❖

Lagrangian (L)= 2 𝑀𝑅⃗̇ 2 + 2 𝜇𝑟̇ 2 − 𝑈(𝑟)

1 1

It is seen that the three coordinates R are cyclic, so that the center of mass is either at rest or moving
uniformly. None of the equations of motion for r will contain terms involving R or
R.Consequently, the process of integration is particularly simple here. We merely drop the first
term from the Lagrangian in all subsequent discussion.
Thus, the central force motion of two bodies about their center of mass can always be reduced to an
equivalent one-body problem.

Note: All ‘ m ‘ in the below equations are reduce mass (𝜇)

❖
1
Since the motion is confined in a plane, Lagrangian is L=2 𝑚(𝑟̇ 2 + 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ 2 ) − 𝑉(𝑟)
𝑟 𝑑𝑟
R equation gives: 𝑡 = ∫𝑟 where 𝜇 = 𝑚 & 𝑙 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑜 2 𝐿2
√ (𝐸−𝑉(𝑟)− )
𝑚 2𝑚𝑟2
𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜃 equation gives : 𝜃 = 𝐿 ∫0 𝑚𝑟2 (𝑡) + 𝜃0
❖

𝐿2
𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑉(𝑟) +
2𝑚𝑟 2
This effective potential concept is very effective . It reduces the problem to 1 dimension .
❖

Virial theorem : 𝑇̅ = − 2 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

1
∑𝑖 𝐹𝑖 . 𝑟𝑖 ; where bar means time average.
1
When force is derivable from a potential it reduces to: 𝑇̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∑ ∇𝑉 . 𝑟 𝑖 𝑖
2
𝑛+1
For V = a𝑟 𝑛+1
: 𝑇̅ = 𝑉̅
2
❖
𝑑2 𝑢 𝑚 1 1
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION FOR THE ORBIT: 𝑑𝜃2
+ 𝑢 = − 𝐿2 𝑢2 𝑓(𝑢) , where r=𝑢.

𝐿2 𝑑𝑢 2 1 𝐿2 𝑑𝑟 2
𝐸= [( ) + 𝑢2 ] + V( ) or, 𝐸 = [( ) + 𝑟 2 ] + V(r)
2𝑚 𝑑𝜃 𝑢 2𝑚𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
This equation is very important when r(𝜃) is given and we are asked to find the energy .
𝑢 𝑟
𝑑 𝐿 𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑟
= ; 𝜃 = 𝜃0 − ∫ ; 𝜃 = 𝜃0 + ∫
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
√2𝑚𝐸 𝑢0
2𝑚𝑉
− 2 − 𝑢2
2𝑚𝐸 2𝑚𝑉 1
𝑟0 𝑟 2 √ 2 − − 2
𝐿2 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿2 𝑟
Not all V(r) gives integrable solution . For V = a𝑟 𝑛+1 ; n=-3,-2,1 gives results expressable
in terms of trigonometric function. n=-7,-5,-4,0,3,5 1 gives results expressable in terms of
elliptic function. This integer values of n gives analytic solution .Some fractional values of
n gives elliptic and hyperbolic function.

❖
There are two conditions for stable circular orbit under central force at a radial distance 𝑟0 :
𝑑 𝐿2 𝐿2
1. 𝑉 = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑉(𝑟) + . 𝐼𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑟0 ) = −
𝑑𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓 2𝑚𝑟 2 𝑚𝑟0 3
Now since 𝑓(𝑟0 ) is negative it tells that force has be attractive at 𝑟0 for circular orbit.
 𝑑2 𝜕𝑓 3𝑓(𝑟0 )
2. 𝑑𝑟2 𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓 > 0 ; Which gives 𝜕𝑟
<− 𝑟0
If we want the orbit to be stable circular for all values 𝑟0 the attractive force law must satisfy
the 2nd condition for all values of r. If we take the force law to be of the form 𝑓(𝑟) = −𝑘𝑟 𝑛
It gives n>-3 for the orbit to be stable circular for all values 𝑟0 .

❖ If we perturb the stable circular orbit by increasing the energy little bit then new perturb
𝐿
orbit can be written(approximately) as r=𝑟𝑐 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛽𝜑) where 𝜑(𝑡) = 𝑚𝑟 2 & 𝛽 =
𝑐

√(2 − 𝑛)

𝑝
❖ If 𝛽 is an integer the orbit is a simply closed curve and if it is a rational (𝑞 ) the orbit would
begin to retrace itself after q revolutions of radius vector.

❖ Bertrand Theorem: Details calculation for large deviation from circularity shows that only
central forces that result in closed orbits for all bound particles are the inverse square law
and Hooke’s law

❖ Some important formula and equation involving inverse square central force field:

Equation of a conic in plane polar coordinate 𝑙

= 1 + 𝜀cos (𝜑 − 𝜑0 )
𝑟
𝑑2 𝑢 𝑚 1
We can get this orbit using the equation 2 + 𝑢 = − 2 2 𝑓 ( ) . Where 𝜑0 is one of the
𝑑𝜃 𝐿 𝑢 𝑢
turning angle. Whether it will have one or two turning angle depends on the value of 𝜀.
For inverse square law orbit is a conic 𝐿2 2𝐸𝐿2 1
𝑙= & 𝜀 = (1 +
𝑚𝑘
)2 𝑚𝑘 2
𝑣
Eccentricity for projectile 𝜀 = √1 − 4𝑐 2 (1 − 𝑐 2 )𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼; 𝑐 =
𝑣 𝑒
(projected from the surface of a planet)
Half angular range 1 − 2𝑐 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑜′ =
√1 − 4𝑐 2 (1 − 𝑐 2 )𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
An expression of velocity of particle 𝑘 2 1
𝑣2 = ( ± )
𝑚 𝑟 𝑎
(+) for hyperbolic orbit and (-) for elliptical orbit
Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector is cont. of motion 𝑟
⃗ = 𝑝 × 𝐿⃗ − 𝑚𝑘
𝐵
𝑟

❖ Properties of elliptical orbit:

𝑟 +𝑟 𝑘
a= 1 2 2 = − 2𝐸 ; 𝑟1=perigee(minimum) 𝑟2 1 + 𝜀
=
‘a’ depends only on energy. 𝑟1 1 − 𝜀
𝐿2 𝑘 2𝐸𝐿2 1
𝑙= = 𝑎(1 − 𝜀 2 ) , use eqn. 𝑎 = − in equ. 𝜀 = (1 + )2
𝑚𝑘 2𝐸 𝑚𝑘 2
 2𝜋𝑎 2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ( ) 2𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑇 𝐿 = 𝑚√𝐺𝑀( )
𝑟1 + 𝑟2

𝑚 𝑘 2𝜋𝑎 2
𝑘 2 1 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 1.𝑇 2 = 4𝜋 2 𝑎3 ( 𝑘 ) ∶ 𝑚𝑎 = ( 𝑇 ) = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑣 2 = ( − ) & 𝑎 = 2. 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑚 𝑟 𝑎 2 𝐿 𝐿
3. 𝑚𝑟 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 & 𝑚𝑟 = 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐿2 𝑘
4. 𝑚2 𝑟 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 +𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥
where k=GMm & a= 2
2𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥
5. 𝐿2 = 𝑘𝑚 𝑟
𝑚𝑖𝑛 +𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥

180 page

❖ Kepler’s Law:
Name of the law Statement Comment
Law of orbit Orbits are elliptical Consequence of attractive inverse
square law.
Law of areas 𝑑𝐴 𝐿⃗ General property of central force, not
= restricted to attractive inverse square
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚
law.
Law of periods 4𝜋 2 Original statement was, T is independent
𝑇2 = 𝑎3 of m . Only valid in attractive inverse
𝐺(𝑀 + 𝑚)
Or, square force.
𝜇
𝑇 2 = 4𝜋 2 𝑎3 ( )
𝑘

𝑑2𝑢 𝑚 1 1
❖ DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION FOR THE ORBIT: 𝑑𝜑2
+ 𝑢 = − 𝐿2 𝑢2 𝑓(𝑢) , where r=𝑢.
If 𝑓(𝑟) is known r(𝜑) can be found or vice versa from this equation.

Equation of orbit Nature of force

1. 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 cos (2𝜑) 𝑟 −7
2. r=2a cos (𝜑) 𝑟 −5
3. r=a(1+ cos 𝜑) 𝑟 −4
1
4.r=𝜑 𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 −𝜑 𝑟 −3