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Electromagnetism: SUMMARY
Motors and Generators Machines
Alternating Current p.276 – 296

REVISION: MAGNETISM GR 11

 A magnetic field (B) exists around a current carrying conductor.

 This notation is used to indicate direction in the plane of the paper:

 
motion towards the motion away from the
observer, out from the observer, into the
plane of the paper plane of the paper

 The direction of the conventional current (I) in a conductor is

from the positive pole of the battery to the negative pole.

 The magnetic field (B) outside a magnet is from North to South.

S N S N

THE DIRECT CURRENT MOTOR

 The electric motor operates using the motor effect : a current carrying conductor experiences a
force in a magnetic field.

I + B F

 The built of a DC motor:

This is a DC motor: it
brush uses a direct current
B source and has a split
ring commutator.
split ring commutator
A

 The direction of the force in conductor CD can be determined by Fleming’s LEFT hand motor rule:

 Place the first 3 fingers of the left hand mutually at right angles; F
 the forefinger in the direction of the magnetic field (B);
 the mid finger in the direction of the conventional current (I); B
 then the thumb shows the direction of the force (F)
(In the sketch CD moves upwards.) I

 Force (motion) is induced only if there is an angle between the magnetic field (B) and the current
carrying conductor (∴ I ).
 The force (motion) is a maximum if the angle between B and I is 90°.
 The force is zero if the angle between B and I is 0° or 180°; ∴ if the B field and I are parallel. (With
the coil in the horizontal position, as in the sketch, there is no force on part BC.)

 The DC motor uses a split ring commutator: it changes the direction in the coil after each half cycle of
rotation. It enables the coil to continue rotation in one direction.
 The commutator consists of two halves that are insulated from each other. Each half is in contact
with the other pole of the battery for a half cycle.
 The split ring moves with the coil.
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 Brushes maintain electrical contact between the rotating commutator and the external circuit (∴ the
battery).
 The brushes are not fixed to the coil and do not turn with the coil.

 Refer to the sketch on the previous page. The DC motor works as follows:

F F
B FIELD

F F
– + – + – + – + – +

F F F
 Level of coil || to B field.  Level of coil ┴ on B field.  Grey side of split ring  Level of coil || to B field.
 Grey side of split ring  Split ring does not make touches negative pole –  Grey side of split ring
touches positive pole – The coilFturns contact with brushes – no current flows in from the touches negative pole –
current flows in from the clockwise. current flows in the coil. right and out at the left. current still flows in on the
right and out at the left.  Current in the coil has right and out at the left.
 No force is induced.
 Force on the coil on the  Force on the coil on the
 The momentum of the turned around.
right is downwards and right is still downwards
coil pushes it past this
upwards on the left. and still upwards on the
gap.
left.
 Continuous rotation is
established.
 In a motor electrical energy is transferred into mechanical energy.

 The magnitude of the induced force (motion) can be enlarged by

 stronger external magnets;
 increasing the number of turns in the coil;
 increasing the electric current.

 Practical DC motors have many angles and multiple split rings so that the motor can operate more
smoothly.

THE ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATOR

 The generator works on a principle called electromagnetic induction:

 when a force causes a conductor to move in a magnetic field, an emf is induced in the conductor.
The emf then induces a current.

F + B I
 The built of an alternating current generator:
F

slip ring S N
This is an AC
generator: it has slip
rings and generates
alternating current.
brush

 The direction of the induced emf in the left side of the coil can be determined by Fleming’s RIGHT
hand dynamo rule:

 Place the first 3 fingers of the right hand mutually at right angles; F
 the forefinger in the direction of the magnetic field (B);
B
 the thumb in the direction of the force (F) on the conductor;
 then the mid finger shows the direction of the induced emf.
(The current in die left side of the coil runs from the plane of the page ∴ ⊙.) I
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 The AC generator uses two slip rings: it allows the current in the external circuit to constantly alternate.
 A slip ring is attached to each end of the coil.
 The slip rings moves with the coil.

 Brushes maintain electrical contact between the rotating slip rings and the external circuit.
 It takes the induced current away.
 The brushes are not fixed to the coil and do not turn with the coil.

 Faraday’s law for electromagnetic induction states that the induced emf (ε) is directly proportional to
the rate of change of magnetic flux in the conductor.

N = number of turns in coil

ε =–
= rate of change of magnetic flux

 The induced current (or emf) changes in direction every half revolution.
 This is an alternating current.

 In a generator mechanical energy is transferred into electrical energy.

 Alternating current generators are also called alternators.

 The magnitude of the induced emf can be enlarged by

 stronger external magnets;
 increasing the number of turns in the coil;
 increasing the speed of rotation of the coil.

TENSION AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

 The word ”tension“ is sometime used as a synonym for potential difference.

MOTORS AND GENERATORS: ALTERNATING AND DIRECT CURRENT

 Compare the following machines when placed between the north and south pole of external magnets:

MOTORS GENERATORS

DC motor: AC motor: AC generator: DC–generator:

 uses direct current;  uses alternating current;  uses 2 slip rings;  uses a split ring;
 uses a split ring;  uses 2 slip rings;  induces alternating  induces direct current.
 induces uniform  induces uniform rotation. current.
rotation.

Uses: Uses: Uses: Uses:

 disk drives in  washing machines; AC generators are  electroplating;
computers;  electrical drills; used in the production  charge of batteries.
 photocopiers;  electrical fans. of electricity at power
 CD-ROM drives. stations.
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ALTERNATING CURRENT

 For alternating current the emf (potential difference) alternates with time in a sine relationship.

Vmax
B
N S
0 time
A

Suppose a coil is turned clock wise -Vmax

between 2 magnets.
Consider the current in part AB of
the coil: B B B B
A A A
A
Force on AB:↓ B Force on AB:↑
Current: B to A A Current: A to B
Force on AB → Force on AB:← Force on AB:→
Current: 0 Current: 0 Current: 0

 The graph for current (I) resembles the V graph: I time

 Normal arithmetic averages for V and I may not be used, because the average value for both is zero.
Rms averages are used.

 The magnitude of the emf alternates continually between Vmax and 0.

The “average” emf is called the root mean square emf (Vrms):

 The magnitude of the current also alternates continually between

Imax and 0.
The “average” current is called the root mean square current (Irms):

 Definition of rms averages:

 The rms value of AC potential is the DC potential difference which dissipates the same
amount of energy as AC.
 The rms value of AC current is the DC current which dissipates the same amount of energy as
AC.

POWER

 Power (P) = electrical energy that is transferred in one second. Electrical appliances supply an average
power (Paverage):

Paverage = Vrms Irms Paverage = R Paverage =

 Power is always a positive value:

For AC and DC generator: P

time
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 The value of Paverage is equal to half of the peak value (Pmax). Therefore note:
 Vrms = Vmax = 0,71 x Vmax Vmax Pmax
 Irms = Imax = 0,71 x Imax Vrms
V P Paverage
 but Paverage =  Pmax = 0,5 Pmax

 Appliances are always marked with average values.

 E.g. An appliance is marked 220 V; 900 W. Then Vrms = 220 V and Paverage = 900 W.

 Subscripts in ALL formulae are imperative. No marks for a formula without subscripts! Also, ALWAYS
use sub scripts when using Ohm’s law:

R= or R=

 For a DC generator the current / voltage also fluctuates between a maximum and zero, but the direction
of the current / voltage does not change - it remains in the same direction.

AC generator DC generator

V
or time V
I or
I
time

GRAPHS

 When graphs are drawn, the initial position of the coil between the magnets is important:

F B
B
N S V N S V

Initial position is vertical: Initial position is horizontal:

The force on the coil is parallel to the magnetic The force on the coil is perpendicular to the
field ∴ induced emf at t = 0 is 0 V. magnetic field ∴ induced emf at t = 0 is Vmax.
\

FREQUENCY AND PERIOD

 The frequency (f) of the AC tension / current = the number of cycles in one second.

 The period (T) of the AC tension / current = the time (in s) for a complete cycle.

 The frequency (f) (in Hertz) of an AC cycle is calculated from the period:

V/I T time f=

 Note the position of one period (T) on a power graph!

P
T time
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ADVANTAGES OF ALTERNATING CURRENT OVER DIRECT CURRENT

The most important advantage:

 Electrical energy in the form of alternating current can be transported economically over long distances
at low currents and low energy loss. This is because alternating current voltage can be stepped up
(increased) and stepped down (decreased) with transformers.

When AC voltages are stepped up, current decreases to a small value. (P = VI; for constant P, V .)
A small current produces less heat and can be transmitted through a thin conductor. At the receiving
station, voltages can be stepped down to the required value by using a step down transformer. The
consumer of AC can live far from the place where AC is generated.

More advantages:
 AC is easy to generate.
 AC can be generated at high voltages, but not DC, because sparking starts at the commutator
at high voltage. This causes damage to the commutator.
 High voltage AC generators are much simpler and cheaper than DC generators of the same range. It is
because there is no commutator in AC generators. Commutators is the costly part and is easily
damaged.
 Electric motors work more efficiently with AC.
 AC motors are simpler in construction, cheaper in cost and require less maintenance than DC motors.

ADVANTAGE OF GENERATION OF AC IN A NUCLEAR PLANT VERSUS COAL

 Less pollution in a nuclear plant.

SYMBOLS AND UNITS

current (I) ampère (A) potential difference (emf) (V) volt (V)
rms current (Irms) ampère (A) rms emf (Vrms) volt (V)
power (P) watt (W) resistance (R) ohm ()