UNIT 3

attention, movement, perception, hunger,

sex, hunger, and joy. They study brain
SCOPE OF disease and injury and their treatment. Psychology Today
PSYCHOLOGY They evaluate the impact of drugs. 7 We defined psychology as a single
discipline, as is generally done. However,
the field is really a collection of subfields.
Topics Psychologists Definition of psychology Each has its own unique characteristics
4 The word "psychology" is derived from and requirements; and the sum total
Study the Greek word meaning "study of the might reasonably be called psychological
1 Psychology covers a broad range of mind or soul." Today psychology is studies rather than psychology (Koch,
subjects. They run the gamut from usually defined as the science that 1981). The major subfields of psychology
abnormalities to zero population growth. focuses on behavior and mental processes are described in Table 1-1.
Psychologists study basic functions such – in all animals. There are a number of 8 Why do psychologists specialize? The
as learning, memory, language, thought, key words in our definition: "science," main reason is the vast range of
emotions, and motives. We are concerned "behavior," "mental processes." psychology. To appreciate its giant
with socially vital topics too: among 5 You probably have at least a vague notion dimensions, consider a few facts.
them, divorce, rape, racism, sexism, about what a science is. For now, all we'll Psychological Abstratcs – a journal that
violence, conservation, and pollution. We say about a science is that it offers summarizes articles on psychology –
investigate development across the life disciplined, rational procedures for listed more than 13,000 items for the year
span from birth to death. We are involved conducting valid investigations and 1978 alone. A journal devoted to
in health – mental and physical – and in building up a body of coherent and reviewing books – Contemporary
health care. We try to understand how cohesive information. A little later, we Psychology – now receives one new
feelings contribute to physical illnesses, will be explaining scientific practices. psychology book nearly every working
such as cancer and heart disease. We 6 Psychologists use the word "behavior" hour of every day of the year. The prime
rehabilitate alcoholics, stroke victims, very broadly. For many of us, behavior source for information about
and people with spinal cord injuries. We covers just about everything that people psychological tests lists upward of 77,000
treat people who are distressed and animals do: actions, emotions, ways tests (Buros, 1978). […]
emotionally. We even design machines of communicating, developmental 9 The largest percentage of doctorate-
that are responsive to people processes, mental processed. holding American psychologists – close
2 Psychology overlaps with other social 6 There is some debate about whether to 43 percent – are engaged in direct
sciences, especially sociology. But mental processes are behavior, so our human services. They counsel, test, and
whereas sociologists direct their attention definition mentioned these functions plan programs in mental health clinics,
to groups, group processes, and social separately. The term "mental process" government agencies, schools, prisons,
forces, social psychologists focus on includes forms of cognition, or ways of and the like. Another 31 percent
group and social influences on knowing: among them, perceiving, primarily teach and do research at
individuals. The emphasis in psychology attending, remembering, reasoning, and institutions of higher learning. An
is on the individual human being. solving problems. Dreaming, fantasizing, additional 3 percent do research in other
3 Psychology and biology are also closely wishing, hoping, and anticipating are also settings. About 8 percent are
allied. Physiological psychologists, who mental processes. administrators: deans, superintendents of
are sometimes called psychobiologists, schools, directors of clinics, training
focus on the ways in which behavior and programs, consultant services, and so on.
mental functioning are related to biology. Another 4 percent apply psychology in
They explore the roles of the brain and industrial settings ( ) (Throughout this
the rest of the nervous system in text, a black box, ( ), marks an
functions like memory, language, sleep, appropriate point to read the boxed insert.

BOX 1-1
PSYCHOLOGISTS, PSYCHIATRISTS, PSYCHOANALYSTS
Do you confuse psychologists with psychiatrists? Do you know the differences between psychiatrists and psychoanalysts?
For many people, these names conjure up the image of a "shrink." By now it should be clear that psychologists play a
number of roles and that many do not fit the popular stereotype at all. Clinical psychologists may resemble psychiatrists
and psychoanalysts. The three professionals frequently work in mental health settings, diagnosing and treating
psychological problems. The primary distinctions come from their training and specialization.
Clinical psychologists usually hold a Ph. D. degree in psychology or some similar degree (doctor of education or
doctor of psychology). To earn a Ph.D., clinical psychologists spend about five years in graduate school studying normal
and abnormal behavior, diagnosis (including testing), and treatment. They learn to conduct research to further our
understanding of these subjects. During the course of their studies, they also serve an internship to learn firsthand from
practitioners about serving troubled people. After completing their education, some clinical psychologists see patients in
mental health or medical settings. Many – regardless of setting – participate in research programs.
Psychiatrists go through medical school, receiving a doctor of medicine (M.D.) degree. To qualify as
psychiatrists, most serve a three-year residency in a mental health setting, typically a mental hospital. There they are
trained to detect and treat emotional disturbances. Although they may come to prefer nonmedical treatment techniques,
psychiatrists have special expertise in medical procedures (use of drugs, typically). Those working in health settings often
become administrators.
In theory, anybody can become a psychoanalyst. Candidates must complete an intensive course of study on
Freud's personality theories and treatment methods (known as psychoanalysis) at a recognized training institute (often a
four-year commitment). In addition, would-be analysts must be psychoanalyzed themselves and supervised for several
years while treating patients. The training may easily take seven years or longer. In the United States, most
psychoanalytic training schools accept only physicians. (Roughly 10 percent of American psychiatrist call themselves
psychoanalysts.)
TABLE 1-1
Major Specialists in Psychology

Specialist Approximate percentage Primary Activities

(Full-Time, Doctorate-
Holding APA Members)
Clinical psychologists 47 Assesses and treats people with psychological problems;
conducts research

Counseling psychologist 11 Counsels people with adjustment problems and promotes

achievement in educational and work settings; combines
research, consultation, and treatment

Industrial/ organizational 6 Combines research, consultation, and program development to

psychologist enhance morale and efficiency on the job

Educational psychologist 5 Develops, designs, and evaluates materials and procedures for
educational programs

Social psychologist 5 Studies ho people influence one another

Developmental psychologist 4 Studies changes in behavior with age

Experimental psychologist 4 Conducts research

School psychologist 4 Establishes programs, consults, treats problem youngsters, and

does research in the school setting

Community psychologist 1 Treats distressed people within the community; initiates

community action and develops community programs to enhance
mental health

Engineering Psychologist 1 Designs and evaluates environments, machinery, training

devices, programs, and systems to improve relationships
between people and environments

Personality psychologist 1 Studies how and why people differ from one another and how
those differences can be assesed

Physiological psychologist 1 Studies the physical bases of behavior and cognition

Psychometric/ Quantitative 1 Develops and evaluates tests; designs research to measure

psychologist psychological functions

and motivation does not produce

Humanistic View meaningful information.
Historical Perspectives 17 3 Significant human problems should
12 Humanistic psychologists are united by
10 Ever since our ancestors appeared on be the subjects of psychological
a common goal, to focus on "what it
earth, some 4 to 10 million years ago, investigations. Among humanistic
means to be alive as a human being."
human beings have probably been concerns are responsibility, life goals,
trying to understand themselves and Assumptions of Humanists commitment, fulfillment, creativity,
each other. Although Aristotle (384-322 13 Most humanistic psychologists loneliness, and spontaneity.
B.C.) is sometimes called the "father of
subscribe to the European philosophy 18 4 Psychoanalytic, behavioristic, and
psychology," written speculation about called phenomenology. It holds that cognitive psychologists seek to uncover
psychological matters did not begin people see the world from their own general laws of functioning that apply
with the Greek philosopher. Hundreds unique perspectives. To obtain valid to everybody. The humanists emphasize
of years before him, the earliest knowledge about any human quality or the individual, the exceptional, and the
philosophers on record were dealing experience, one must focus on it from unpredictable.
with questions about human behavior. different frames of reference, as diverse 19 5 Methods of study are secondary to
[…] individuals experience it. In other the problems studied. Of all
11 We now skip over thousands of years words, subjective interpretation is psychologists, the humanists use the
of philosophical investigation and begin central to all human activity and cannot broadest range of research tools – from
our brief survey of the history of be ignored. relatively objective, scientific
psychology with an account of events 14 The humanists share these additional techniques to subjective ones, like
that occurred in the twentieth century. attitudes: introspection and analysis of literature.
Early in this century, rival movements 15 1 Although psychologists must gather Humanistic psychologists consider
in psychology arose and evolved. Each knowledge, their major concern should intuition a valid source of information.
be service. Humanists want to expand
helped shape our current loosely knit Humanistic Research: On Self-
field (Kimble, 2984). Although and enrich human lives by helping
people understand themselves and Actualization
contemporary psychologists no longer 20 Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) was a
belong to specific movements, many develop to the fullest. They assume that
people are basically good. leading figure in the humanistic
identify with one of four major movement. In the following excerpt, he
perspectives: behavioristic, cognitive, 16 2 Psychologists should study living
human beings as wholes. describes beginning his classic research
humanistic, or psychoanalytic. on people who achieved personal
Compartmentalizing people by
functions such as perception, learning, fulfillment, or "actualized" their own
potential:
21 My investigations on self- 23 Eventually Maslow [1970] studied 25 Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese
actualization were not planned to be forty-nine persons whom he admired physician who specialized in treating
research and did not start out as and considered self-actualized. Among problems of the nervous system. He was
research. They started out as the his subjects were friends, living and particularly interested in what were
efforts of a young intellectual to try dead public figures, and college called neurotic disorders. These
and understand two of his teachers students. Maslow questioned and tested conditions are characterized by
whom he loved, adored, and admired, the subjects themselves when he could. excessive anxiety and, in some cases,
and who were very, very wonderful he also interviewed their friends and by depression, fatigue, insomnia, or
people… [I] sought to understand why relatives. Little by little, he sketched paralysis. The symptoms are attributed
these two people were so different from verbal portraits of each person and to conflict or stress.
the run-of-the-mill people in the world. analyzed the common themes. Among Freud's Assumptions
These two people were Ruth benedict fifteen characteristics that distinguished 26 Freud's ideas are still very much alive
and Max Wertheimer… self-fulfilled individuals were: being both in their original form and in
22 My own investigations began as a pre- problem-centered rather than self- numerous modifications. Psychologists
scientific or non-scientific activity. I centered, having deep feelings of who embrace the psychoanalytic
made descriptions and notes on Max sympathy for people, and valuing perspective usually hold these views:
Wertheimer, and I made note on Ruth solitude and privacy. 27 1 Psychologists should study the laws
Benedict. When I tried to understand Psychoanalytic View and determinants of personality (normal
them, think about them and wrote and abnormal) and treat mental
24 If you've never studied psychology
about them in my journal and my disorders.
before, the chances are you haven't
notes, I realized in one wonderful 28 2 The unconscious is an important
heard of Fechner, Wundt, or even James
moment that their two patterns could aspect of personality. Bringing what is
until now. But you're probably well
be generalized. I was talking about a unconscious to consciousness is crucial
acquainted with the name of Sigmund
kind of person… I tried to see whether therapy for neurotic disorders.
Freud. Freud's name and ideas are so
this pattern could be found elsewhere, 29 3 Personality is most appropriately
familiar that psychology is sometimes
and I did find it elsewhere, in one studied within the context of a close,
equated with his theories. But
person after another… By ordinary long-term relationship between patient
psychoanalytic theory (the name for
standards of laboratory research, that and therapist. As patients report what is
Freudian ideas about personality,
is, of rigorous and controlled research, on their minds, therapists analyze and
abnormality and treatment) is only one
this simply was not research at all… interpret the material and observe
among psychological theories.
behavior minutely.

TABLE 1-2
A Comparison of Four Current Views of Psychology

Behavioristic Cognitive Humanistic Psychoanalytic

Subject matter Any well-defined The functioning of Questions about the Normal and abnormal
question about the the mind whole person, personality (laws,
functioning of any subjective experience, determinants,
animal significant problems; unconscious aspects);
the extraordinary and treatment of abnormality
individual as well as
the usual and universal

Major goals Knowledge, application Knowledge, Service and Service and knowledge
application enrichment primary;
knowledge secondary

Research methods Objective methods Objective and Observer's intuitive Patient: informal
emphasized introspective awareness respected; introspection; analyst:
methods all procedures, even observation and analysis
non-scientific ones
such as literary
analysis, acceptable

Population studied All animals Primarily people People People (usually adults
undergoing therapy)

[Extracts from: Davidoff, Linda, Introduction to Psychology, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1987]
 The texts presented in this Unit are extracts from Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology of a psychology
APPROACHING textbook
THE TEXT ► Drawing on your knowledge of this genre from your previous studies, indicate below the purpose or
purposes of a textbook, and some of its graphic or organizational characteristics.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________

WORKSHEET 1 Skimming and scanning for contents

► Skim and scan the extracts and place a tick beside the topics which are discussed in the texts.
1. Definition(s) of field of study.
2. Some examples of how psychology is involved in a multitude of social aspects.
3. The relationship of psychology with other social sciences.
4. Historical references to the development of the field of study.
5. Presentation and definitions of essential terminology.
6. An overall discussion of the contents of the textbook.
7. Indication of importance of the field of study.
8. Some methodological principles and problems.

WORKSHEET 2 Pre-reading vocabulary work

► The words in the table below all appear in the first two subsections of the text, in the paragraph indicated.
Scan the text to find the context in which they are used, underline them, decide the word class, and write it in
the first column.
► Then choose an appropriate definition for each word from the list below (there are more definitions than
there are words), and write it in the second column. An example has been given.

a A specialist in psychology
b To determine the quality or significance of; to assess
c The process of forming conclusions, judgements, or inferences from facts or premises
d Tending to unify, harmonize or be consistent
e Logically connected, consistent
f To coincide in part with; have in common with
g Affected by acute anxiety, pain or sorrow
h The manner of conducting oneself
i Performed by or existing in the mind
j The subject or theme of a discourse or of one of its parts
k Something that causes a person to act in a certain way; incentive
l The act or process of knowing
m The act or faculty of apprehending by means of the senses or the mind

Word Word Class Definitions

1 psychologists (par. 1 a)
2 motives (par. 1 _ )
3 topics (par. 1 _ )
4 emphasis (par. 1 _ )
5 distressed (par. 1 _ )
6 overlaps (par. 2 _ )
7 evaluate (par. 3 _ )
8 mental (par. 4 _ )
9 behavior (par. 4 _ )
10 cohesive (par. 5 _ )
11 reasoning (par. 7 _ )
INTENSIVE
READING

WORKSHEET 3 Previewing text organization/ content

As you will have noted, the textbook genre is characterized by typographically prominent headings and
subheadings. The extracts presented in this unit have a general heading followed by a brief introduction and one
or more several subsections. Section headings and subsections for the extracts are given below.

Scope of Psychology
1. Introduction
2. Topics Psychologists Study
3. Definition of psychology
4. Psychology Today (major subfields of psychology)

Historical Perspectives
1. Introduction
2. Humanistic View
2.1. Assumptions of Humanists
2.2. Humanistic Research: On Self -Actualization
3. Psychoanalytic View
3.1. Freud's Assumptions

Read the introductory paragraphs under each general heading (par.1, respectively pars. 10-11) and choose from
the list below an appropriate title for the introduction to each section, writing it in the space provided.

Scope of Psychology
– Social influences on individuals
– Mental and physical health care
– A broad range of subjects studying the individual human being
Historical Perspectives
– Aristotle as the "father of psychology"
– The historical evolution of psychology
– From Aristotle to current perspectives in psychology

Now skim the other parts of the text and insert the items below under the appropriate headings and subheadings.

Broad range of subjects– behavior and mental processes – educational psychology, developmental
psychology, social psychology – human behavior – psychological studies – humanistic approach –
psychoanalytic approach – subjective interpretation – personal fulfillment – neurotic disorders – personality,
abnormality and treatment

Scope of Psychology
1. Introduction______________________________________________________

2. Topics Psychologists Study____________________________________________

3. Definition of psychology _____________________________________________

4. Psychology Today (major subfields of psychology)__________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
 Historical Perspectives
1. Introduction _________________________________________________________

2. Humanistic View ____________________________________________________

2.1. Assumptions of Humanists _________________________________________________________

2.2. Humanistic Research: On Self -Actualization __________________________________________

3. Psychoanalytic View __________________________________________________

3.1. Freud's Assumptions _______________________________________________________________

WORKSHEET 4 Explanations/ examples of key terms

There are a number of key terms in the excerpt on the Humanistic View for which an explanation or definition is
given. In some cases, instead of an explanation, an example or further clarification of the term is provided. For a
few terms, both an explanation and an example are given.
► Complete the chart below with reference to the text.

Key term Explanation/ definition Examples/ Further clarification

Phenomenology (par.13)
…one must focus on it from different
frames of reference, as diverse
individuals
(humanists) want to expand and
enrich human lives by helping people
understand themselves
Humanistic concerns (par. 17)
… from relatively objective, scientific
techniques to subjective ones, like
introspection and analysis of
literature (par. 19)
…people who achieved personal
fulfillment… (par. 20)

LANGUAGE
WORK

WORKSHEET 5 Vocabulary work

► Find words in section Freud's assumptions that have similar meanings with words in table a) and words in Box
1-1 that mean approximately the opposite of the words in table b).

a) Words that have s similar meaning to the b) Words that mean approximately the opposite of:
following
1 maintain____________________________ (par.26) 1 differentiate ____________________________ (par.1)
2 point of view ________________________ (par.26) 2 ambiguous _____________________________ (par. 1)
3 affliction ___________________________ (par. 27) 3 seldom ________________________________ (par. 1)
4 decisive ___________________________ (par.28) 4 (to) impede _____________________________ (par. 2)
5 (to) examine _______________________ (par. 29) 5 extensive _______________________________ (par. 4)
6 data ______________________________ (par.29) 6 approximately ___________________________ (par.4)
WORKSHEET 6 Focus on grammar: Nouns of Latin and Greek origin occurring in academic texts
► In some words borrowed from foreign languages, foreign plurals occur instead of regular
plurals. With other foreign words, both a regular plural and a foreign plural can occur.

Foreign plurals tend to be commoner in technical/specialized language, whereas the -s plural

is more natural in everyday language; thus formula (sg.) – formulas (pl., general English) -
formulae (pl., scientific English).

Here is a list of some nouns which have foreign plurals:

SINGULAR NOUNS PLURAL NOUNS

Nouns in -us (Latin) The plural is in -i

stimulus stimuli [s t i m j u l a i ]
bacillus bacilli
alumnus (masc., former student of a school, university) alumni

Nouns in -a (Latin) The plural is in -ae

alumna (fem., former student of a school, university) alumnae [ ∂ l a m n i :]

libra librae
persona grata personae gratae

Nouns in -um (Latin) The plural is in -a

datum data
curriculum curricula
medium media
ovum ova
symposium symposia

Nouns in -ex, -ix (Latin) The plural is in -ices [ i s i : z ]

index indices
appendix appendices

Nouns in -is (Greek) The plural is in -es [ ⊇ z ]

basis bases
analysis analyses
crisis crises
hypothesis hypotheses
diagnosis diagnoses
thesis theses

Nouns in -on (Greek) The plural is in -a

criterion criteria
phenomenon phenomena

Source: Leech, G., Svartvik, J., A Communicative English Grammar, Longman, 1996
► Read the following sentences; then identify and circle the correct form of the nouns in italics.

• Analysis/ analyses of learning is a multi-disciplinary venture requiring contributions from every branch of
psychology, cognitive science, and neuroscience.

• The emphasis/ emphases on the unique importance of mothers as attachment figures has not been denied.

• It took a few experiments before the psychologist Oskar Pfungst was able to reject the theory that Clever Hans
understood the various stimulus/ stimuli – the questions and could do mathematics.

• He has studied a large variety of phenomenon/ phenomena of scientific interest.

• How people experience themselves – the focus/ foci of phenomenological psychology – then becomes highly relevant
to the future progress of personality psychology.

WORKSHEET 7 Reutilization of key vocabulary

► Choosing from the words listed below, complete the text Areas of Psychology. Each word
may be used only once. Read through the text before beginning the exercise.
dimension (n) levels (n) fit together (v) goal (n)
complicated (adj) different (adj) psychological (adj) cognitive (adj)
beings (n) try (v) will lead (v) was (v)
areas (n) for example

What has emerged from the past century or so is that exclusive, and often one topic will bring together
there is no simple way of understanding human knowledge from many __________ areas of
_________ . People are ___________ , and have psychology. This is because any human experience
many sides to them. One consequence of the cognitive can be studied from various angles. The experience of
revolution and its aftermath was that psychologists emotion, _______ , has a physiological dimension, a
began to recognize that a single unitary approach to social _________, a personality dimension, a ______
psychology ______ no longer even a desirable dimension, and several more. Most modern
______. , let alone a practical one. Each different ___________ deal with the diversity of psychological
phase of psychological history left its mark, not just knowledge by using the concept of levels of
on the subject matter, but also on ___________ explanation - the idea that putting together knowledge
methodology. Psychologists _____ to look at human from different _________ of understanding, and
behavior from a range of different angles, so that they different arreas of psychology, __________ us to a
can get as complete a picture as possible. As a result, richer awareness of the full picture. The idea of levels
there are many different branches of psychology and of explanation helps us to see how the different ideas
areas of interest. ____________ .
For convenience, we categorize these into
general _______ , but these categories are not at all
OBSERVATIONS
ON TEXT TYPE TEXTBOOK

Function: To present in a clear and accessible way to a non-specialized reader an introductory and/or general overview
of a given topic, either of a broad subject area (e.g. psychology) or of a more specific aspect of a subject area
(e.g. The History of Modern Romania)

Structure: In accordance with its aim of providing clear and comprehensive information on a topic, the textbook is
organized in such a way as to facilitate use and consultation by the reader. We thus normally find clearly
marked divisions into sections and subsections, summaries of the contents of each chapter, occasionally
exercises or questions for discussion on the contents of the chapters, as well as charts, figures, tables,
photographs. The latest editions of a big majority of textbooks are also accompanied by study packages
(Student's Guide, Teacher's Guide, video and audio cassettes, CD-roms etc. Addresses for further
information on the INTERNET are usually provided.)

Aspects of language: In texts belonging to this genre, common features of language are:
a) the frequent use of the simple present tense to describe and explain, and modal auxiliaries (e.g. in the
consideration of hypothetical situations, depending on the topic of the textbook)
b) the introduction of key terminology and explanations of definitions of such
c) frequent discourse markers or rhetorical questions which "guide" the reader through parts of the text
(e.g. "Let's look at some problems…", "How does psychology explain such a fact?")