) are beautiful. Did you see that (one)? Those (ones)
belong to Danny.
Possessive pronouns:
Those designating possession or ownership. Examples include: mine, its, hers, his,
yours, ours, theirs, whose. Consider the example:
This cat is mine.
Mine is indicating possession, that the cat belongs to me. Incidentally, this in the
sentence is not a pronoun but demonstrative adjective as it qualifies the noun cat.
You will find that possessive pronouns often follow phrases that contain
demonstrative adjectives.
Possessive pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.
Are these bananas yours?
This money is ours.
Is the fault theirs or yours?
Relative pronouns:
Those which refer to nouns mentioned previously, acting to introduce an adjective
(relative) clause. They will usually appear after a noun to help clarify the sentence
or give extra information. Examples include: who, which, that, whom, whose.
Consider the following sentence:
The man who stole the car went to jail. The relative pronoun who acts to refer back
to the noun man. It acts to open a clause by identifying the man as not just any man,
but the one who stole the car. Relative pronoun examples in the following sentences
are in bold for easy identification.
The table, which sits in the hallway, is used for correspondence.
The car that crashed into the wall was blue.
This is the woman, whose key you found.
Interrogative pronouns:
Those which introduce a question. Examples include: who, whom, whose, what,
which. We can usually identify an interrogative pronoun by the fact that they often
appear at the beginning of a question.
Interrogative pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.
Who will come to the party?
Which do you prefer?
What do you need?
Whose clothes are on the floor?
Whom did you tell?
Whom and who are often confused, and even native speakers will use them
incorrectly. Who will replace the subject of a sentence, whereas whom will replace
the direct or indirect object. A good tip for deciding which to use is that you can
replace who in the sentence with a personal pronoun and it will still make sense.
Who will come to the party? I will come to the party. The same system would not
work for Whom did you tell? I did you tell.
Reciprocal pronouns:
Those expressing mutual actions or relationship; i.e. one another.
There are just two reciprocal pronouns in English: one another and each other. They
are mainly used to stop unnecessary repetition in a sentence, but also to reinforce the
idea that collective and reciprocal actions are happening to more than one person or
thing. John and Mary gave each other gifts. Using each other allows us the sentence
to be more efficient than: John gave Mary a gift and Mary gave a gift to John. The
countries worked with one another on national security. In this example, one another
works to suggest that the action of working is being reciprocated back and forth by
more than one country.
Reciprocal pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.
The boxers punched each other
The couple love one another deeply
Intensive pronouns:
Those ending in –self or –selves and that serve to emphasize their antecedents. These
are almost identical to reflexive pronouns, but rather than just referring back to the
subject of the sentence they work to reinforce the action. In many cases, the sentence
would still make sense without the intensive pronoun.
Intensive pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.
I will do it myself.
We made this pie ourselves.
A nation speaks for itself through elections.
Notice how the intensive pronoun is working to emphasize the statement. The
sentence would still technically be correct without the intensive pronoun, but it adds
some important context to its meaning.
Pronoun Rules
There are a few important rules for using pronouns. As you read through these rules
and the examples in the next section, notice how the pronoun rules are followed.
Soon you’ll see that pronouns are easy to work with.
Subject pronouns may be used to begin sentences. For example: We did a great job.
1. Subject pronouns may also be used to rename the subject. For example: It was
she who decided we should go to Hawaii.
2. Indefinite pronouns don’t have antecedents. They are capable of standing on
their own. For example: No one likes the sound of fingernails on a chalkboard.
3. Object pronouns are used as direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of
prepositions. These include: you, me, him, her, us, them, and it.
For example: David talked to her about the mistake.
4. Possessive pronouns show ownership. They do not need apostrophes.
Examples of Pronouns
We are going on vacation.
Don’t tell me that you can’t go with us.
Anybody who says it won’t be fun has no clue what they are talking about.
These are terribly steep stairs.
We ran into each other at the mall.
I’m not sure which is worse: rain or snow.
It is one of the nicest Italian restaurants in town.
Richard stared at himself in the mirror.
The laundry isn’t going to do itself.
Someone spilled orange juice all over the countertop!
 3. Adjectives and Its Types

An adjective describes or modifies noun/s and pronoun/s in a sentence. It normally

indicates quality, size, shape, duration, feelings, contents, and more about a noun or
pronoun. Adjectives usually provide relevant information about the nouns/pronouns
they modify/describe by answering the questions: What kind? How many? Which
one? How much? Adjectives enrich your writing by adding precision and originality
to it.
Example: o The team has a dangerous batsman. (What kind?) o I have ten candies
in my pocket. (How many?) o I loved that red car. (Which one?) o I earn more
money than he does. (How much?)

Types of Adjectives
1. Descriptive Adjectives
2. Quantitative Adjectives
3. Proper Adjectives
4. Demonstrative Adjectives
5. Possessive Adjectives
6. Interrogative Adjectives
7. Indefinite Adjectives
8. Articles
9. Compound Adjectives

Descriptive Adjectives
A descriptive adjective is a word which describes nouns and pronouns. Most of the
adjectives belong in this type. These adjectives provide information and attribute to
the nouns/pronouns they modify or describe. Descriptive adjectives are also called
qualitative adjectives. Participles are also included in this type of adjective when
they modify a noun. Examples: I have a fast car. (The word ‘fast’ is describing an
attribute of the car) I am hungry. (The word ‘hungry’ is providing information about
the subject) The hungry cats are crying. I saw a flying Eagle.
Quantitative Adjectives:
A quantitative adjective provides information about the quantity of the
nouns/pronouns. This type belongs to the question category of ‘how much’ and
‘how many’. Examples: o I have 20 bucks in my wallet. (How much) They have
three children. (How many) o You should have completed the whole task. (How
much)
Proper Adjectives:
Proper adjectives are the adjective form of proper nouns. When proper nouns modify
or describe other nouns/pronouns, they become proper adjectives. ‘Proper’ means
‘specific’ rather than ‘formal’ or ‘polite.’
A proper adjective allows us to summarize a concept in just one word. Instead of
writing/saying ‘a food cooked in Chinese recipe’ you can write/say ‘Chinese food’.
Proper adjectives are usually capitalized as proper nouns are.
Example: American cars are very strong.
Chinese people are hard workers.
I love KFC burgers.
Marxist philosophers despise capitalism.
Demonstrative Adjectives:
A demonstrative adjective directly refers to something or someone.
Demonstrative adjectives include the words:this, that, these, those.
A demonstrative pronoun works alone and does not precede a noun, but a
demonstrative adjective always comes before the word it modifies.
Examples: That building is so gorgeously decorated. (‘That’ refers to a singular
noun far from the speaker)
This car is mine. (‘This’ refers to a singular noun close to the speaker)
These cats are cute. (‘These’ refers to a plural noun close to the speaker)
Those flowers are heavenly. (‘Those’ refers to a plural noun far from the speaker)
Possessive Adjectives:
A possessive adjective indicates possession or ownership. It suggests the
belongingness of something to someone/something. Some of the most used
possessive adjectives are my, his, her, our, their, your. All these adjectives
always come before a noun. Unlike possessive pronouns, these words demand a
noun after them.
Examples:
My car is parked outside.
His cat is very cute.
Our job is almost done.
Her books are interesting.
Interrogative Adjectives:
An interrogative adjective asks a question. An interrogative adjective must be
followed by a noun or a pronoun. The interrogative adjectives are: which, what,
whose. These words will not be considered as adjectives if a noun does not follow
right after them. ‘Whose’ also belongs to the possessive adjective type. Examples: o
Which phone do you use? o What game do you want to play? o Whose car is this?
Indefinite Adjectives:
An indefinite adjective describes or modifies a noun unspecifically. They provide
indefinite/unspecific information about the noun. The common indefinite
adjectives are few, many, much, most, all, any, each, every, either, nobody,
several, some, etc.
Examples:
I gave some candy to her.
I want a few moments alone.
Several writers wrote about the recent incidents.
Each student will have to submit homework tomorrow.
Articles
Articles also modify the nouns. So, articles are also adjectives. Articles determine
the specification of nouns. ‘A’ and ‘an’ are used to refer to an unspecific noun, and
‘the’ is used to refer to a specific noun.
Examples:
A cat is always afraid of water
The cat is afraid of me.
An electronic product should always be handled with care.
Compound Adjectives:
When compound nouns/combined words modify other nouns, they become a
compound adjective. This type of adjective usually combines more than one word
into a single lexical unit and modifies a noun. They are often separated by a hyphen
or joined together by a quotation mark.
Example:
I have a broken-down sofa.
I saw a six-foot-long snake.
He gave me an “I’m gonna kill you now” look.
The Degree of Adjectives:
There are three degrees of adjectives: Positive, comparative, superlative.
These degrees are applicable only for the descriptive adjectives.
Examples:
Positive degree: He is a good boy.
Comparative degree: He is better than any other boy.
Superlative: He is the best boy.
 4. Verbs and Its Types

Verbs are the action words in a sentence that describe what the subject is doing.
Along with nouns, verbs are the main part of a sentence or phrase, telling a story
about what is taking place. In fact, without a verb, full thoughts can’t be properly
conveyed, and even the simplest sentences, such as Maria sings, have one. Actually,
a verb can be a sentence by itself, with the subject, in most case you, implied, such
as, Sing! and Drive!
How to Recognize a Verb?
As you can see from the examples above, one clue to help you recognize a verb is
its location compared to the subject. Verbs almost always come after a noun or
pronoun. These nouns and pronouns are referred to as the subject. The
verb thought comes after the noun Jack, so the action Jack (subject) was taking
was thinking (verb).
Types of Verbs
1. Auxiliary and Lexical Verbs
2. Finite and Nonfinite Verbs
3. Regular and Irregular Verbs
4. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
5. Performative Verbs
6. Mental State Verbs
7. A Prepositional Verbs
Auxiliary and Lexical Verbs
An auxiliary verb (also known as a helping verb) determines the mood or tense of
another verb in a phrase. In the sentence, "It will rain tonight," for example, the verb
"will" helps the verb "rain" by explaining that the action will take place in the future.
The primary auxiliaries are the various forms of be, have, and do. The modal
auxiliaries include can, could, may, must, should, will, and would.
A lexical verb (also known as a full or main verb) is any verb in English that isn't an
auxiliary verb: It conveys a real meaning and doesn't depend on another verb, such
as, "It rained all night.
Finite and Nonfinite Verbs
A finite verb expresses tense and can occur on its own in a main clause: "She walked
to school." A nonfinite verb (an infinitive or participle) doesn't show a distinction
in tense and can occur on its own only in a dependent phrase or clause: "While
walking to school, she saw blue parrot"
Regular and Irregular Verbs
A regular verb (also known as a weak verb) forms its past tense and past participle
by adding -d or -ed (or in some cases -t) to the base form: "We finished the project."
An irregular verb (also known as a strong verb) doesn't form the past tense by adding
-d or -ed: “James ate the wrapper on his candy bar."
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
A transitive verb is followed by a direct object: "She sells seashells." By contrast, an
intransitive verb doesn't take a direct object: "She sat there quietly." This distinction
is especially tricky because many verbs have both transitive and intransitive
functions.
Performative Verbs
"Performative verbs name actions that are performed, wholly or partly, by saying
something (state, promise); non-performative verbs name other types of actions,
types of action which are independent of speech (walk, sleep),”
E.g: "As your lawyer, your brother, and your friend, I highly recommend that you
get a better lawyer,"
Mental State Verbs
Mental-state verb is a verb with a meaning related to understanding, discovering,
planning, or deciding. Mental-state verbs refer to cognitive states that are generally
unavailable for outside evaluation. Also known as a mental verb.
Common mental-state verbs in English include know, think, learn, understand,
perceive, feel, guess, recognize, notice, want, wish, hope, decide, expect, prefer,
remember, forget, imagine, and believe.
A Prepositional Verbs
A prepositional verb is an idiomatic expression that combines a verb and a
preposition to make a new verb with a distinct meaning. Some examples of
prepositional verbs in English are care for, long for, apply for, approve of, add to,
resort to, result in, count on, and deal with.
The preposition in a prepositional verb is generally followed by a noun or pronoun,
and thus prepositional verbs are transitive.
E.g: "God has cared for these trees, saved them from drought, disease, avalanches,
and a thousand tempests and floods. But he cannot save them from fools."
 5. Adverbs

An adverb is a word/a set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
It tells when, where, and how an action is performed or indicates the quality or
degree of the action.
Many adverbs end in -ly but some words which end in -ly (such as friendly) are not
adverbs. Many words can be both adverbs and adjectives according to their activity
in the sentence.
Examples:
Robin is always hungry for success.
She loves her cat very much.
He is running fast
Alex works hard.
He wrote that willingly.
Adverb Clauses and Adverb Phrases are clauses and phrases that modify the verbs,
adjectives or other adverbs in the sentence.
Example:
He ran toward the bus until he was tired. (Adverb Clause)
He came carrying his box with two hands. (Adverb Phrase)
We were panicked without any reason. (Adverb Phrase)
Types of Adverbs:
1. Conjunctive Adverbs
2. Sentence Adverbs
3. Adverbs of Time/Frequency (When?)
4. Adverbs of Place/Direction (Where?)
5. Adverbs of Degree (How Much?)
6. Adverbs of Manner (How?)
Conjunctive Adverbs:
A conjunctive adverb connects phrases or independent clauses. It provides
transitions between ideas and shows relationships. Conjunctive adverbs are also
called connectors.
Example
It rained last night. Nonetheless, the final match has not been canceled.
We are still confused, however, if the umpires will come.
Last season there was a great drought; consequently, we could not grow crops.
Sentence Adverbs:
A sentence adverb starts the sentence and modifies the whole sentence.
Example:
Hopefully, we will win the match.
Apparently, the sky is getting cloudy.
Certainly, I did not think of coming here.
Adverbs of Place/Direction (Where?)
Adverbs of place/direction that indicate place/direction of the action in the
sentence. They answer the question ‘where is the action performed?’. Across, over,
under, in, out, through, backward, there, around, here, sideways, upstairs, in the park,
in the field, in that place, etc. are some common adverbs of place/direction.
Example:
I went through the jungle.
He plays in the field.
Alex is going to school.
He is staying at my home.
Adverbs of Degree (How Much?)
Adverbs that express the importance/degree/level of the action in the sentence are
called adverbs of degree.
They answer the question ‘how much is the action performed?’. Completely, nearly,
entirely, less, mildly, most, thoroughly, somewhat, excessively, much, etc. are
common adverbs of degree.
Example:
She completely forgot about her anniversary.
I read the newspaper thoroughly.
I am so excited about the new job.
Robin hardly studies
Adverbs of Manner (How?)
Adverbs that express the manner/approach/process of the action in the sentence are
called adverbs of manner. They answer the question ‘how is the action performed?’.
Beautifully, equally, thankfully, carefully, handily, quickly, coldly, hotly, resentfully,
earnestly, nicely, tirelessly, etc. are common adverbs of manner. These adverbs
usually end in ly.
Example
Let's divide the prizes equally.
Please, handle the camera carefully.
Mike is walking slowly.
He is running fast.
 6. Conjunctions
Conjunctions are used to join clauses, phrases, and words together for constructing
sentences. Conjunctions make a link between/among words or groups of words to
other parts of the sentence and show a relationship between/among them.
Examples:
Alex and Robin are playing together.
Alex plays well, but Robin plays better than him
I play cricket and Robin plays football.
When he was sick, I went to see him.
Types of Conjunctions
1. Coordinating Conjunction
2. Correlative Conjunction
3. Subordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunctions:
The job of a coordinating conjunction is to join two words, phrases, or independent
clauses, which are parallel in structure. There are seven coordinating conjunctions
which are by far the most common conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet.
Example:
We went to the stadium and enjoyed the cricket match.
Do you want an ice cream or chocolate?
Go away and never come back.

Correlative Conjunctions:
Correlative conjunction uses a set of words in a parallel sentence structure to show
a contrast or to compare the equal parts of a sentence. The words of correlative
conjunctions have a special connection between them.
The correlative conjunctions are not only - but also, either- or, neither - nor, both -
and, not - but, whether - or.
Example:
Neither Alex nor Robin can play baseball.
I want both ice cream and cola
He ate not only the ice cream but also the chocolate.
Subordinating Conjunctions:
A subordinating conjunction joins elements of an unparalleled sentence structure.
These elements are usually a dependent clause and an independent clause.
Most commonly used subordinating conjunctions are:
After, how, than, when, although, if, that, where, as, in order that, though, which, as
much as, inasmuch as, unless, while, because, provided, until, who/whom, before,
since, what, whoever/whomever.
Example:
Before we left home, I had had my breakfast.
Provided they come, we can start class Tuesday.
When he was washing my car, I went to the store.
Even though the weather was horrible, they still went outside
 7. Interjections

Interjection can be defined as an interjection or exclamation is a word used to

express a particular emotion or sentiment on the part of the speaker (although most
interjections have clear definitions).
Explanation
An interjection is one of the parts of speech used to express a particular emotion or
sentiment (strong feeling or sudden emotion like surprise, joy, excitement, disgust,
enthusiasm, sorrow, approval, calling, attention, etc) of the speaker to the reader.
Interjection words are generally used at the beginning of a sentence. Sometimes, it
is used as a single word or non-sentence phrase and followed by the punctuation
mark.
Some other interjection words used as introductory expressions such as yes, no,
well, indeed, etc. A comma (for a mild interjection) or an exclamation mark (for
surprising, emotional, or deep feeling interjections) is used after the use of an
interjection word in a sentence.
List/Words
Aah, Ahh, Aww, Bingo, Eh, Eww, Wow, Hey, Well, What, Hurrah, Hmph, Oh,
Oops, Ouch, Shh, Uh oh, Whew, Yay/Yaay, Yeah, Yikes, Yippee, Uh, Hush,
Hmm, Er, Um, Bravo, Hello, Ugh, Ah, Ha ha, Well done, Alas, Fie, Hi, Yes, Ouch,
Help, Happy Birthday, Good morning, dear, Hark, oops, huh, yum, oy, etc.
Examples:
Good! Now we can celebrate the party.
Oh, what’s a surprise
Hey! Get out of the building
Yes! I can do it easily
No! I run so long
Well! I have a good news
Types of Interjection
Interjection is divided into the following types on the basis of ways to express
interjections in the sentence such as greeting, joy, surprise, approval, sorrow,
attention, and calling.
Interjections for Greeting
type of interjection is used in the sentence to indicate the emotion of warmth to the
person meeting with such as hey, hello, hi, etc
For example:
Hey! Nice to see you here in the party.
Hello! I am Pooja.
Interjections for Joy
This type of interjection is used in the sentence to indicate immediate joy and
happiness on any happy occasion that occurred such as hurrah, wow, hurray, etc.
For example:
Wow! You are looking gorgeous.
Hurray! We successfully won this football match.
Interjections for Approval
This type of interjection is used in the sentence to express the strong sense of
approval or agreement for something that has happened such as well done, bravo,
brilliant, etc.
For example:
Well done! You win the race.
Bravo! The first rank is yours this year.
Interjections for Attention
This type of interjection is used in the sentence to draw the attention of someone
such as look, behold, listen, hush, etc.
For example:
Look! You so arrogant.
Listen! I have never copied you.
Behold! Someone strange is there.
Interjections for Surprise
This type of interjection is used in the sentence to express the strong sense of
surprise about something that has happened such as ha, what, hey, ah, oh, eh, etc.
For example:
What! You failed.
Oh! Really you completed the task, I can't believe.
Ah! I got new job.
Interjections for Sorrow
This type of interjection is used in the sentence to express the emotion of sadness
about something unfortunate that has happened such as alas, ouch, ah, oh, etc.
For example:
Alas! He is no more.
Ouch! It's very paining.
Interjections for Understanding/Misunderstanding
Interjections of understanding and misunderstanding are used to express one's
understanding of a subject being talked about or something which wasn’t well
understood before the moment.
 8. Prepositions
A word which expresses relationship of a noun or a pronoun to other words of the
sentences. A proposition is used before a noun or pronoun to show the relationship
of the same noun or pronoun to other words of the sentence. For Example: in, of,
to, at, by, for, with, under, above, into, onto, upon, about, behind, beside, before,
after, towards, Inside, outside, below, around.

There are Six types of Prepositions

1. Preposition of time
2. Preposition of place
3. Preposition of direction
4. Preposition of agent
 5. Preposition of Instrument
6. Prepositional verbs
Preposition of time:
Prepositions are used to refer to time in various aspects. e.g. at, on, in.

Example:
She was born in 1986
His father died in 2005 in a car accident
I was very happy on the first day of my job
We went to see glaciers in the summer
The party will start at 8PM

2. Preposition for Place:

These prepositions are used for a place having some sort of boundary (physical or
virtual), surface place and specific place e.g. on, at, in

Examples
They live in England
They placed their books on a table
I met him at the bus stop
She waited for her kids at the gate of her home
There’s a cat under a table
Preposition of Direction:
These prepositions express the direction of something e.g. into, through, towards
Example
They are going to classroom
The snake was coming towards her
He threw a ball into a river
Preposition of Agent
These prepositions are used to express a causal relationship between the noun and
an action e.g. by, with
Examples
A nice book written by John Keats
A lot of noise was made by the kids
The task was finished by him
Prepositions for Instruments, Devices or Machines:
These prepositions are used for joining nouns (instruments, devices, machines) to
other words in the sentence e.g. on, by, with, with the help of
Examples:
He went to home by a car
This lock cannot be opened with the key
She watered the plants with the help of water-pipe
He broke the wall with a hammer
Prepositional Verbs:
Prepositional verbs are a combination of a verb and a preposition. It is simply a verb
followed by a preposition
Some verbs require specific prepositions to be used after them in a sentence. The
combination of such a verb and its required prepositions is called a prepositional
verb.
Prepositional Verb = Verb + Preposition
Example:
She is waiting for him.
He is knocking at the door.
She is listening to the music.
The kids are laughing at a joker
We believe in God
She is suffering from fever
I agree with you
I agree to your proposal
 2. Sentence Pattern, Types and Structure

A. Types of Sentence Structure

1. Simple Sentence Structure
2. Compound Sentence Structure
3. Complex Sentence Structure
4. Compound- compound Structure
Simple Sentence Structure
A simple sentence consists of one independent clause. (An independent clause
contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought.)
Independent Clause
Examples
I like coffee.
Mary likes tea.
The earth goes round the sun.
Mary did not go to the party.
Compound Sentence Structure
A compound sentence is two (or more) independent clauses joined by a
conjunction or semi-colon. Each of these clauses could form a sentence alone.
Independent clause------ Coordinating Conjunction------ Independent Clause
Examples:
I like coffee and Mary likes tea.
Mary went to work but John went to the party.
Our car broke down; we came last.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions:
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so
Complex Sentence Structure A complex sentence consists of an independent
clause plus a dependent clause. (A dependent clause starts with a subordinating
conjunction or a relative pronoun, and contains a subject and verb, but does not
express a complete thought.)
Independent Clause------ Subordinating Conjunction------ Dependent Clause
Examples
We missed our plane because we were late.
Our dog barks when she hears a noise.
He left in a hurry after he got a phone call.
Do you know the man who is talking to Mary?
Here are some common subordinating conjunctions:
after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till,
until, when, where, whether, while
Here are the five basic relative pronouns:
that, which, who, whom, whose
Compound-Complex Sentence Structure
A compound-complex sentence consists of at least two independent clauses and
one or more dependent clauses.
Independent clause------ Subordinating Conjunction------ Dependent Clause---
--- Coordinating Conjunction------ Independent Clause
John didn't come because he was ill so Mary was not happy.
He left in a hurry after he got a phone call but he came back five minutes later
B. Sentence Pattern
Most sentences in English are constructed using one of the following five
patterns:
1. Subject–Verb
2. Subject–Verb–Object
3. Subject–Verb–Adjective
4. Subject–Verb–Adverb
5. Subject–Verb–Noun
The subject is the person or thing taking an action or being described in the
sentence. The verb is the action the subject takes.
Subject–Verb
This type of sentence begins with a core sentence such as “Jane walks.” Here, “Jane”
is the subject and “walks” is the verb. Different parts of speech can be added to
expand the sentence. You can add an adverb to make the sentence “Jane walks
quickly,” or you can add an expression of time to tell when she walks, e.g., “Jane
walks all morning.”
Subject–Verb–Object
These sentences begin with a core sentence such as “She is playing a piano.” In this
sentence, “She” is the subject, “is playing” is the verb, and “a piano” is the object.
You can add elements to expand the sentence, such as an adjective (e.g., “She is
playing a small piano”) or an adverb (e.g., “She is playing the piano beautifully”).
Subject–Verb–Adjective
This type of sentence begins with a core sentence like “He is handsome.” Here, “he”
is the subject, “is” is the verb, and “handsome” is the adjective. Like the other types
of sentences, you can expand on the sentence by adding other parts of speech, such
as “He is very handsome,” where “very” serves as an adverb.
Subject–Verb–Adverb
These sentences begin with a core sentence such as “The girl walked away.” In this
sentence, “the girl” is the subject, “walked” is the verb, and “away” is the adverb.
You can add elements to this type of sentence, such as “The girl slowly walked
away,” where “slowly” is an adjective describing how the girl walked.
Subject–Verb–Noun
Sentences of this type begin with a core sentence such as “The professor is a
woman.” Here, “the professor” is the subject, “is” is the verb, and “a woman” is the
noun. As with the other sentence types, you can add words or phrases to expand on
the sentence. For example, you can add the adjective “intelligent” and the adverbial
phrase “at the university” to say “The professor at the university is an intelligent
woman” to describe the professor more and tell where she works.
C. Sentence Types
1. Declarative sentence
2. Imperative sentence
3. Interrogative sentence
4. Exclamatory sentence
And there are only three punctuation marks with which to end a sentence:
 Period (.)
Question mark (?)
Exclamation point (!)
A declarative sentence
Simply makes a statement or expresses an opinion. In other words, it makes a
declaration. This kind of sentence ends with a period.
Examples:
I want to be a good writer. (makes a statement)
My friend is a really good writer. (expresses an opinion)
An imperative sentence
gives a command or makes a request. It usually ends with a period but can, under
certain circumstances, end with an exclamation point.
Examples
Please sit down.
I need you to sit down now!
An interrogative sentence
Interrogative sentences ask a question. This type of sentence often begins with
who, what, where, when, why, how, or do, and it ends with a question mark.
Examples
When are you going to turn in your writing assignment?”
Do you know what the weather will be tomorrow?”
An exclamatory sentence
Exclamatory sentences are those which expresses great emotion such as
excitement, surprise, happiness and anger, and ends with an exclamation point.
Examples:
It is too dangerous to climb that mountain!
I got an A on my book report!
 3. Tenses

Present Tense
Present Indefinite Tense
The present indefinite tense, also known as simple present tense, denotes a state,
habitual or eternally true action.
Generally simple present tense is used to indicate an action which happens always,
regularly, every day, daily, normally, generally, usually, occasionally, sometimes,
often, rarely, frequently, nowadays, naturally, seldom, constantly, never, every
week, every year, once a year, on a week, at times, at present, now and then, or all
the time.
Structure:
Subject (third person singular number) + verb in simple present form + s/es +-
------
Subject (all other kinds) + verb in simple present form + --------

There are some stative verbs which are usually used in simple tenses whether present
or past or future. The stative verbs are
Examples:
I know Billy Bob.
He understands it.
They love swinging in the park
Some people do not believe in God.
I usually wake up at 6.00 AM.
He plays cricket, but his brother plays football.
Earth is bigger than Mercury.
The heat of the sun is the least in the polar.
Present Perfect Tense
The present perfect tense is used when one intends to indicate:
An action that occurred at a time which is indefinite and has its effect on the
subject or an action that occurred many times and has the possibility to occur in the
present/future or an action that began in the past and still going on in the present.
Structure:
Subject + have/has + verb in the past participle form + --------
Example:
Ali has read the book through. (No time is indicated)
I have read this poem many times. (Not habitual but occurred many times in the
past)
He has lived in this apartment for 15 years. (Still going on)
Just, already, yet, just now, ever, lately, recently, etc. are some of the signs for
present perfect tense.
Note: Already comes between have/has and the past participle; yet appears with a
negative form at the end of the sentence.
Example:
Ali has already reached there.
Alisha has not reached yet.
I have already cleaned the house.
I have not cleaned the house yet.
Present Perfect Continuous
It is the least used form of present tense. Present perfect progressive is used to
indicate an action that began in the past and is still occurring in the present. Both
present perfect and present perfect continuous can be used to indicate this type of
action.
Structure:
Subject + have/has + been + [verb + ing] + ------
Example:
Ali has been reading for 3 years.
I have been sleeping since 10.00 AM
Robert has been working in that shop for 6 years.
We have been living together for four years.
Past Tense
Past Indefinite Tense
The past indefinite tense, also known as simple past tense, is used to indicate a
finished or completed action/task that occurred/happened at a specific point in time
in the past. ‘A specific time’ can be diverse and can cover a long period of time but
it cannot be undeterminable.
Structure:
Subject + verb in the past form + adverb of time +-----
Note: Adverb of time can also be at the beginning of the sentence. Other sentences
can also refer to that adverb and can use simple past tense.
Example:
Alex went to Mexico last year.
I ate a mango a few minutes ago.
He had an exam yesterday.
I used to travel around the world when I was fit. (It can also indicate a habit of the
past which is not a habit in the present.)
Past Continuous Tense
The past continuous tense is used to demonstrate an action that was happening in the
past for a period of time in a particular context. The context can be a specific time
or another action.
Structures:
Subject + was/were + verb + ing + ----- a specific time
Ali was sleeping yesterday at 6.30 AM
I was cleaning the dishes at around 5.30-6.30 yesterday.
When + subject + simple past tense + subject + was/were + verb+ing -----
When I went out, you were shouting from behind.
When Ali came, I was sleeping.
Subject + was/were + verb+ing + when + subject + simple past tense-----
You were shouting from behind when I went outside.
I was sleeping when Ali came home.
While + subject + was/were + verb+ing + subject + was/were + verb+ing-----
While I was sleeping, you were making noises.
While Ali was playing, I was sleeping.
Note: While can also be placed between the two clauses, and one of the clauses
can be of simple past tense.
Examples
I was writing articles on different topics.
He was reading various kinds of books.
They were playing football in that field.
She was drinking coffee in that coffee shop.
He was studying in the library.
We were shopping in this market last week.
We were watching a movie in this Cineplex yesterday.
You were shopping in that market.
I was singing different kinds of songs, especially modern.
I was listening to melodious songs last evening.
He was traveling around the world.
Past Perfect Tense
The past perfect is used to demonstrate an action that occurred before another action
in the past. There are usually two completed actions in the sentence; one happens
before the other.
Structures:
Subject + had + past participle form of the main verb + before + subject +
simple past tense
Ali had completed the task before the teacher asked.
I had bought a phone before you came here.
Before + subject + simple past tense + subject + had + past participle form of
the verb +-----
Before I went to the office, I finished some business with her.
Before she went home, she had taken a test.
Subject + simple past tense + after + subject + had + past participle------
Mark ate after I had bought him a bat.
I went to the office after I had finished some business with her.
After + subject + had + past participle + subject + simple past tense----
After I had bought a phone, she came to the shop.
After she had gone, I came in.
Note: When can be used in place of before or after in any of the above structures.
Examples:
I had written articles on various topics before he came.
He had read different kinds of books before you came.
They had played football in that field before it started to rain.
She had gone to the coffee shop before she came home.
He had studied in the library before he came to the class.
I came here after you had left.
We had shopped in that shop before we came home.
We had watched a movie in that Cineplex before he came.
You had shopped in that market before you came home.
I had practiced the songs before the program started.
I had listened to melodious songs before I started the work
Past Perfect Continues Tense
The past perfect progressive tense is an extension to the past perfect tense and its
structures. Past perfect progressive is used to demonstrate an action which continued
for a specific period of time but stopped before another action.
Structure:
Subject + had + been + verb+ing + ------+ for/since + ------+ before + subject +
past simple tense
Ahmed had been playing cricket for 18 years before he retired.
Jaleel had been living in Lahore since 2010 before he moved to Quetta
Note: This tense can be replaced by the past perfect tense withdrawing for/since.
Examples:
I had been writing articles on various topics for three hours.
He had been reading different kinds of books since morning.
They had been playing football in that field before it started to rain.
Jane had been gossiping in the coffee shop for two hours.
Jeff had been studying in the library before he came to the class.
We had been shopping in that shop before we came home.
We had been watching a movie in this Cineplex for three hours.
You had been shopping in that market before you came home.
I had been singing different kinds of songs for an hour.
Future Tense
Simple Future (Future Indefinite) Tense
The simple future tense is used when an action is promised/thought to occur in the
future.
Structure:
Subject + shall/will + verb +--------
Example:
We shall move to another city.
He will come to New York tomorrow.
They will make a phone which has artificial intelligence.
Note: The structure of the present progressive tense also can be used when an action
is promised/arranged/planned to take place in the near future.
Example:
We are moving to Texas next week.
The bus is leaving at 6.00 PM.
I will write articles on different topics.
Robert will read various kinds of books.
They will play football in that field.
April will prefer coffee to tea.
Bunny will go to the library tomorrow.
We will go shopping in that market this Monday.
We will watch a movie in this Cineplex on next Friday.
You will shop at that market tomorrow.
I will sing different kinds of songs, especially modern.
Future Continuous Tense
The future continuous tense is used when an action is promised/thought to be going
on at a specific time/context in the future.
Structure:
Subject + shall/will + be + verb+ing-----
Example:
I shall be sleeping at around 6.00 AM tomorrow.
They will be playing at this time tomorrow.
She will be watching TV when I come home.
I will be working in the office while you watch a movie.
Future Perfect Tense
The future perfect tense is used to demonstrate an action which is promised to be
done by a certain time in the future.
Structure:
Subject + shall/will + have + verb in the past participle------
Example:
I shall have completed the assignment by Monday.
She will have cleaned the house before her father comes.
Ali will have submitted the tender by tomorrow.
Before I go to see her, she will have left the place.
They will have finished making the bridge by January.
Future Perfect Continuous tense:
There is no Practical use of this tense.
 4. Linking, Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
To understand sentence construction, it helps if you know a little about three types
of verb:
1. Linking verbs
2. Intransitive verbs
3. Transitive verbs
All verbs have a subject (the person or thing that "does" the action). The real
difference between linking, intransitive and transitive verbs is whether or not they
have an object (the person or thing that "gets" the action).
S = subject
V = verb
SC = subject complement
DO = direct object
IO = indirect object
Linking Verbs
Linking verbs have NO object.
Linking verbs link two parts of a sentence.
They link the subject to a noun or adjective.
In this sense, linking verbs are like a mathematical equals sign (=).

Linking verbs do not make sense if used alone: they need a "subject complement"
to complete their meaning.
 They are (???)
They are teachers
  I feel (???)
I feel unwell

In the above examples, teachers and unwell are subject complements.

Linking verbs work in two different ways:

1. the two parts of the sentence are the same thing (Mary is my mother)
2. the first part has the quality described by the second part (Mary is English)

The most obvious linking verb is the verb: be

Other linking verbs include:

appear, become, feel, get, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, taste, turn

Linking verbs cannot be passive.

Look at these example sentences with linking verbs:

 Is that your car?

 I am feeling thirsty.
 John is my boyfriend.
 My father became an engineer.
 The milk will turn sour if you leave it.
 Her explanation did not appear plausible.
 Hillary remained under suspicion for the rest of her life.

Intransitive Verbs
Intransitive verbs have NO object.
Their action is not transferred from the subject to something else.
Many intransitive verbs can make sense if used alone:

 He fainted.
 She cried.
 Our car broke down.

Of course, we often do follow intransitive verbs with other words telling us how,
where or when—but NEVER with an object:

 He fainted after lunch.

 She coughed bitterly.
 Our car broke down in Bangkok.

Intransitive verbs cannot be passive.

Examples of intransitive verbs are:

bark, boast, change, cough, die, go, live, run, sit, sleep, wave

Example:

 They live in London.

 Tell your dog to sit now.
 Were the dogs barking?
 The news hasn't changed.
 He died after a long illness.
 When I saw him he was running.
 The president waved to the crowds.
Transitive Verbs
Transitive verbs have an object. Their action is Transferred from the subject to
something else (the object).
Transitive verbs can be active OR passive.
Some transitive verbs have one object; some have two objects
Monotransitive verbs
Monotransitive verbs have ONE object: a direct object

Examples:
bomb, clean, break, destroy, eat, kill, like, put off, trigger, turn down, want
Example:
Do you love me?
The Allies bombed Dresden.
Pick it up and throw it away.
Tara doesn't want a new car.
Bond killed the snake and ate it.
Can fracking trigger earthquakes?
Do you think they'll turn down my offer / turn my offer down?
Ditransitive verbs
Ditransitive verbs have TWO objects: a direct object and an indirect object
Examples:

buy, give, grant, lend, make, pass, send, serve, show, teach, tell

Example:

 Make me an offer.
 Who teaches him French?
 The bank won't lend them any money.
 They will serve the guests lunch at 12:30pm.
 Kid refused to show the teacher her homework.
 Anthony bought his new girlfriend some roses on her birthday.
 The local council have granted us permission to open a shop.
 5. Direct and Indirect Speech

Reported Speech is also known as Direct and Indirect Speech or Narration. In

Indirect Speech, we convey the speaker’s message in our own words. Thus, the
message can be conveyed in 2 ways.
1. Direct Speech
2. Indirect Speech
Direct speech is known as repeating the exact words spoken and Indirect speech is
known as reporting the words.
There are certain rules to make changes in a sentence from Direct to Indirect
speech

Examples:
He said, “I can cook food.”
He said that he could cook food.
They said, “We may go to Canada.”
They said that they might go to Canada.
She said, “I must finish the work on time.”
She said that she had to finish the work on time.
Modals that remain unchanged are: Should, might, could, would, ought to.
Kamran said, “I ought to avoid junk food.”
Kamran said that she ought to avoid junk food.

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Present simple Past simple
Subject +V1st + Object Subject +V2 + Object
Present continuous Past Continuous
Subject +is/am/are+V1 Subject +was/were+V1
+ing+ Object +ing+ Object
Present perfect Past perfect
Subject +
has/have+V3+Object Subject+had+V3+Object
Past simple Past perfect
Subject+V2+Object Subject+had+V3+Object
Past Continuous Past perfect continuous
Subject +was/were+V1 Subject +had been+V1
+ing+ Object +ing+ Object
Future simple Present Conditional
Subject+ Subject+
will/shall+V1+object would+V1+object
Future Continuous Conditional Continuous
Subject Subject +would+be+V1
+will/shall+be+V1 +ing+ Object
+ing+ Object

Changes in Place and Time

Words are changed in an Indirect Speech to replace nearness from distance. In the
table, we are sharing some words which are changed in Indirect speech.
Hina said, “I walk.”
Hina said that she walked.
Danish said, “I am having tea.”
Danish said that he was having tea.
Ayesha said, “Honey has left for school.”
Ayesha said that Honey had left for school.
Waleed said, “Anam took pasta.”
Waleed said that Anaya had taken pasta.
They told, “We were living in Paris.”
They told that they had been living in Paris.
Rimsha said, “I will go to Sri Lanka.”
Rimsha said that he would go to Sri Lanka.
Aisha Said, “They will be watering plants.”
Aisha said that they would be watering plants.
Changes of Pronouns
While making the changes from Direct and Indirect speech, one should be having
knowledge of rules of changes in pronouns.

Ali said, “I am a good girl.”

Ali said that she was a good girl.

I told them, “You have finished your work.

I told them that they had finished their work.

She said, “She is in Lahore.”

She said that she was in Lahore.
 6. Punctuation Marks and Usage

1. Full Stop or Period (.)

This includes the period (or full stop), question mark, and exclamation point. There
are three ways to end a sentence, and this includes using the period, the question
mark, and the exclamation mark. The period or full stop (.) is used for ending a
declarative statement, believed to be complete. It is also used following
abbreviations.
Examples:
Ending a sentence:
“My children walked to school.”

Abbreviation:
“Their father, Mr. Gerald Smith, took charge of the hostel on Feb. 2019.”
A comma or a hyphen can’t take the place of a period.
Take a look at the following examples to understand what the difference would be
when you use a hyphen or comma in place of a period.

“I can’t understand why she’s jubilant; she’s out of key.”

“I won’t lie; I just don’t care much for the truth.”
“She believes you eat junk food, is she right?”
Now see how these sentences look with a period instead of a comma:
“I can’t understand why she’s jubilant. She’s out of key.”
“I don’t lie. I don’t care much for the truth.”
“She believes you eat junk food. Is she right?”
The meaning is the same, but now you have correctly punctuated sentences that
make sense on their own and don’t require a comma.

2. Question Mark (?)

We use a question mark whenever we ask questions.
Example:

“What did you buy for his birthday?”

“We’ve always wondered, why is that boy so angered?”
“I enjoyed the movie last night?”
“We’ve always wondered why is that boy so angered?”
3. Exclamation Mark (!)
We use an exclamation point or exclamation mark (!) when we wish to express
sudden joy, disgust or despair, or for generally emphasizing something.
Within dialogue:

“Oh My God!” she screamed.

To underscore a point:
Her brother’s bragging annoyed her!
Comma, Semicolon, and Colon
The comma, semicolon, and colon are the most commonly misused punctuation.
Since they are all used for a pause of some sort, we tend to mix them up, often using
them interchangeably.
However,
each one’s use is quite different and much more purposeful.

4. The Comma (,)

The comma helps us to separate ideas, phrases, or elements within a sentence.
It is also used for expressing numbers, dates, and in other cases, such as letter writing
following salutations.
Here are some examples of how a comma is used:
Direct address:
“We are pleased to have you over, Hans.”
Separation of two complete sentences.
“They went to the laboratory, and then they went to the hospital. “
Listing elements within sentences:
“Greg demanded the blue, red, and green toy car.”
The “Oxford Comma”
Adding a comma before the conjunction in a series of items is debatable.
These days, you will find a mixture of the two, especially when you encounter web-
based write-ups.
However, it’s worth taking into consideration the use of placing a final comma
before and when there is; a series of items separated by commas.
So, let’s consider the following:
“My honorable teachers, Mark Twain, and Mary Moore.”
“To my parents, Mark Twain and Mary Moore.”

Never Use a Comma for a Vocal Pause

Commas serve many purposes, but representing arbitrary pauses in speech is not one
of them.
For example, this is not when you should use a comma.
 “It’s heartbreaking for a cat owner when he finds out the cats are the real masters.”
“It’s heartbreaking for a cat owner when he finds out the cats are the real masters.”

5. Semicolon (;)
We use the semicolon for connecting independent clauses. It helps to show a closer
relationship between the clauses than a period would show.
“Angie fell ill; she needed to get to a hospital.”

“He’s not a good listener; it feels like I’m talking to myself.”

“We can’t stop thinking about our cat; she was everything to us.”
“That hat is horrible; it smells bad too.”
“She looks like a mole; she’s weird.

6. Colon
We use a colon (:) for three primary uses.
In the first case, we use it before a quote, something in greater, to cite an example,
or laying down a series of some elements, possibly related.
Example:
“The country needed desperate attention in the following areas: economy, defense,
welfare, and judicial processes.”
The second way we use a colon is to link two independent clauses, wherein the
second clause helps to clarify the first clause. This is similar to what a semicolon
does.
Example:
We raced to the bus stop: It was getting late.
The third way that we use a colon is for emphasizing a subject:
Example:
There is just one thing that sets the tone for a stable home; peace.

Only use colons for stand-alone sentences

Colons can be used in a similar fashion that semicolons are.
However, in the case of a colon, you should only use it if you’re expressing an
example of what was stated before the colon:

“He offered one piece of advice: Never hurt any animal.”

“She’s an intelligent girl: She solves crosswords in minutes and speaks five
languages.”
Using the colon in the way we have above, invokes a second rule:
 The words stated before the colon should have meaning on its own, and must not be
reliant on the words following the colon.
if you replace the colon and end the sentence there with a period.
“I love puppies because they look good.”
“They shed tears when: they are scared.”
It’s noteworthy to mention that if you just remove the colon from incorrect
sentences, all the words together form a complete sentence.
This means that if any punctuation serves no value or has no grammatical influence,
it’s best to avoid it.

7. Dash
We use a dash when we need to separate words into statements. The two types of
dashes that we use include:
 En dash: The en dash is double the length of a hyphen (–). We use it when writing
or printing when indicating a period, range, connections, such as 2010 — 2015.
 Em dash: This is visibly longer than the en dash. We use it like a comma,
parenthesis, or as a colon, and the aim is to ensure stress on a conclusion of a
sentence.
Example:
 “His answer was final — No!”
Placing spaces around the em dash or not is up to you.

8. Hyphen
We use a hyphen merge two or more words for enhanced meaning. These
compound words aren’t separable by spaces.
Example:
Two-day
All-inclusive
Step-by-step.

9. Brackets ([])
We use for brackets for explaining technical matters, but even without their
inclusion, your sentence alone will make sense.
Example:
“She [Ms. Burns] was first seen at a political rally.”

10. Braces ({})

We use braces for carrying two or more lines of text or listed items that are
considered as a unit.
They may not be used, but tend to be used in computer programming descriptive text
because they demonstrated what should be carried within the same lines.
Braces are also seen quite a bit of mathematical statements.
Example:
4{2x+[13-5]}=xy.

11. Parenthesis ( () )
We use Parentheses to include further detail or qualifying remarks.
The repetition in parentheses can be held in place by commas too. In many cases,
the meaning would not change.
“Clark and Ian (who were distant relatives) went to the same school.”

12. Apostrophe (‘)

We often use an apostrophe to indicate:
1. When we’re omitting a letter or letters
Example:
“We’ve been there a few times.”
2. Possessive cases
Example:
“The cat’s food is in the bowl.”
3. The plurals of lowercase letters
Example:
“Don’t forget to dot your I’s and cross your t’s.”

13. Quotations marks (” “) and (‘ ‘)

We use quotations marks to indicate the exact words someone has used.
They might also be used for indicating meanings and unusual or dubious verbiage.
“Please avoid making a noise,” he said.
We use Single quotation marks (”) most frequently for quotes within quotes.
Sam told his father, “We ran by the two men at the park, just as one told the other ‘I
don’t feel well,’ before collapsing.”

14. Ellipsis (. . .) or (***)

We usually use an ellipsis with three periods (. . .)
while occasionally you will see them used with three asterisks (***).
We use an ellipsis to indicate when we’re omitting something, such as letters or
words.
You will have seen examples of these in quotations.
When they are used, you will notice that they indicate a jump from one phrase to
another,
avoiding the mention of unnecessary verbiage.
Omitted words that are understood to be continuing to its logical conclusion:
The countdown began, “ten, nine, eight …” until the rocket blasted off.
A quoted statement with unnecessary words omitted:
When Steve Jobs said, “Design is not just how it looks and feels…” he brought the
importance of User Experience to light.
It’s important to use punctuation only when it adds value.
To wrap it all up
You might feel tempted to add commas and semicolons more in your work,
but there is no point in having more than one tail on a monkey.
However,
when you do need to use commas, make sure you use them in the right place to
elucidate the intended meaning.
If you don’t, revisit the introduction and see how great a comma or a colon can be.
 PART 2
READING SKILLS
WRITING SKILLS
LISTENING SKILLS
 1. Reading Skills

Types of Reading skills:

1. Skimming
2. Scanning
3. Intensive
4. Extensive

Skimming
This reading mode is used to get to know and understand if this information is useful
to you (you are viewing a book in a store or a magazine on the shelf before buying
it). In this case, the text is also viewed quickly, but not as carefully as in the previous
case. The goal is not to search for specific facts, but to evaluate the text for
complexity, interest and a general storyline.

Scanning
This reading mode is aimed only at finding the necessary information in the text. It
does not mean a complete immersion in the text and a deep comprehension of the
facts, analysis of grammatical constructions. Often in this mode, the text is viewed
for the presence of unfamiliar words, so that after their translation it will be more
easy to read the text fully. This type of reading is also called ‘diagonal reading’.

Intensive reading
This reading involves learners to read in detail with specific learning aims and tasks.
It can be compared with extensive reading, which involves learners reading texts for
enjoyment and to develop general reading skills. The learners read a short text and
put events from it into chronological order.

Extensive reading
This reading involves learners reading texts for enjoyment and to develop general
reading skills. It can be compared with intensive reading, which means reading in
detail with specific learning aims and tasks. A teacher reads a short story with
learners, but does not set them any tasks except to read and listen.
 2. Speed Reading

Speed reading is the process of rapidly recognizing and absorbing phrases or

sentences on a page all at once, rather than identifying individual words.
The amount of information that we process seems to be growing by the day, whether
it's emails, reports and websites at work, or social media, books and magazines at
home. We likely feel pressure to get through this information more quickly, so that
we can "stay in the loop" and make informed decisions.
Most people read at an average rate of 250 words per minute (wpm), though some
are naturally quicker than others. But, the ability to speed read could mean that you
double this rate.

How to Speed Read?

All speed reading techniques have one thing in common, you avoid pronouncing and
"hearing" each word in your head as you read it, a process known as "sub-
vocalization." Instead, you "skim" lines or groups of words, as you can understand
words more quickly than you can say them.
One way to stop yourself from sub-vocalizing is to focus on blocks of words rather
than on individual ones. Do this by relaxing your face and "softening" or expanding
your gaze on the page, so that you stop seeing words as single, distinct units. As you
practice this, your eyes will skip faster across the page.
Then, when you approach the end of a line, allow your peripheral vision to take your
eye to the final set of words. This will help to stop pauses in your reading (often at
full points), meaning that you scan across and down to the next line more quickly.

Three methods to boost reading speed:

1. The Pointer Method
Utah school teacher Evelyn Nielsen Wood was one of the pioneers of speed reading.
In the 1950s, she claimed that she could read at up to 2,700 wpm if she swept a finger
along the line as she read.
This became known as the Pointer method, and is also sometimes called "hand
pacing" or "meta guiding." Holding a card under each line and drawing it down
the page as you read works just as well.
2. The Tracker-and-Pacer Method
This is a variant of the Pointer method where you hold a pen, with its cap still on,
and underline or track each line as you read it, keeping your eye above the tip of the
pen. This will help to increase the pace at which you take in each line, and improve
your focus on the words. Whether you actually underline the words is your choice.
Try to spend no more than one second on each line and then increase your speed
with each subsequent page. You will probably find that you retain very little
information at first, but, as you train your brain and you become more comfortable
with the technique, your comprehension should improve.
Note:
An advantage of the Pointer and Tracker-and-Pacer methods is that they should
reduce your need to skip back and re-read sentences – a hindrance to speed reading
that is known as "regression."
3. The Previewing Method
"Previewing" involves moving your eyes quickly down the page often down the
center and identifying specific words and phrases as you go. These can be key
sentences (often the first sentence of each paragraph), names, numbers, or trigger
words and ideas. Learning to expand your peripheral vision can help with this.
You won't read every word, but your eye will land on what is important to allow you
to grasp the basic idea. It may be helpful to use a mind map to organize the
information you take in.
 3. Precise and Comprehension

Precise/Summary Writing
“Prices is a short form of the text which briefly gives only the important parts.”
QUALITIES OF A GOOD PRECIS
A good precis shows the writing skills of a person. It must have the following
qualities.
1. Clarity
Clarity means getting your message across so that the receiver can understand what
the writer is trying to convey. It is the basic and essential need of a precis. The ideas
should be clear and understandable. There should not be any ambiguity in your
writing. The writer can achieve clarity by using simple language and simple
structure. If your precis is not understandable to the reader it will lose its importance
and meanings for the reader.
2. Correctness
Mistakes in your writings always irritate the reader. Of course mistakes are never
intentional; even so there is no excuse for them. At the time of writing or composing
a precis the writer must ensure that the facts and figures are correct. Structure of
sentences and spellings of words must be correct because a single mistake in
structure and spelling may spoil the message. We may consider the mistakes under
the following headings:
Misspelled words
Mistakes in figures and dates
Mistakes in punctuation
Mistakes of grammar and structure
3. Objectivity
Objectivity means the ability to present or view facts uncolored by feelings, opinions
and personal bias. While making a precis, the writer should adopt an objective
approach. He should not give and add his personal opinion and ideas in a precis. A
precis should be purely a summary of the original text without any addition.
4. Coherence
Coherence means the logical and clear interconnection of ideas in a written piece of
work. A good precis should be coherent. The ideas which are presented in a precis
must have a logical connection and they all should be interrelated. In short we may
say that the ideas should be well knitted so that the writer may not be confused and
lose his interest.
5. Completeness
Another striking feature of a good precis is completeness. A precis should be
complete in all respects. Completeness means that the writer should include all the
important facts in a precis. To make it short he should not omit the important ideas.
This mistake on the part of the writer will spoil the importance and meaning of the
precis.
6. Conciseness
Conciseness is a desirable quality of a good precis. Conciseness means to say all that
needs to be said and no more. The writer should write what is necessary and avoid
writing unnecessary details. A concise piece of work conveys the message in the
fewest possible words. But one point must be kept in mind that the writer should not
omit some basic and essential facts to achieve conciseness. To achieve conciseness,
notice the following suggestions:
Omitting unnecessary details
Eliminate wordy expressions
Include only relevant material
Avoid unnecessary repetition
RULES OF MAKING A PRECIS
A well written precis should be a serviceable substitute for the original work. The
goal of a precis is to preserve the core essence of the work in a manner that is both
clear and concise. While writing a precis, the writer should follow the below given
rules to make it an effective piece of work.
Read Carefully
First read the passage twice or thrice carefully to summarize it. This will enable you
to understand the main theme of the passage.
Underlining
Underline and mark the important ideas and essential points from the original text.
Outline
With the help of underlined ideas, draw the outline of your precis.

Omission
Omit all the unnecessary information or the long phrases which could be replaced
by one word. All the adjectives and the adverbs can also be omitted in order to make
a good precis.
Don’t Omit
While making a precis, the writer should never omit the important points and ideas
which are essential to be described.
Size
Keep the fact in your mind that the length of the precis should be the one third of the
original passage.
Indirect Speech
A precis should be written in indirect speech. If there is direct speech in the passage,
it should be changed into indirect speech.
Tense and Person
It should be written in the third person and past tense. In the case of universal truth
the present tense should be used.
Own Words
A precis should be written in your own words and the writer should abstain from
borrowing words from the original passage.
Precis of a Dialogue
The precis of a dialogue or conversation should always be expressed in form of
narrative.
Objective Approach
A precis writer should adopt an objective approach. He should not add his personal
ideas to a precis. Put all the important points and ideas in a logical order.
One Paragraph
There could be two or more paragraphs in the original text. While making the precis,
try to write all the ideas in one paragraph.
Rough Draft
After omitting all the unnecessary ideas, the writer should prepare a rough draft to
finalize it.
Final Draft
Having read the rough draft and pointed out some mistakes which may be found in
the rough draft, the writer can prepare the final draft.
Sample Paragraph
When we survey our lives and efforts we soon observe that almost the whole of our
actions and desires are bound up with the existence of other human beings. We notice
that whole nature resembles that of the social animals. We eat food that others have
produced, wear clothes that others have made, live in houses that others have built.
The greater part of our knowledge and beliefs has been passed on to us by other
people though the medium of a language which others have created. Without
language and mental capacities, we would have been poor indeed comparable to
higher animals.
We have, therefore, to admit that we owe our principal knowledge over the least to
the fact of living in human society. The individual if left alone from birth would
remain primitive and beast like in his thoughts and feelings to a degree that we can
hardly imagine. The individual is what he is and has the significance that he has, not
much in virtue of the individuality, but rather as a member of a great human
community, which directs his material and spiritual existence from the cradle to
grave.
Precis Summary
Being social animals, human beings have their actions and desires bound up with
society. In matter of food, clothes, knowledge and belief they are interdependent.
They use language created by others. Without language their mental power would
not grow. They are superior to beast, because they live in human society. An
individual life left alone from birth would grow utterly beast like. So human society
and not individuality guides man's material and spiritual existence.

COMPREHENSION
A comprehension test is based on a short passage or article. A student who has to
answer the comprehension questions has to understand and grasp the meaning of the
passage or article. The understanding power and level of the student is evaluated in
a comprehension test. Hence it is important for students to read the comprehension
carefully first and then only answer the questions. The passage or article has to be
understood perfectly well before questions are answered.
Instructions to Be Read with Extra Care
While reading instructions, always take extra care. At times, the questions are tricky
leading the student to misunderstand or miss out important points. Consider the
context of the answer first. All questions which you know should be answered first.
You can eliminate questions you are not too sure about.
First Read the Questions
Make it a habit to go through the questions first. This will help you to look for
relevant answers while reading the passage. Process of fetching answers can be
hastened by doing this. If the passage is read first and then the questions, the chances
of losing time are more as you will be reading everything again.
Check Marks Allotted to Each Question
There is no point in dedicating too much time on a question that is worth very few
marks. Make sure that questions with more marks are answered first and then quickly
finish off the ones with the least marks.
Allocate Appropriate Time
You will have to note down the time required for answering every question and
accordingly stick to that time, so that all the questions can be attempted in due time.
Highlighting Keywords
Once you have read the questions and have started reading the passage, make sure
you highlight any headings, phrases, keywords etc that can help in answering the
questions. This method will help you save a lot of time, searching through the
passage again.
Avoid Copying Text Directly
While writing down the answers you should not copy chunks of text directly.
Review What You Have Written
To check for avoidable mistakes, you must review the paper again at least twice once
you are done with answering the questions. If sentences have to be reframed or
corrected, then this can be done. In case of answering multiple choice questions, and
in case of doubt, importance to reviewing must be given.
Use Quotation Marks Wherever Necessary
Quotation marks will have to be used if at all you will be making use of quotations
from the passage. This also carries marks, so make sure you don’t forget them
quotation marks.
Avoid Using Any Knowledge from Outside the Passage
Make sure the comprehension is read at least twice. While answering the questions,
the answers have to be from what is given in the passage itself as out outside
knowledge is not entertained in a comprehension. Avoid any answer that is not
supported by relevant information from the passage or article or they will be
rendered as incorrect.
If these few important points and techniques are kept in mind, then you will surely
be able to attempt the examination and comprehension well and in the process score
good marks.
 2. Writing Skills

Paragraph Writing
There are following steps to write a quality paragraph:
1. write an outline
Add the topic and supporting information.

2. write the topic sentence

3. write supporting sentences

write a supporting sentence for each point. Use facts or examples to support your
points.

4. concluding sentence
write a concluding sentence to sum up.

5. conclude paragraph
Essay writing
Steps to write an Essay
Pick a topic.
If possible, choose something that interests you.
Brainstorm.
Write down any idea that comes to your head about things you’d like to include,
including key points, examples, and illustrations.
Organize.
1. Pick out a thesis, or main point you are trying to prove. This will become your
first paragraph.
2. Identify three points to back up this thesis. These will become your 3 supporting
paragraphs.
3. Think of a conclusion, which will become your fifth paragraph.
Write.
1st paragraph: State your thesis and add a transitional hook that alerts the reader to
what they can expect in the body of the paper
2nd paragraph: This should be your strongest argument or point. Include examples
and illustrations.
3rd paragraph: This should be your second strongest argument or point. Include
examples and illustrations.
4th paragraph: This should be your weakest argument or point. Include examples
and illustrations.
5th paragraph: This is your conclusion. Restate the thesis, summarize your three
points, and make a strong final statement that ties up and concludes the essay.
Revise.
Read your paper over after not viewing it for a while so you can see it with fresh
eyes. Look for ways you could strengthen your argument or grammar.
Points to Consider:
1. Avoid semicolons as they are difficult to use correctly and effectively.
2. Paragraphs should follow a ‘theme’. They generally consist of more than one
sentence.
3. It comprises, but is composed of (it never comprises of).
4. Avoid using the same word too frequently or twice in quick succession.
5. Do not use clichés, metaphors or similes.
6. Do not use abbreviations. Stick to formal English (don’t use don’t).
7. Try to avoid using the first person. (“I”).
8. Try to use the active voice rather than the passive voice where possible, it makes
for more direct and interesting reading.

Types of Essay
Distinguishing between types of essays is simply a matter of determining the writer’s
goal. The writer wants to tell about a personal experience, describe something,
explain an issue, or convince the reader to accept a certain viewpoint.
1. Narrative Essays: Telling a Story
2. Descriptive Essays: Painting a Picture
3. Expository Essays: Just the Facts
4. Persuasive/Argumentative Essays: Convince Me
Narrative Essays: Telling a Story
In a narrative essay, the writer tells a story about a real-life experience. While telling
a story may sound easy to do, the narrative essay challenges students to think and
write about themselves. When writing a narrative essay, writers should try to involve
the reader by making the story as vivid as possible. The fact that narrative essays are
usually written in the first person helps engage the reader. “I” sentences give readers
a feeling of being part of the story. A well-crafted narrative essay will also build
towards drawing a conclusion or making a personal statement.
Descriptive Essays: Painting a Picture
A cousin of the narrative essay, a descriptive essay paints a picture with words. A
writer might describe a person, place, object, or even memory of special
significance. However, this type of essay is not description for description’s sake.
The descriptive essay strives to communicate a deeper meaning through the
description. In a descriptive essay, the writer should show, not tell, through the use
of colorful words and sensory details. The best descriptive essays appeal to the
reader’s emotions, with a result that is highly suggestive.
Expository Essays: Just the Facts
The expository essay is an informative piece of writing that presents a balanced
analysis of a topic. In an expository essay, the writer explains or defines a topic,
using facts, statistics, and examples. Expository writing encompasses a wide range
of essay variations, such as the comparison and contrast essay, the cause and effect
essay, and the “how to” or process essay. Because expository essays are based on
facts and not personal feelings, writers don’t reveal their emotions or write in the
first person.
Persuasive/Argumentative Essays: Convince Me
While like an expository essay in its presentation of facts, the goal of the persuasive
essay is to convince the reader to accept the writer’s point of view or
recommendation. The writer must build a case using facts and logic, as well as
examples, expert opinion, and sound reasoning. The writer should present all sides
of the argument, but must be able to communicate clearly and without equivocation
why a certain position is correct.

Translational Skills
The ability to transfer style, tone and cultural elements accurately from one language
to another. If you attend a university to gain an appropriate language qualification,
your course will teach you many important translation skills.
Modes of Translation
1. Literal Translation
Literal translation is a translation in which every word is being translated according
to the sentence structure
2. Contextual Translation
Contextual translation is a mode where context of the content is being conveyed
through translation.
Rules for translation
Avoid translating first names
If you find a proper name in a document, be it from a person, company or institution,
avoid translating it because it can make the text lose its meaning.
As for the names of people, these should be kept as they appear in the original text.
Beware of false pair of words
For those who do not speak the language so fluently, “push” in English can sound
“puxe” (pull) in Portuguese. “Apellido”, in Spanish, sounds “apelido” (nickname)
in Portuguese and “die Zigarre” in German may sound “cigarro” in Portuguese or
“cigarette” in English.
Being aware of false cognates are among the basic rules of translation in any
language. Inferring the meaning of a foreign word based on the knowledge you have
of your native language can confuse things.
Always have tools and materials to help you translate and avoid this classic trap that
has been around for some time.
Not every word has a literal translation
It may be weird to think that not all words can be translated literally, but this is
true. Some terms and expressions cannot be translated using only a few words and
sometimes need to be accompanied by a long and detailed explanation.
Nevertheless, the need to include an explanation for certain terms is common to all
languages
Types of Translation
The world of translation is a vast and varied one. There are different translation
techniques, diverse theories about translation and eight different translation
services types, including technical translation, judicial translation and certified
translation.
TECHNICAL TRANSLATION
The term “technical translation” can be understood in two ways:
In its broadest sense, it is about translating user manuals, instructions leaflets,
internal notes, medical translation, financial reports, minutes of proceedings,
administrative terms in general, and so forth. These documents share the
distinction of being for a specific and limited target audience and usually have a
limited shelf-life.
In its most limited sense, technical translation refers to “technical” documentation
such as engineering, IT, electronics, mechanics, and industrial texts in general.
Technical translation requires a knowledge of the specialized terminology used in
the sector of the source text.
SCIENTIFIC TRANSLATION
As a sub-group of technical translation, as its name indicates, scientific translation
deals with documents in the domain of science: articles, theses, papers, congress
booklets, conference presentations, study reports etc.

FINANCIAL TRANSLATION
Financial or economic translation, of course, deals with documentation relating to
the likes of finance, banking, and stock exchange activity. This includes company
annual accounts, annual reports, financial statements, financial contracts, financing
packages, and so forth.

LEGAL TRANSLATION
Legal translation covers a wide range of different documents. These may include
legal documents such as summons and warrants; administrative texts such as
registration certificates, corporate statutes and remittance drafts; technical
documents such as expert opinions and texts for judicial purposes; and a number of
other texts in addition to reports and minutes of court proceedings.

JUDICIAL TRANSLATION
Judicial translations, not to be confused with legal or certified translation, refers to
the task of translation undertaken in a court setting. Judicial translators specialize
in translating documents such as letters rogatory, minutes of proceedings,
judgements, expert opinions, deposition, minutes of interrogation sessions etc.

JURIDICAL TRANSLATION
Juridical translation refers to legally-binding documentation. For example, this
could be the translation of documents such as laws; regulations and decrees;
general sales and purchase conditions; legally binding contracts such as labor;
license and commercial contracts; partnership agreements, accords; protocols and
conventions; internal regulations; insurance policies; and bail assurance, among
others. The juridical translator must have a solid legal background in addition to
their linguistic training.

CERTIFIED TRANSLATION
A certified translator or sworn translator may use their signature to authenticate
official translations. These are usually documents which require legal validation
and are thus referred to as “certified” or “sworn”. Certified translators often work
in courtrooms as juridical translators, or act in the capacity of a legal expert, as
well as providing translations of civil status documentation, marital agreements,
divorce settlements, deceases, and wills.
LITERARY TRANSLATION
This is probably the hardest of all the different kinds of translation, as obviously,
the translator must first try to render the semantic content of the original text (as
should be the case for the translation of any kind of text), and then in addition deal
with a number of other difficulties.
 3. Listening Skills

Listening means paying attention not only to the story, but how it is told, the use of
language and voice, and how the other person uses his or her body. In other words,
it means being aware of both verbal and non-verbal messages.
Modes of Effective Listening
Most of what we do or don’t do (the way we act and respond to others) is based upon
our understanding of the messages that have been conveyed to us. In “real world”
terms, misunderstanding can cost us time, money, credibility, and even relationships.
Conversely, accurately received messages create comfort, confidence, and
appreciation in the minds of others, from friends to coworkers to customers.
Effective listening has three modes:
1. Attentive listening,
2. Responsive listening
3. Active listening.
Understanding these modes will help you increase your listening accuracy and
reduce the opportunity for misunderstanding.
Attentive Listening
Attentive listeners focus on the speaker and work hard to eliminate distractions (such
as ambient noise or poor delivery skills). They are also patient and let the speaker
finish their thoughts without interruption. While not easy, attentive listening is
essential for effective communication.
Responsive Listening
Responsive listeners demonstrate to the speaker that they are listening and
understanding what is being said, which encourages the speaker to continue.
Encouraging responses may include both nonverbal and verbal cues:
 Nonverbal Responses
 Smiling
 Appropriate facial expression
 An affirmative nod of the head
 Good (appropriate) eye contact
 Minimizing distractions (turning off cell phones, etc.)
 Taking notes (under-utilized way to broaden the depth of learning)
 Leaning slightly towards the speaker
  Verbal Responses
 “Uh-huh”
 “I see”
 “Yes”
 “Really?”
Occasionally repeating or paraphrasing short phrases to show what you’ve heard
Active Listening
Active listening is probably the most important listening skill. It is “active” because
it combines the skills of listening and responding without invalidating the speaker’s
comments, giving the speaker personal opinions, advice, or trying to draw ownership
of the conversation away from the speaker.
An active listener monitors the communication of a message at both the content and
feeling level. They pay attention to what people say, how they say it, and why they’re
saying it. Then, once the listener feels they understand the sender’s message, they
paraphrase it back to the speaker to ensure understanding prior to responding with
their own answer or message. The listener’s goal is to first understand the
messenger’s thoughts, feelings, and needs and then send them back for verification
of accuracy before proceeding. When paraphrasing, it is important to use your own
words; don’t just simply parrot back what the messenger said.
Types of Listening
When we engage in listening we are doing so for many different reasons depending
upon the goals in which we are trying to achieve. There are four different types of
listening that are essential to know when deciding what your goal as the listener is.
The four types of listening are appreciative, empathic, comprehensive, and critical.
Familiarize yourself with these different types of listening so you can strengthen and
improve your ability to critically think and evaluate what you have heard.
Appreciative Listening
When you listen for appreciation you are listening for enjoyment. Think about the
music you listen to. You usually listen to music because you enjoy it. The same can
be said for appreciative listening when someone is speaking. Some common types
of appreciative listening can be found in sermons from places of worship, from a
motivational speech by people we respect or hold in high regard, or even from a
standup comedian who makes us laugh.
Empathic Listening
When you listen empathically you are doing so to show mutual concern. During this
type of listening you are trying to identify with the speaker by understanding the
situation in which he/she is discussing. You are stepping into the other’s shoes to get
a better understanding of what it is he/she is talking about. Usually during this type
of listening you want to be fully present in the moment or mindfully listening to what
the speaker is saying. Your goal during this time is to focus on the speaker, not on
yourself. You are trying to understand from the speaker’s perspective.
Comprehensive Listening
If you are watching the news, listening to a lecture, or getting directions from
someone, you are listening to understand or listening to comprehend the message
that is being sent. This process is active. In class, you should be focused, possibly
taking notes of the speaker’s main ideas. Identifying the structure of the speech and
evaluating the supports he/she offers as evidence. This is one of the more difficult
types of listening because it requires you to not only concentrate but to actively
participate in the process. The more you practice listening to comprehend, the
stronger listener you become.
Critical Listening
Have you ever had to buy an expensive item, such as a new appliance, a car, a cell
phone, or an iPad? You probably did some research beforehand and listened closely
to the salesperson when you went to compare brands. Or perhaps your best friend is
telling you about some medical tests he/she recently had done. You listen closely so
you can help your friend understand her results and the possible ramifications of the
findings. Both of these scenarios are examples of critical listening. Critical listening
is listening to evaluate the content of the message. As a critical listener you are
listening to all parts of the message, analyzing it, and evaluating what you heard.
When engaging in critical listening, you are also critically thinking. You are making
mental judgments based on what you see, hear, and read. Your goal as a critical
listener is to evaluate the message that is being sent and decide for yourself if the
information is valid.
 Note Taking Techniques

Techniques for Note Taking

Write phrases, not full sentences.

Only record the key words that you need to get the idea of the point. Skip words like
“the” and “a” that don’t add additional meaning to the lecture content. Retain key
technical or discipline-specific terms.

Take notes in your own words

Paraphrase what you hear so it makes sense to you it helps you to understand and
remember what you hear. Try to paraphrase everything except where information
needs to be noted exactly.

Structure your notes with headings, subheadings and numbered lists

Use headings to indicate topic areas or to include bibliographic details of the sources
of information. Use outline form and/or a numbering system and indenting to help
you distinguish major from minor points and as a clear way of indicating the
structure of lecture information.

Code your note

use color and symbols to mark structure and emphasis.

Use color
Highlight major sections, main points and diagrams. You can also use different
colors to classify and link concepts or information by topic. However, don’t focus
too much on color coding when you’re in the lecture. It requires time and
concentration, so it’s more useful to do most of the highlighting and underlining
when you’re revising your notes later.

Underline, circle, star, etc:

To identify key information, examples, definitions, or other important materials.
Devise your own marking code to indicate each type.

If you miss something

Write key words, skip a few spaces, and get the information later. Leave a space on
the page for your own notes and comments.
Use Symbols and Abbreviations
Symbols and abbreviations for frequently used words, phrases or names are useful
for note taking in lectures when speed is essential. It’s important to be consistent so
you remember what they represent and can use them easily. Keep a ‘key list’ of
frequently used symbols/abbreviations and their meanings so that you can refer to
them in the future.

Methods for Note Taking:

1.The Cornell Method
2.The Outlining Method
3. The Mapping Method
4. The Charting Method
5. The Sentence Method
The Cornell Method

The Cornell method provides a systematic format for condensing and organizing
notes without laborious recopying. After writing the notes in the main space, use the
left-hand space to label each idea and detail with a key word or "cue."

Method: Rule your paper with a 2 _ inch margin on the left leaving a six-inch area
on the right in which to make notes. During class, take down information in the six-
inch area. When the instructor moves to a new point, skip a few lines. After class,
complete phrases and sentences as much as possible. For every significant bit of
information, write a cue in the left margin. To review, cover your notes with a card,
leaving the cues exposed. Say the cue out loud, then say as much as you can of the
material underneath the card. When you have said as much as you can, move the
card and see if what you said matches what is written. If you can say it, you know
it.

Advantages: Organized and systematic for recording and reviewing notes. Easy
format for pulling outmajor concept and ideas. Simple and efficient. Saves time and
effort. "Do-it-right-in-the-first-place system."

Disadvantages: None

When to Use: In any lecture situation.

The Outlining Method

Dash or indented outlining is usually best except for some science classes such as
physics or math.

The information which is most general begins at the left with each more specific
group of facts indented with spaces to the right.

The relationships between the different parts are carried out through indenting.

No numbers, letters, or Roman numerals are needed.

Method: Listening and then write in points in an organized pattern based on space
indention. Place major points farthest to the left. Indent each more specific point to
the right. Levels of importance will be indicated by distance away from the major
point. Indention can be as simple as or as complex as labeling the indentions with
Roman numerals or decimals. Markings are not necessary as space relationships will
indicate the major/minor points.

Advantages: Well-organized system if done right. Outlining records content as well

as relationships. It also reduces editing and is easy to review by turning main points
into questions.

Disadvantages: Requires more thought in class for accurate organization. This

system may not show relationships by sequence when needed. It doesn’t lend to
diversity of a review attach for maximum learning and question application. This
system cannot be used if the lecture is too fast.
When to Use: The outline format can be used if the lecture is presented in outline
organization. This may be either deductive (regular outline) or inductive (reverse
outline where minor points start building to a major point). Use this format when
there is enough time in the lecture to think about and make organization decisions
when they are needed. This format can be most effective when your note-taking
skills are super and sharp and you can handle the outlining regardless of the note-
taking situation.

The Mapping Method

Mapping is a method that uses comprehension/concentration skills and evolves in a

note-taking form which relates each fact or idea to every other fact or idea. Mapping
is a graphic representation of the content of a lecture. It is a method that maximizes
active participation, affords immediate knowledge as to its understanding, and
emphasizes critical thinking.
Advantages: This format helps you to visually track your lecture regardless of
conditions. Little thinking is needed and relationships can easily be seen. It is also
easy to edit your notes by adding numbers, marks, and color coding. Review will
call for you to restructure thought processes which will force you to check
understanding. Review by covering lines for memory drill and relationships. Main
points can be written on flash or note cards and pieced together into a table or larger
structure at a later date.

Disadvantages: You may not hear changes in content from major points to facts.

When to Use: Use when the lecture content is heavy and well-organized. May also
be used effectively when you have a guest lecturer and have no idea how the lecture
is going to be presented.

The Charting Method

If the lecture format is distinct (such as chronological), you may set up your paper
by drawing columns and labeling appropriate headings in a table.

Method: Determine the categories to be covered in lecture. Set up your paper in

advance by columns headed by these categories. As you listen to the lecture, record
information (words, phrases, main ideas, etc.) into the appropriate category.

Advantages: Helps you track conversation and dialogues where you would
normally be confused and lose out on relevant content. Reduces amount of writing
necessary. Provides easy review mechanism for both memorizations of facts and
study of comparisons and relationships.

Disadvantages: Few disadvantages except learning how to use the system and
locating the appropriate categories. You must be able to understand what’s
happening in the lecture.

When to Use: Test will focus on both facts and relationships. Contents is heavy and
presented fast. You want to reduce the amount of time you spend editing and
reviewing at test time. You want to get an overview of the whole course on one big
paper sequence.

The Sentence Method

Method: Write every new thought, fact or topic on a separate line, numbering as
you progress.

Advantages: Slightly more organized than the paragraph. Gets more or all of the
information. Thinking to tract content is still limited.

Disadvantages: Can’t determine major/minor points from the numbered sequence.

Difficult to edit without having to rewrite by clustering points which are related.
Difficult to review unless editing cleans up relationship.

When to Use: Use when the lecture is somewhat organized, but heavy with content
which comes fast. You can hear the different points, but you don’t know how they
fit together. The instructor tends to present in point fashion, but not in grouping such
as “three related points.”
TECHNICAL WRITING
 1. Curriculum Vitae (CV)

Your CV, short form curriculum vitae, is a personal marketing document used to
notify yourself to prospective employers. It should tell them about you, your
professional history and your skills, abilities and achievements. Ultimately, it should
highlight why you’re the best person for the job.
A CV is required when applying for a job. In addition to your CV, employers may
also require a cover letter and a completed application form.
What to include in your CV in 2021?
While the structure of a CV is flexible, bending to your unique skill set and
experiences, there are particular sections that employers expect to see on your CV
regardless.
Here are the sections you must include in your CV:
Name, professional title and contact details
The first part of your CV, positioned at the top of the page, should contain your
name, professional title and contact details. Under no circumstances should you title
your CV with ‘curriculum vitae’ or ‘CV’ as it’s a waste of valuable space. Treat your
name as the title instead.
When it comes to your contact details, your email address and phone number(s) are
essential. Once upon a time, it was customary to include your full address on your
CV. Today, you simply need to list your town and county.
If you like, you can also include a link to your LinkedIn profile in this section – but
only if it’s up to date!
Example of how your name, professional title and contact details might look.
Personal profile/Objective
A personal profile, also known as a personal statement, career objective and
professional profile, is one of the most important aspects of your CV. It’s a short
paragraph that sits just underneath your name and contact details giving prospective
employers an overview of who you are and what you’re all about.

You should tailor your profile to every job you apply for, highlighting specific
qualities that match you to the role. Aim to keep your personal statement short and
sweet, and no longer than a few sentences. To make the most of this section, you
should try to address the following:
Who are you?
What can you offer the company?
What are your career goals?
Education and qualifications
Like your experience section, your education should be listed in reverse
chronological order. Include the name of the institutions and the dates you were
there, followed by the qualifications and grades you achieved.
If you have recently left education, you may write your degree, A-levels or GCSEs
(or equivalents)

Experience and employment history

Your employment history section gives you a chance to outline your previous jobs,
internships and work experience.
List your experience in reverse chronological order as your recent role is the most
relevant to the employer.
When listing each position of employment, state your job title, the employer, the
dates you worked and a line that summarizes the role. Then bullet point your key
responsibilities, skills and achievements, and strengthen each point with powerful
verbs and figures to support each claim and showcase your impact.
It helps to choose the duties most relevant to the job you’re applying for, especially
if it’s a long list. If you have many years’ worth of experience, you can reduce the
detail of old or irrelevant roles.

Additional sections
There is a range of additional sections that may strengthen your CV and highlight
your skills. Here are just a few you can include if you have room:
Key skills: If you’re writing a functional CV, or have some abilities you want to
show off to the employer immediately, insert a key skills section underneath your
personal profile. You should aim to detail four to five abilities at most.
Hobbies and interests: If you feel that your CV is lacking, you can boost your
document by inserting a hobbies and interests section at the end. This can help to
show how well you fit into the company or the industry. For example, if you’re
applying for an environmental job, why not include that you have a big interest in
climate change activism?
Be careful though; avoid listing hobbies that don’t add value to your CV or are
run-of-the-mill, like reading. Draw on interests that make you stand out or are
relevant to the job.
Format for CV

Forename Surname
Email: name@example.com Contact: 0123 456789
Location: Town, Country

Objective It’s a short paragraph that sits just underneath your

name and contact details giving prospective employers
an overview of who you are and what you’re all about.

Academic Latest Degree

Qualification Institute name
Year/session e.g 2010-2015
Second Latest
Institute Name
So on….

Work
Experience May, 2010 – Aug, 2014
Company Name, Location
ABC
Role Title
XYZ
Outline
Key responsibilities
Key achievements/projects
Internship May, 2010 – Aug, 2014
Company Name, Location
ABC
Role Title
XYZ
Outline
responsibilities

Professional State any professional training

Training

Skills & Technical skills:

Abilities
Social Skills:

Interests/ Mention Your Interests and Hobbies which add quality

Hobbies to your CV

Short Course/
Diplomas Mention all short courses and Diplomas (virtual 0r Not
Virtual) in reverse chronological order

Memberships Mention memberships and their designated roles if any.

Reference Available upon request
 2. Letter Writing

Types of Letter

Formal letter
A formal letter is written using a formal language and a structured format to be
used, this is usually used in workplaces, businesses, governments & authorities and
much more.
Informal letter
An informal letter is used when we are writing to a friends, relatives etc. This type
of letter also known as friendly letter is usually written for personal
communications.
Semi-formal letter
A semi-formal letter is used addressing to a person you may know or have business
relationship such as your assistant, advisor, teacher etc. It usually follows the same
format as a formal letter.
Letter Samples
Business Letter
Nicole Thomas
35 Chestnut Street
Dell Village, Wisconsin 54101
555-555-5555
nicole@thomas.com
August 3, 2020
Jason Andrews
Manager
LMK Company
53 Oak Avenue, Ste 5
Dell Village, Wisconsin 54101
Dear Jason,
I’m writing to resign from my position as customer service representative,
effective August 14, 2020.
I’ve recently decided to go back to school, and my program starts in early
September. I’m tendering my resignation now so that I can be as helpful as
possible to you during the transition.
I’ve truly enjoyed my time working with you and everyone else on our team at
LMK. It’s rare to find a customer service role that offers as much opportunity to
grow and learn, as well as such a positive, inspiring team of people to grow and
learn with.
I’m particularly grateful for your guidance while I was considering furthering my
education. Your support has meant so much to me.
Please let me know if there’s anything I can do to help you find and train my
replacement.
Thanks, and best wishes,
Nicole Thomas (signature hard copy letter)
Nicole Thomas
Cover Letter
Informal Letter
 3. Memo Writing

Memo writing is something of an art form. A letter is not a memo, nor is a memo a
letter. A memo is a short, to the point communication conveying your thoughts,
reactions or opinion on something. A memo can call people to action or broadcast a
bit of timely news. With memo writing, shorter is better.
As with all writing, memo writing needs a structure. Because they are short,
rambling meanderings will soon destroy the memo’s effectiveness and become a
waste of productive time to those that read it and to the person who wrote it.
If you have something longer than a page, it’s better to send it as an attachment or a
document that follows the memo used as a cover letter. Never make a memo too
long. If someone takes a glance at a memo that appears to be too long, there’s a good
chance it will be set aside for a time when they aren’t busy. This can defeat your
memo’s purpose which is timely communication.
Types of memos
There are a few main types of memos you can write depending on your needs and
the content of your message. Below are some of the most common types of memos.
Report memo: Typically sent to give an update or progress report.
Request memo: Submitted as a request to a certain person or team. Persuasive
language works well in request memos.
Confirmation memo: Written to confirm an agreement made between two parties.
Suggestive memo: Usually sent by management requesting input from employees
on how to solve a certain problem.
How to write a memo?
While each memo should be written to address its unique needs, there are a few steps
you can follow to create a clear, highly readable document. Like many other
professional business documents, memos will include an introduction, body and
conclusion.
Start with a header that clearly indicates that the communication is a memorandum,
the intended recipients, the sender, the date and the subject.
Write an introduction that uses a declarative sentence to announce the main topic
of the memo.
Include a body paragraph with discussion points that elaborate or list the main
ideas associated with the memo's topic. To make your memo easier to read, write in
short paragraphs and break the information into smaller, more manageable chunks.
Since the recipients will likely be scanning the memo, you should also use
subheadings and bulleted lists when possible.
Conclude your memo with any remaining information following the body
paragraph. This is a summary of the memo and should clearly inform the reader of
any actions required.
Close with your name, email address and phone number in case anyone needs to
contact you.
Basic Formats
Memos can be approached in different ways depending on your purpose:
Decide if it’s to be persuasive or informative: While many memos are a
combination of the two (“In order to process your claim promptly, please submit it
no later than January 15.”), sometimes memos have to be one or the other for the
reader to take the appropriate action. A persuasive memo engages the reader’s
interest before issuing a directive, where as an informative memo outlines the facts
and then requests the reader’s actions.
Clearly state the purpose of communication in the subject line. Most memo
formats have the basics of the header, like “to,” “from” and “date” in place. But you
have a responsibility to make the subject line as descriptive as possible so the reader
understands the intent. A memo simply titled “Vacation Time” might appear to be
good news – until the document explains that vacation time won’t be granted unless
first requested in writing. Thus, a better memo title might be “New Vacation Time
Request Policy".
Write memos with purpose and make that purpose known in the first
paragraph. Needless memo writing should be a crime across all states. One way to
make sure no one reads or heeds memos is to send them out for the slightest issue.
Try to avoid doing this. Also, outline the purpose and the desired action in the
memo’s first paragraph. Readers will become conditioned to the importance of a
memo and gain that knowledge as soon as they open it.
Keep It Simple: Most memo formats accommodate one page of information. This
means that the topic details should be concise, with clear directives and contacts for
follow-up. If it’s a complex topic extending into multiple pages, still keep the
language as direct as possible, add headings or bullets to guide the reader and
conclude with a summary paragraph of key points.
Reinforce the reader’s necessary action. At the end of the memo, specifically
direct the reader to the desired action.
Effective business communication improves workflow and relationships. Use the
tools of memo formats and well-constructed information to your advantage.
Template for Memorandum
To: Names of intended recipients
From: Your Name, Title
Date: Month Day, Year
Subject: Subject of the memo
Begin the memo with a sentence that describes the reason you are writing. It
should be very short—about one or two sentences in length. The introduction
should clearly state the purpose of the memo so the reader immediately
understands what it is about. If the memo is meant to respond or follow up on a
certain topic or situation, include that in the first paragraph.
Bullet point to list important information.
Bullet point to list important information.
Bullet point to list important information.
Use the last few sentences to conclude your memo. Make sure you include a
request for any action you need people to take after reading your memo.
Thank you,
[Your name]
[Your email address]
[Your phone number]
Attachment: Attachment of image, graph or chart that your intended recipients
might need.
Sample Memorandum
 4. Minutes of Meeting

Meeting minutes are a written record of the conversation and decisions that are made
over the course of a meeting. Meeting minutes are applicable to any kind of group
within a company, including a board meeting, where the parties involved include
boards of directors.
This type of meeting notes can actually be written for any kind of meeting that
requires an official record. This written record can then be used to either inform team
members who weren’t able to attend what happened or to keep track of decisions
and action items that can be revisited. Minutes from previous meetings can therefore
be used in order to make future organizational decisions.
purpose of meeting minutes
So what’s all the hype around meeting minutes? To start, they provide a historical
record of the company’s short and long-term planning. Participants have the ability
to use the meeting minutes as a record for future reference, to understand what kinds
of progression has taken place.
Minutes also provide legal protection for the organization. Many times, due
diligence is captured in companies’ meeting minutes, which can then be officiated
and documented to confirm the ethical, fair practices of the organization. Meeting
notes also serve as proof of why and how a company came to certain decisions. This
is going to be helpful in answering any questions that arise in reference to decisions
that have been made.
Importance of meeting minutes:
They are a record of a group’s decisions and actions
They are a reminder of who was given assignments
They are evidence of deadlines
They are a benefit for people who are absent when decisions are made.
Effective meeting minutes
1. Meeting name and place
2. Date and time of the meeting
3. List of meeting participants
4. Purpose of the meeting
5. For each agenda items: decisions, action items, and next steps
Next meeting date and place
6. Documents to be included in the meeting report
Formal Meeting Minutes:
Formal meeting minutes are used to document big or official decisions that often
require approval. These meeting minutes use formal language and are structured
with the purpose of being shared with all of the meeting participants afterwards.
Formal meeting minutes are commonly used by nonprofits, government, schools,
and public companies. In fact, most trade unions, schools, city and county
governments model their meeting minutes.
If you’re writing minutes for a formal meeting, it’s important to document as much
information as possible, and keep the meeting format consistent from meeting to
meeting.
It’s smart to use a meeting template for more formal conversations to give them the
structure that you’re looking for. Organization of notes is key, since you’ll be sharing
the notes with everyone afterwards.
Template Formal Meeting Minutes
Informal Meeting Minutes
Informal meeting minutes serve as a quick reference to important topics that have
been covered in your meeting such as goals, obstacles, deadlines or ideas that have
surfaced.
If your organization doesn’t require you to use a specific meeting minutes’ template,
you can use and customized a simpler template. Contrary to a formal meeting
minutes’ template, no one needs to have approved the minutes for this type of
meeting and they serve to only document the key points and next steps.
 5. Report Writing

Report writing is a formal style of writing elaborately on a topic. The tone of a report
is always formal. The important section to focus on is the target audience. For
example, report writing about a school event, report writing about a business case,
report writing for Research etc.
All your facts and information presented in the report not only have to be bias-free,
but they also have to be 100% correct. Proof-reading and fact-checking is always
what you do as a thumb rule before submitting a report.
Essentially, a report is a short, sharp, concise document which is written for a
particular purpose and audience. It generally sets outs and analyses a situation or
problem, often making recommendations for future action. It is a factual paper, and
needs to be clear and well-structured.
Requirements for the precise form and content of a report will vary between
organization and departments and in study between courses, from tutor to tutor, as
well as between subjects, so it’s worth finding out if there are any specific guidelines
before you start.
Reports are written with much analysis. The purpose of report writing is essential to
inform the reader about a topic, minus one’s opinion on the topic. It’s simply a
portrayal of facts, as it is. Even if one gives inferences, solid analysis, charts, tables
and data is provided. Mostly it is specified by the person who’s asked for the report
whether they would like your take or not if that is the case.
In many cases, what’s required is your suggestions for a specific case after a factual
report. That depends on why are you writing the report and who you are writing it
for in the first place. Knowing your audience’s motive for asking for that report is
very important as it sets the course of the facts focused on your report.

Elements of Report Writing

 A description of a sequence of events or a situation:
 Some interpretation of the significance of these events or situation, whether
solely your own analysis or informed by the views of others, always carefully
referenced of course (see our page on Academic Referencing for more
information);
 An evaluation of the facts or the results of your research;
 Discussion of the likely outcomes of future courses of action;
 Your recommendations as to a course of action; and
  Conclusions.
Not all of these elements will be essential in every report.
Steps for Report Writing
The structure of a report is very important to lead the reader through your thinking
to a course of action and/or decision. It’s worth taking a bit of time to plan it out
beforehand.
Step 1: Know your brief
You will usually receive a clear brief for a report, including what you are studying
and for whom the report should be prepared.
First of all, consider your brief very carefully and make sure that you are clear who
the report is for (if you're a student then not just your tutor, but who it is supposed
to be written for), and why you are writing it, as well as what you want the reader to
do at the end of reading: make a decision or agree a recommendation, perhaps.
Step 2: Keep your brief in mind at all times
During your planning and writing, make sure that you keep your brief in mind: who
are you writing for, and why are you writing?
All your thinking needs to be focused on that, which may require you to be ruthless
in your reading and thinking. Anything irrelevant should be discarded.
As you read and research, try to organize your work into sections by theme, a bit
like writing a Literature Review.
Make sure that you keep track of your references, especially for academic work.
Although referencing is perhaps less important in the workplace, it’s also important
that you can substantiate any assertions that you make so it’s helpful to keep track
of your sources of information.
The Structure of a Report
However, as a rough guide, you should plan to include at the very least an executive
summary, introduction, the main body of your report, and a section containing your
conclusions and any recommendations.
Executive Summary/ Abstract
The executive summary or abstract, for a scientific report, is a brief summary of the
contents. It’s worth writing this last, when you know the key points to draw out. It
should be no more than half a page to a page in length.
Remember the executive summary is designed to give busy 'executives' a quick
summary of the contents of the report.
Introduction
The introduction sets out what you plan to say and provides a brief summary of the
problem under discussion. It should also touch briefly on your conclusions.
Report Main Body
The main body of the report should be carefully structured in a way that leads the
reader through the issue.
You should split it into sections using numbered sub-headings relating to themes or
areas for consideration. For each theme, you should aim to set out clearly and
concisely the main issue under discussion and any areas of difficulty or
disagreement. It may also include experimental results. All the information that you
present should be related back to the brief and the precise subject under discussion.
If it’s not relevant, leave it out.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The conclusion sets out what inferences you draw from the information, including
any experimental results. It may include recommendations, or these may be included
in a separate section.
Recommendations suggest how you think the situation could be improved, and
should be specific, achievable and measurable. If your recommendations have
financial implications, you should set these out clearly, with estimated costs if
possible.
Writing Style
When writing a report, your aim should be to be absolutely clear. Above all, it should
be easy to read and understand, even to someone with little knowledge of the subject
area.
You should therefore aim for crisp, precise text, using plain English, and shorter
words rather than longer, with short sentences.
You should also avoid jargon. If you have to use specialist language, you should
explain each word as you use it. If you find that you’ve had to explain more than
about five words, you’re probably using too much jargon, and need to replace some
of it with simpler words.
Consider your audience. If the report is designed to be written for a particular person,
check whether you should be writing it to ‘you’ or perhaps in the third person to a
job role: ‘The Chief Executive may like to consider…’, or ‘The minister is
recommended to agree…’
Warning
As with any academic assignment or formal piece of writing, your work will benefit
from being read over again and edited ruthlessly for sense and style.
Pay particular attention to whether all the information that you have included is
relevant. Also remember to check tenses, which person you have written in,
grammar and spelling. It’s also worth one last check against any requirements on
structure.
For an academic assignment, make sure that you have referenced fully and correctly.
As always, check that you have not inadvertently or deliberately plagiarized or
copied anything without acknowledging it.

Types of Report
1. Research Report
A. Preliminary Section
1. Title Page
2. Acknowledgments (if any)
3. Table of Contents
4. List of Tables (if any)
5. List of Figures (if any)
6. Abstract
B. Main Body
1. Introduction
a. Statement of the Problem
b. Significance of the Problem (and historical background)
c. Purpose
d. Statement of Hypothesis
e. Assumptions
f. Limitations
g. Definition of Terms
h. Ethical Considerations
i. Budget (proposal only)
j. Proposed Timeline (proposal only)
2. Review of Related Literature (and analysis of previous research)
3. Design of the Study
a. Description of Research Design and Procedures Used
b. Sources of Data
c. Sampling Procedures
d. Methods and Instruments of Data Gathering
e. Statistical Treatment
4. Analysis of Data
a. text with appropriate
b. tables and
c. figures
5. Summary and Conclusions
a. Restatement of the Problem
b. Description of Procedures
c. Major Findings (reject or fail to reject Ho)
d. Conclusions
e. Recommendations for Further Investigation
C. Reference Section
1. End Notes (if in that format of citation)
2. Bibliography or Literature Cited
3. Appendix
Template for Research Report
Title: Be specific. Tell what, when, where, etc. In one main title and a subtitle, give
a clear idea of what the paper investigated.
Acknowledgment: Include only if special help was received from an individual or
group.
Abstract: Summarizes the report including the hypotheses, procedures, and major
findings.
Introduction: Sections may be combined in short reports.
Statement of the Problem: This is a general introduction to the topic.
Significance of the Problem: Comment on why this question merits investigation.
Purpose: What is the goal to be gained from a better understanding of this question?
Statement of the Hypothesis: In one statement (not a question) declare the question
which is investigated and the expected results. (For a null hypothesis, no difference
is predicted.)
Assumptions: Explain everything that is assumed in order for the investigation to
be undertaken.
Limitations: Explain the limitations that may invalidate the study or make it less
than accurate.
Definition of Terms: Define or clarify any term or concept that is used in the study
in a non-traditional manner or in only one of many interpretations.
Ethical Considerations: Discusses the ethical issues related to the study and
explains the processes and status of the review by the Institutional Review Board.
Review of Related Literature: Gives the reader the necessary background to
understand the study by citing the investigations and findings of previous researchers
and documents the researcher's knowledge and preparation to investigate the
problem.
Design of the Study: Gives the reader the information necessary to exactly replicate
(repeat) the study with new data or if the same raw data were available, the reader
should be able to duplicate the results. This is written in past tense but without
reference to or inclusion of the results determined from the analysis.
Description of the Research Design and Procedures Used: Completely explain
step-by-step what was done.
Sources of Data: Give complete information about who, what, when, where, and
how the data were collected.
Sampling Procedures: Explain how the data were limited to the amount which was
gathered. If all of the available data were not utilized, how was a representative
sample achieved?
Methods and Instruments of Data Gathering: Explain the procedures for
obtaining the data collected. Include the forms or manner by which it was recorded.
Statistical Treatment: Explain the complete mathematical procedures used in
analyzing the data and determining the significance of the results.
Analysis of Data: Describe the patterns observed in the data. Use tables and figures
to help clarify the material when possible.
Summary and Conclusions: This section condenses the previous sections,
succinctly presents the results concerning the hypotheses, and suggests what else can
be done.
Restatement of the Problem: This is a short reiteration of the problem.
Description of the Procedures: This is a brief reiteration of important elements of
the design of the study.
Major Findings: The final results from the analysis are presented, the hypothesis
stated, and the decision about the rejection or the failure to reject the hypothesis is
given.
Conclusions: Comments about the implication of the findings are presented.
Recommendations for Further Investigation: From the knowledge and
experienced gained in undertaking this particular study, how might the study have
been improved or what other possible hypotheses might be investigated?
End Notes: These are like footnotes but are located at the back rather than the
bottom of each page. These would include all of the references for all works cited in
the Review of Related Literature or any other sections of the report as well as the
references for quotations, either direct or indirect, taken from other sources, or any
footnote comments that might have been included. These are listed in numeric order
as presented in the text.
Bibliography or Literature Cited: These are the bibliographic reference for each
of the works cited in the End Notes.
Appendix: Any tables, figures, forms, or other materials that are not totally central
to the analysis but that need to be included are placed in the Appendix.
2. Annual Reports
This type of report we'll cover is an annual report. This will typically round up a
business's year of progress and performance to let supervisors and team members
know how the company did.
1. Work out your timetable
It’s a basic point but you need to give yourself enough time to get the report written
and published. Don’t underestimate this.
Writing an annual report can easily take eight weeks or more, bearing in mind that
you need to gather the information, produce a draft, get it reviewed (often several
times), then signed off by management and (probably) the board. Then you’ll need
to allow time for art working, proofreading, printing and mailing.
If there isn’t a fixed date, then set yourself a realistic point when you want it done.
Give yourself enough time but don’t let it drag or it’ll become a burden and your
corporate memory of the year will fade.
2. Start to think about the content
Good planning is essential if you’re going to make the writing stage as painless as
possible. Think about what you want to say before you start writing. There are three
main aspects to this
what you want to say
what you have to say, and
what others in your industry are saying?
a) What you want to say: meeting your audience’s needs
All good business writing is created with the needs of its audience in mind. Annual
reports are no exception.
If you’re not bound by the regulations, then you might have a different audience in
mind – your customers or business partners, for example.
Whoever you’re writing for, you need to understand what they want from you, Put
yourself in their shoes. If you were looking to invest in a company, what would you
want to know about it?
b) What you have to say: understanding the regulatory requirements. Good reports
reflect your desire to communicate effectively but you can’t ignore the reporting
rules
c) What others are saying: peers and best practice
Have a look at what your competitors are saying in their reports. You can draw
inspiration from the things they do well and find opportunities to stand out. If your
peers aren’t clearly articulating their strategies, for example, you can seize the high
ground with a compelling explanation of what you’re looking to achieve.
The point of these exercises is not to slavishly copy other reports. Find what you can
use and tailor it to your situation.
3. Determine your key messages
It’s highly likely that your senior management will have key points they want your
audience to understand about the business, its strategy, its performance and its
prospects. For example, was it a good year or merely an average one? Do you want
to be cautious or optimistic about the future? What do you want to say about the
level of competition? Your success with new products? Your sustainability strategy?
Every company will have its own set of hot topics. Understanding yours at the outset
will save you a lot of pain and rewriting later on.
4. Agree your writing style
If you’re lucky, your organization will already have a clearly defined tone of voice.
If not, you’ll need to decide how you want to present your organization in writing.
This needs to reflect your brand and culture, so don’t fall into the trap of thinking
that a formal document like the annual report has to have a formal writing style. If
your organization prides itself on being straightforward and easy to deal with, then
a simple conversational style may fit best.
Whatever route you go down, get your senior management to agree to it before you
start. If necessary, write an example paragraph or two in a number of different ways,
so they can get a good feel for what you mean. Otherwise you may have to rewrite
your report when they recoil at the way you’ve done it.
5. Decide on your structure
The work you’ve done under point 2 should have given you clear thoughts about
structuring your report. If you’re a UK-listed company, you’re going to have:
A strategic report, a corporate governance section, including the directors’ report,
the corporate governance report and the remuneration report, andthe financial
statements.
The strategic report, though, has much more flexibility. There’s no definitively
‘correct’ way of structuring a strategic report and the FRC has deliberately avoided
giving an example, because it wants companies to have the freedom to tell their
story. However, most good strategic reports include the following:
Strategic report
Business overview
Markets
Business model
Strategy
Highlights of the year
Chairman’s statement
Chief executive’s statement
Key performance indicators
Principal risks and uncertainties
Operating review
Financial review
Sustainability
Optional – case studies to illustrate particular products or a theme, such as the
importance of your people
Thought
The thought you put in now will save you time and against later.
6. Work out the likely content for each page
You’ve thought about who you’re writing for and worked out your structure. Now
you can rough out the main areas of content for each section. So in the markets
section, for example, you might cover:
Who your customers are
The size of the market and its growth rate
What’s driving your market (for example, social trends, new product development,
regulation)
The international spread of your market
Who your competitors are and whether competition is increasing or decreasing
Once you’ve roughed out the content for each section, you’ll be in a much better
position to efficiently gather the information you’ll need to write it. This process
also allows your design agency to start thinking about page designs and word counts,
which are key for when you start to write.
7. Work out who your contributors will be
In other words, who in your company has the information you need to create the
content? This is likely to include your:
Chairman
Chief executive
Finance director
Divisional / operational heads
Company secretary
HR director
Head of sustainability
You may also need to talk to procurement and customer service.
Make sure all your contributors are aware that you need their input and that they’ll
have to review drafts and sign off the content.
8. Decide how you’re going to get the information you need
Your contributors have the information. You need to get it out of them. To do this,
you can:
Interview them
Don’t wing it. Prepare your questions in advance, making sure they cover all the
areas on which you need input. It can be helpful to send the questions to your
interviewees, so they can prepare.
Get long enough appointments to go through every question. Record your
interviews, so you can listen back later and be absolutely clear on what you were
told. Unless you can do shorthand, it’s almost impossible to write everything down
when someone is talking at normal speed.
Make sure your interviewees give you a considered answer to every question. Don’t
be afraid to ask them to clarify their points or to go into more detail. If they give you
too much information, repeat the key points you’ve taken from what they’ve said,
and ask them to confirm that it’s right.
Send them questionnaires to complete
Instead of interviewing your contributors, you can ask them to give you written
answers to your questions. This can work well but you’ll often get variable amounts
and quality of information. Some will supply too much, while others give you almost
nothing. Often you’ll need a follow-up call or meeting.
Ask them to draft their sections
This can save you a lot of time. Ask your contributors to give you the content
directly, either as fully formed copy or as bullet points you can work into proper
text. If you want them to write copy, you’ll need to give them careful guidance on
content and style.
This approach is often effective but it can be very difficult for a first report, when
your contributors will be less clear of what’s expected. It can also be hard to conform
all the styles afterwards, so you end up with report that looks like it’s been written
by a committee.
9. Start writing
If your contributors aren’t writing their own sections, it’s time for you to get started.
There’s no right or wrong way to do this. Sometimes it helps to begin at the first
page and work through the sections consecutively. Other times, it feels right to tackle
the key sections – the ones you suspect are going to be hardest to get right or which
there’s likely to be most debate about. Or you might want to start with the easiest
bits, so you feel you’re making progress. That can give you a confidence boost.
For each section, take your outline content from step 6 and use it to write
subheadings. These are really useful for:
(a) setting out your main messages, so the reader can get the gist of the content
without reading all of it, and
(b) breaking the text up visually, so it’s easier and more inviting to read.
Taking our hypothetical example of the markets section, your headings might be:
A £10 billion market
New products are increasing demand
Competition is strong but steady
New markets are opening up
Then use the information you got from your contributors to fill in the content under
each heading. You can start by jotting notes, until you’ve got your argument straight.
As you’re doing this, test the content against the following criteria:
Does my audience want to know this?
Is it material to their understanding of the subject?
Is it consistent with our key messages?
Is it consistent with what we’re saying elsewhere in the report?
Do I need to cross reference this to somewhere else in the report, where there’s more
information?
Then check through your interview notes or questionnaires, to make sure you
haven’t missed anything vital. It’s likely you’ll have been given more information
than you can actually use and it’s easy to lose important nuggets within that wealth
of detail.
Once you’re happy you’ve got the right content, turn it into proper sentences and
paragraphs. This is the easy bit. Do your best to stick to the word count, accepting
that it will need editing later anyway.
10. Read through your draft
Think about the following questions:
Does this report tell a consistent story throughout?
Is there unnecessary repetition?
Can I cut any of this without losing information my readers will want?
Is the style consistent?
Does this meet regulatory requirements?
Have I drawn out the connections between the different sections?
Amend your draft as necessary.
11. Send your material out for review
Some people will need to see the full report but others might just get the sections
they’ve contributed to. Ask for specific feedback that you can use to correct the text.
You may want to ask them to focus on:
Factual errors
Materiality, whether you’ve given a subject too much or too little coverage, relative
to its importance
Understandability, whether the content makes sense
Repetition, whether you’ve covered the same thing in too many places
Fairness and balance, whether you’ve been too positive or negative
Set deadlines for when you need feedback. Give your contributors enough time but
chase everyone who’s late. Delays getting feedback can kill your timetable.
12. Incorporate feedback
Make sure the style is consistent and that any new material doesn’t contradict what
is already there.
13. Reissue and seek further feedback
If things are going well, this should just be fine tuning. If not, take a triage approach.
Focus on the key things that aren’t working and make sure you fix them first. You
can’t leave your strategy description to the night before your deadline. Worry about
the small stuff later.
14. Ask your contributors to sign off the content
Get them to do it in writing. If that means a signature on a printed copy, so be it. At
the very least get an email confirmation that they’re happy with it.
Doing this will:
(a) focus their minds on whether you’re really saying the right things, and
(b) give you peace of mind that your content is properly approved.
15. Provide the final copy to your design agency
You’re nearly there. Once you have the typeset copy, check it thoroughly –
everything from image captions to content pages need to be right.
Don’t try to do the final proofread yourself, though. When you’ve worked with the
copy, you start to see what you think is there, not what actually is. Find a couple of
smart and conscientious people in your organization to proof it, or employ a
professional – you’ll be glad you did.
16. Capture the lessons for next time
Once the dust has settled, sit down with your key contributors and your design
agency. Figure out what parts of the process worked well and where you can improve
next time. There’s no perfect process but you can always make life easier for
yourself, so don’t miss the opportunity.
Template for Annual Report:

3. Project Report
Decide the Objective
Take some time to think about the purpose of the report. Do you need to describe,
explain, recommend, or persuade? Having a clear purpose from the outset ensures
that you stay focused, which makes it easier to engage your reader.
Understand Your Audience
Writing a formal annual report for your stakeholders is very different from a
financial review. Tailor your language, use of data, and supporting graphics to
the audience.
It is also useful to consider the personal communication style of the reader, for
example, how do they write emails or structure documents? Reflect their
preferences where possible. You may need to develop a more formal or informal
tone to your own natural style.
Adopting this technique will build rapport and make the reader more receptive to
your ideas
Report Format and Type
Before you start, check the report format and type. Do you need to submit a
written report or deliver a presentation? Do you need to craft a formal, informal,
financial, annual, technical, fact-finding, or problem-solving report?
You should also confirm if any templates are available within the organization.
Checking these details can save time later on!
Gather the Facts and Data
Including engaging facts and data will solidify your argument. Start with your
collaborative project site and work out as needed. Remember to cite sources such
as articles, case studies, and interviews.
Structure the Report
A report typically has four elements:
Executive Summary. Your report will begin with the summary, which is written
once the report is finished. As the first item the reader encounters, this is the
most important section of the document. They will likely use the summary to
decide how much of the report they need to read so make it count!
Introduction: Provide a context for the report and outline the structure of the
contents. Identify the scope of the report and any particular methodologies used
Body: It’s now time to put your writing skills to work! This is the longest section
of the report and should present background details, analysis, discussions, and
recommendations for consideration. Draw upon data and supporting graphics to
support your position
Conclusion: Bring together the various elements of the report in a clear and
concise manner. Identify the next steps and any actions that your reader needs to
take.
Readability
Spend some time making the report accessible and enjoyable to read. If working
in Word, the Navigation pane is a great way to help your reader work through the
document. Use formatting, visuals, and lists to break up long sections of text.
 Edit
The first draft of the report is rarely perfect so you will need to edit and revise
the content. If possible, set the document aside for a few days before reviewing
or ask a colleague to review.
Project Report Template

Long Report and Short Reports:

These kinds of reports are quite clear, as the name suggests. A two-page report or
sometimes referred to as a memorandum is short, and a thirty-page report is absolutely
long. But what makes a clear division of short reports or long reports? Well, usually,
notice that longer reports are generally written in a formal manner.
Internal and External Reports:
As the name suggests, an internal report stays within a certain organization or group
of people. In the case of office settings, internal reports are for within the organization.
We prepare external reports, such as a news report in the newspaper about an incident
or the annual reports of companies for distribution outside the organization. We call
these as public reports.
Vertical and Lateral Reports:
This is about the hierarchy of the reports’ ultimate target. If the report is for your
management or for your mentees, it’s a vertical report. Wherever a direction of
upwards or downwards comes into motion, we call it a vertical report.
Lateral reports, on the other hand, assist in coordination in the organization. A report
traveling between units of the same organization level (for example, a report among
the administration and finance departments) is lateral.
Periodic Reports:
Periodic reports are sent out on regularly pre-scheduled dates. In most cases, their
direction is upward and serves as management control. Some, like annual reports, is
not vertical but is a Government mandate to be periodic in nature.
That is why we have annual or quarterly or half-yearly reports. If they are this frequent,
it only makes sense to pre-set the structure of these reports and just fill in the data every
period. That’s exactly what happens in most cases too.
Furthermore,
Formal and Informal Reports:
Formal reports are meticulously structured. They focus on objectivity and
organization, contain deeper detail, and the writer must write them in a style that
eliminates factors like personal pronouns.
Informal reports are usually short messages with free-flowing, casual use of
language. We generally describe the internal report/memorandum as an informal
report. For example, a report among your peers, or a report for your small group or
team, etc.
Informational and Analytical Reports:
Informational reports (attendance reports, annual budget reports, monthly financial
reports, and such) carry objective information from one area of an organization to
maybe a larger system.
Analytical reports (scientific research, feasibility reports, and employee appraisals)
show attempts to solve actual problems. These analytical reports usually require
suggestions at the end.
Proposal Reports:
These kinds of reports are like an extension to the analytical/problem-solving reports.
A proposal is a document one prepares to describe how one organization can provide
a solution to a problem they are facing.
There’s usually always a need to prepare a report in a business set-up. The end goal is
usually very solution-oriented. We call such kinds of reports as proposal reports.
Functional Reports:
These kinds of reports include marketing reports, financial reports, accounting reports,
and a spectrum of other reports that provide a function specifically. By and large, we
can include almost all reports in most of these categories. Furthermore, we can include
a single report in several kinds of reports.
News Report:
Most newspaper articles break down into two categories:

 News articles
 Feature articles

You will also find opinion pieces, like editorials and book and movie reviews. But
this lesson deals strictly with news and feature articles.
Here's how you can tell the difference between a news story and a feature story.

 News articles cover the basics of current events. They answer the questions:
who, what, where, how, and when?
 Feature articles are longer and more in depth than regular news articles.
They cover one subject from multiple angles and are written in a more
creative, entertaining format. Although a news story can be creative and
entertaining, too. Check out the examples below.

It is important to remember that both news and features demand the same level of
research and reporting.
The Basic Story Outline
The best way to structure a newspaper article is to first write an outline. Review
your research and notes. Then jot down ideas for the following six sections.
Remember, this is just a foundation upon which to build your story.
Lead sentence
Grab and hook your reader right away.
Introduction
Which facts and figures will ground your story? You have to tell your readers
where and when this story is happening.
Opening quotation
What will give the reader a sense of the people involved and what they are
thinking?
Main body
What is at the heart of your story?
Closing quotation
Find something that sums the article up in a few words.
Conclusion (optional—the closing quote may do the job)
What is a memorable way to end your story? The end quote is a good way to sum
things up. That doesn’t always work. If you are quoting more than one person with
different points of view in your story, you cannot end with a quote from just one of
them. Giving one of your interviewees the last word can tilt the story in their favor.
In this age of the Internet, you can also send your story with a link to more
information or even your own behind-the-scenes blog post.
The End