Ucsp Notes

Understanding Culture, Society and
Politics
Philosophical Foundations of Social Sciences
Science in the strictest sense is "a systematically organized body of knowledge.” or commonly
connected with topics like atoms, molecules, rocks, plants, the cosmos, and motion but one
should understand that it is also considered as systematically exploring the complexities of
human experiences including beliefs, values, norms, and more.
Characteristics of what makes a science:
Empirical - a phenomenon should be observable using different senses.
Proportional - things are explained in the form of statements or generalizations.
Logical - employs the rule of logic to validate inferences.
Public - ideas are communicated from one scientist to another.
Problem-solving - presents rational explanations about unexplained observations.
Continuous - knowledge is built upon previous and future research on the subject.
Social Science as we know it is the study of human society, behaviors, and relationships but it’s
connection to natural science is actually very near especially during the ancient times wherein
human curiosity took part of questioning multiple things in our surroundings such as why do
seasons change or what the moon, stars, sun are. Their connection describes the world
humans live in and how/why we interact and organize it as a society.
Philosophies of Science
Science has a particular study regarding the philosophical aspects of the elements of scientific
inquiry which brought up philosophical questions that, of course, needs to be answered through
several studies:
Philosophy Definition Purpose on research Sample options

Epistemology The philosophical study of To know the basis or Positivism,
the nature, origin, and framework of such Interpretative,
limits of human knowledge. research Critical Theory
Ontology The philosophical study of To know the nature or Subjective,

being in general, or of what purpose of such research Objective
applies neutrally to
everything real.
Teleology The explanation by To know the purpose or Prediction, Meaning

reference to some purpose, goal of the research
end, goal, or function.
Praxeology The study of human action To bridge the theory and Rigid, Rule of
is based on the notion that practice (usually for scientific method,
humans engage in interpretation and Strict, Creative
purposeful behavior. presentation of data)
Ontological Positions
● Objectivism: asserts that the social phenomena that make up our social world have an
existence of their own, apart from and independent of the social actors (humans) who
are involved.
● Constructivism: asserts that the social phenomena making up our social world are only
real in the sense that they are constructed ideas that are continually being reviewed and
reworked by those involved in them through social interaction and reflection.
● Realism: asserts that the social world has a reality that is separate from the social actors
involved in it, that can be known through the senses as well as the effects of ‘hidden’
structures and mechanisms.
Epistemological Positions
● Positivism: asserts that knowledge of a social phenomenon is based on what can be

observed and recorded rather than subjective understandings. A positivist approach to
social research typically means:
○ quantitative data are collected;
○ aspects of the social world, social phenomena, are measured;
○ causal relationships between different aspects of the social world are sought;
○ large data sets and statistical analysis are often used.
● Interpretivism: prioritizes people’s subjective interpretations and understandings of social
phenomena and their actions. An interpretive approach to social research typically
means:
○ qualitative (rich in detail and description) data is collected;
○ uncovering and working with subjective meanings;
○ interpretation of meaning within a specific context;
○ empathetic understanding, “standing in the other’s shoes.”
● Realism (Critical Theory): asserts that knowledge of a social phenomenon is based on
both what can be observed and recorded and ‘hidden’ structures and mechanisms
whose effects can be observed. A critical realist approach to social research typically
means:
○ revealing hidden structures and mechanisms;
○ uncovering power relations and dominant ideologies;
○ research that leads to action;
○ collecting qualitative and/or quantitative data.
Social Science Research
● The goal is inference: the researcher should be able to draw inferences from the data
collected. That inference may be descriptive, that is, empirical observations can be used
to know about other unobservable facts; or causal, that is, empirical observations can be
used to learn more causal effects.
● The procedures are public: it is a rule of thumb for researchers to render their research
methods (i.e., what specific methods were employed, reasons for such selection, ways
of data interpretation) explicit and public to allow the community of scholars to validate
and assess the reliability and rigor of the study. This is done not to undermine one’s
research output, but rather to ensure professionalism, transparency, and integrity.
● The conclusions are uncertain: in the social sciences, uncertainty can be an
advantage. It is considered a key aspect of all research and knowledge about the world.
A reasonable estimate of uncertainty enables researchers to interpret a description of
real-world phenomena or infer the causal effect in the real world. A lack of uncertainty on
the part of the researcher would mean that either he or she claims to know everything
perfectly, or that he or she has no idea how certain or uncertain the results of the study
are.
● The content is the method.: scientific research follows a set of rules of inference. The
English mathematician and statistician Karl Pearson noted that “the unity of all science
consists alone in method, not in its material.”
Research Approaches
…
● Qualitative research methods: methods that are primarily concerned with stories and
accounts including subjective understandings, feelings, opinions, and beliefs.
● Quantitative research methods: methods that are primarily concerned with gathering
and working with data that is structured and can be represented numerically.
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
Epistemology
Constructivism, Realism Objectivism
Ontology
Interpretivism, Critical Realism Positivism
Teleology
To give meaning To predict
Praxeology
Creative, Analytical Rigid, Rule of the scientific

method, Strict
Data Gathering
Interviews, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), Surveys, Experiments, Census

Observation, Text or Documents
Data Analysis
Thematic Analysis, Content Analysis, Narrative Analysis, Descriptive Statistics or

Discourse Analysis, Framework Analysis Inferential Statistics
Research Design
as social researchers, we are trying:
● to describe and explore a social phenomenon (or social phenomena);

● and, usually, to understand and explain how and why the phenomenon is – or is
understood– as it is.
Type of Description Example

Research
Descriptive Used to describe characteristics of a Who are the young men who
Research population or phenomenon being studied. participate in gun crime?
Exploratory Usually conducted to have a better What is it like to be a member

Research understanding of the existing problem, but of a gang?
usually does not lead to a conclusive
result.
Explanatory Usually intended to explain, rather than Why do young men join gangs
Research simply to describe, the phenomena that participate in gun-related
studied. crimes?
Evaluation Concerned with the evaluation of such What changes in policy and
Research occurrences as social and organizational practice would best help young
programs or interventions. men not to join such gangs?
Disciplines of Social Sciences
1. Anthropology - culture and humans

2. Communication Studies - process of human communications
3. Economics - “the study of mankind in the ordinary business of life”, production,
distribution, and consumption of goods and services
4. Geography - the study of earth and its lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena
5. History - the study of humans and their past
6. Jurisprudence - the science of law; legal systems
7. Linguistics - the study of language; forms, meanings, context
8. Political Science - the study of systems of government, and political behavior of humans
when faced with power
9. Psychology - the study of behavior and mind, microlevel
10. Sociology - the study of society and human action
Political Science
● Greek word polis (state)

● the study of governmental structures and political behavior
● the study of the systems of government and political behavior of humans when faced
with power
● examines the distribution of power and resources, and how this affect the world
● focuses upon the government of sovereign states and their sub-units, the political
behavior of individuals and groups within states, international relations and organizations
● “No person can claim to be truly educated unless he understands the political system
within which he or she lived and how that system is similar or different from others
around the world

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Understanding Culture, Society and

Characteristics of what makes a science:

Empirical - a phenomenon should be observable using different senses.

Proportional - things are explained in the form of statements or generalizations.

Logical - employs the rule of logic to validate inferences.

Public - ideas are communicated from one scientist to another.

Problem-solving - presents rational explanations about unexplained observations.

Philosophy Definition Purpose on research Sample options

Ontology The philosophical study of To know the nature or Subjective,

Teleology The explanation by To know the purpose or Prediction, Meaning

● Positivism: asserts that knowledge of a social phenomenon is based on what can be

Social Science Research

Constructivism, Realism Objectivism

Interpretivism, Critical Realism Positivism

To give meaning To predict

Creative, Analytical Rigid, Rule of the scientific

Interviews, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), Surveys, Experiments, Census

Thematic Analysis, Content Analysis, Narrative Analysis, Descriptive Statistics or

as social researchers, we are trying:

● to describe and explore a social phenomenon (or social phenomena);

Type of Description Example

Exploratory Usually conducted to have a better What is it like to be a member

1. Anthropology - culture and humans

● Greek word polis (state)

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