POWER QUALITY

Dr.E.Chandira Sekaran,
Associate Professor,
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Coimbatore Institute of Technology,
Coimbatore-641 014.
Mobile No.:09629283060, 09442003930,
E-mail Id.:ecseeecit@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION
Power Quality (PQ) and supply reliability are fast becoming recognized as important factors
for successful modern business. Electric power quality refers to maintain a near sinusoidal voltage
to a bus at rated magnitude and rated frequency. In addition, the energy supplied to customer must
be uninterrupted from the reliability point of view. Power Quality (PQ) related issues are of most
concern nowadays.
Power Quality problem is any problem in electric power system manifested in voltage,
current or frequency deviations those results in unsatisfactory operation or failure of electrical
equipments. Power Quality is a serious issue that touches almost all industrial, commercial and
residential customers in some way. The electric utility environment has never been one of constant
voltage and frequency. Until recently, most electrical equipment could operate satisfactorily during
expected deviations from the nominal voltage and frequency supplied by the utility. In the modern
industrial facility, many electrical and electronic devices have been incorporated into the
automated processes. The widespread use of electronic equipment, such as information technology
equipment, power electronics such as adjustable speed drives (ASD), programmable logic
controllers (PLC), energy-efficient lighting, led to a complete change of electric loads nature. These
power electronic devices increase productivity, increase the quality of products, and decrease the
cost to customers of those products. But these loads are simultaneously the major causers and the
major victims of power quality problems. Due to their non-linearity, all these loads cause
disturbances in the voltage waveform. As a result of this recent increase in equipment
vulnerability, the owners of industrial processes have experienced unexplained process
interruptions and unplanned equipment shutdowns. The source of these compatibility problems
may not be readily apparent to the industrial maintenance personnel. Likewise, personnel may not
be familiar with the solutions that are available to increase the reliability of process equipment.
Along with technology advance, the organization of the worldwide economy has evolved
towards globalization and the profit margins of many activities tend to decrease. The increased
sensitivity of the vast majority of processes (industrial, services and even residential) to PQ
problems turns the availability of electric power with quality a crucial factor for competitiveness in
every activity sector. The most critical areas are the continuous process industry and the
information technology services. When a disturbance occurs, huge financial losses may happen,
with the consequent loss of productivity and competitiveness. Although many efforts have been

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taken by utilities, some consumers require a level of PQ higher than the level provided by modern
electric networks. This implies that some measures must be taken in order to achieve higher levels
of Power Quality. The most common types of Power Quality problems are presented in Table I.
Table I - Most Common Power Quality Problems

PQ Event/Variations Characteristics
Voltage Transients
Description: Very fast variation of the voltage value for durations from
a several microseconds to few milliseconds. These variations may reach
thousands of volts, even in low voltage.
Causes: Lightning, switching of lines or power factor correction
capacitors, disconnection of heavy loads.
Consequences: Destruction of components (particularly electronic
components) and of insulation materials, data processing errors or data
loss, electromagnetic interference.

Description: A decrease of the normal voltage level between 10 and

90% of the nominal rms voltage at the power frequency, for durations of
Voltage sag (or dip) 0,5 cycle to 1 minute.
Causes: Faults on the transmission or distribution network (most of the
times on parallel feeders). Faults in consumer’s installation. Connection
of heavy loads and start-up of large motors.
Consequences: Malfunction of information technology equipment,
namely microprocessor based control systems (PCs, PLCs, ASDs,etc) that
may lead to a process stoppage. Tripping of contactors and
electromechanical relays. Disconnection and loss of efficiency in electric
rotating machines.
Voltage swell
Description: Momentary increase of the voltage, at the power
frequency, outside the normal tolerances, with duration of more than
one cycle and typically less than a few seconds.
Causes: Start/stop of heavy loads, badly dimensioned power sources,
badly regulated transformers (mainly during off-peak hours).
Consequences: Data loss, flickering of lighting and screens, stoppage or
damage of sensitive equipment, if the voltage values are too high.
Voltage
Interruptions (short) Description: Total interruption of electrical supply for duration from
few milliseconds to one or two seconds.
Causes: Mainly due to the opening and automatic reclosure of
protection devices to decommission a faulty section of the network. The
main fault causes are insulation failure, lightning and insulator
flashover.
Consequences: Tripping of protection devices, loss of information and
malfunction of data processing equipment. Stoppage of sensitive
equipment, such as ASDs, PCs, PLCs, if they’re not prepared to deal with
this situation.
Description: Total interruption of electrical supply for duration greater
Long interruptions
than 1 to 2 seconds

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 Causes: Equipment failure in the power system network, storms and
objects (trees, cars, etc) striking lines or poles, fire, human error, bad
coordination or failure of protection devices.
Consequences: Stoppage of all equipment.

Description: Voltage or current waveforms assume non-sinusoidal

shape. The waveform corresponds to the sum of different sine-waves
with different magnitude and phase, having frequencies that are
Harmonic distortion
multiples of power-system frequency.
Causes: Classic sources: electric machines working above the knee of the
magnetization curve (magnetic saturation), arc furnaces, welding
machines, rectifiers, and DC brush motors. Modern sources: all non-
linear loads, such as power electronics equipment including ASDs,
switched mode power supplies, data processing equipment, high
efficiency lighting.
Consequences: Increased probability in occurrence of resonance,
neutral overload in 3phase systems, overheating of all cables and
equipment, loss of efficiency in electric machines, electromagnetic
interference with communication systems, errors in measures when
using average reading meters, nuisance tripping of thermal protections.
Voltage Unbalance Description: A voltage variation in a three-phase system in which the
three voltage magnitudes or the phase angle differences between them
are not equal.
Causes: Large single-phase loads (induction furnaces, traction loads),
incorrect distribution of all single phase loads by the three phases of the
system (this may be also due to a fault).
Consequences: Unbalanced systems imply the existence of a negative
sequence that is harmful to all three phase loads. The most affected
loads are three-phase induction machines.
Voltage fluctuation Description: Oscillation of voltage value, amplitude modulated by a
signal with frequency of 0 to 30 Hz.
Causes: Arc furnaces, frequent start/stop of electric motors (for
instance elevators), oscillating loads.
Consequences: Most consequences are common to under voltages. The
most perceptible consequence is the flickering of lighting and screens,
giving the impression of unsteadiness of visual perception.
Noise Description: Superimposing of high frequency signals on the waveform
of the power-system frequency.
Causes: Electromagnetic interferences provoked by Hertzian waves
such as microwaves, television diffusion, and radiation due to welding
machines, arc furnaces, and electronic equipment. Improper grounding
may also be a cause.
Consequences: Disturbances on sensitive electronic equipment, usually
not destructive. May cause data loss and data processing errors.
The PQ study (mainly voltage sag) carried out by EPRI during 1996-2008 on different
industrial organizations is mentioned in Table II. It is observed that the semi conductor industry
affected heavily followed by plastics industry.

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 Table II- PQ Study (Source: EPRI)
Industry Site Percentage
Semiconductor 27 21
Plastic 13 10
Machining 12 9
Food Processing 11 9
Automotive 10 8
Aviation 9 7
Paper/Printing 9 7
Petro Chemical 6 5
Commercial 5 4
General Manufacturing 5 4
Glass 5 4
Chemical 4 3
Heavy Industry 4 3
Electronic Assembly 3 2
Textile 3 2
Pharmaceutical 2 2
Total Voltage Sag Investigations
128
during 1996-2008
Average per year 10
Even the most advanced transmission and distribution systems are not able to provide
electrical energy with the desired level of reliability for the proper functioning of the loads in
modern society. Modern T&D (transmission and distribution) systems are projected for 99.9 to
99.99% availability. This value is highly dependent of redundancy level of the network, which is
different according to the geographical location and the voltage level (availability is higher at the
HV network). In some remote sites, availability of T&D systems may be as low as 99%. Even with a
99.99% level there is an equivalent interruption time of 52 minutes per year. The most demanding
processes in the modern digital economy need electrical energy with 99.9999999% availability (9-
nines reliability) to function properly. Typical distribution of PQ disturbances by its duration for a
typical facility is shown in fig.1. The vast majority of the disturbances registered (about 87%) lasted
less than 1 second and only 12 have duration greater than 1 minute. It is clear that not all these
disturbances cause equipment malfunctioning, but many types of sensitive equipment may be
affected.

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 Fig.1 PQ disturbances by its duration for a typical facility

COST OF POOR POWER QUALITY

The costs of PQ problems are highly dependent of several factors, mainly the business area
of activity. Other factors, like the sensitivity of the equipment used in the facilities and market
conditions, among other, also influence the costs of PQ problems. The costs related to a PQ
disturbance can be divided in
Direct costs
• Damage in the equipment
• Loss of production and raw material
• Salary costs during non-productive period
• Restarting costs
Indirect costs
• Inability to accomplish deadlines
• Loss of future orders
Non-material inconvenience
• Inconveniences that cannot be expressed in money
Typical financial losses due PQ events in the various industries are mentioned in Table III.
(Source: Copper Development Association)
Table III - Typical financial losses due PQ events
Industry Typical Financial Loss per Event in Euros
Semiconductor Production 3 800 000
Financial Trading 6 000 000 per hour
Computer Centre 750 000
Tele Communications 30 000 per minute
Steel works 350 000
Glass 250 000

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HARMONICS
The major Power Quality issue faced by industries at steady state is harmonic distortion.
Harmonic distortion of the voltage and current in an industrial facility is caused by the operation of
nonlinear loads and devices on the power system. A nonlinear load is one that does not draw
sinusoidal current when a sinusoidal voltage is applied. Examples on nonlinear loads are arcing
devices such as arc furnaces, saturable devices such as transformers, and power electronic
equipment such as adjustable-speed drives and rectifiers. High harmonic currents can have several
negative effects on a facility. High levels of distortion can lower power factors, overheat equipment,
and lead to penalties from the local utility for exceeding recommended limits. Each of these effects
can result in higher cost to the facility. Harmonic currents increase the volt-amperes required for a
load without increasing the watts. Because true power factor is equal to the watts divided by the
volt-amperes, any increase in volt-amperes without a corresponding increase in watts will lower
the power factor. A lower power factor will affect industrial facilities in two ways. Losses inside the
facility will increase due to the higher level of current required to perform the work. Utilities will
also charge a penalty if the power factor falls below a predetermined level. Both of these will
increase utility bills.
Overheating of transformers is another problem associated with harmonic currents.
ANSI/IEEE Standard C57 series states that a transformer can only be expected to carry its rated
current if the current distortion is less than 5%. If the current distortion exceeds this value, then
some amount of derating is required. The overheating is caused primarily by the higher eddy-
current losses inside the transformer than were anticipated by the designer. The overheating can
be avoided by either derating the transformer or by specifying a “k-rated” transformer that is
designed for the higher levels of eddy currents. Another effect of harmonic currents on the power
system is the overheating of neutral wires in wye-connected circuits. This effect occurs because the
third harmonic and any multiples there of do not cancel in the neutral as do the other harmonic
currents. The result is a large 180/150 Hz current in the neutral conductor if there are significant
nonlinear loads connected to the wye source. Usually the higher multiples of the third harmonic are
of small magnitude. The attendant increase in the RMS value of current, however, can cause
excessive heating in the neutral wire. This potential for overheating can be addressed by over sizing
neutral conductors or reducing nonlinear currents with filters.
Some utilities impose limits on the amount of harmonic current that can be injected onto
the utility system. This is done to ensure that relatively harmonic-free voltage is supplied to all
customers on the distribution line. The most widespread standards for harmonic control
worldwide are due to IEEE in the U.S. and IEC (International Electro technical Commission) in the
European Union. IEEE and IEC standard recommend limits for harmonics for both utilities and
customers respectively. At the point of common coupling between the utility and the utility
customer, limits are recommended for individual harmonics as well as the total harmonic distortion
of the current. The recommended levels vary depending on the size of the load with respect to the
size of the power system and also upon the voltage at the point of common coupling. The standard
also recommends limits on the voltage harmonics supplied by the utility. In 1981, the IEEE issued

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Standard 519-1981, which aimed to provide guidelines and recommended practices for
commutation notching, voltage distortion, telephone influence, and flicker limits produced by
power converters. The standard contended with cumulative effects but did little to consider the
strong interaction between harmonic producers and power system operation. The presence of
harmonics in the system is measured in terms of harmonic content (distortion), which is defined as
the ratio of the amplitude of each harmonic to the amplitude of the fundamental component of the
supply system voltage or current. Harmonic distortion levels are described by the complete
harmonic spectrum with magnitude and phase angle of each individual harmonic component. The
most commonly used measure of the effective value of harmonic distortion is total harmonic
distortion (THD) or distortion factor. This factor is used to quantify the levels of the current flowing
in the distribution system or the voltage level at the point of common coupling (PCC) where the
utility can supply other customers. THD can be calculated for either voltage or current and can be
defined as:


M
n2
2
n
THD   100
M1

where, Ml is the RMS value of the fundamental component and M2 to M∞ are the RMS values of the
harmonic components of the quantity M.
Another important distortion index is the individual harmonic distortion factor (HF) for
a certain harmonic. HF is defined as the ratio of the RMS harmonic to the fundamental RMS value of
the waveform, i.e.,
Mn
HF   100
n1
IEEE 519 STANDARDS
IEEE 519, “Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in
Electrical Systems” was published in 1981(IEEE Std 519-1992). This document established limits
for voltage distortion levels acceptable to the distribution system. This document was widely used
in the industry. However, with the increased usage of non-linear loads, a rewrite of IEEE 519 was
made, considering the effects of harmonic currents producing distortion in voltages due to finite
system impedance. IEEE 519-1992 standard specifies limits on voltage and current harmonic
distortion for ‘Low Voltage, Primary and Secondary Distribution, Sub-transmission, and High
Voltage transmission systems’. Table IV lists the IEEE 519 recommended harmonic voltage and
voltage distortion limits for different systems voltage levels.

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 Table IV Harmonic Voltage Distortion Limits in % at PCC

Individual harmonic voltage Total harmonic distortion

Bus voltage at PCC in volts
distortion in % (THD) in %

69 kV and below 3.0 5.0

69.0001kV - 161 kV 1.5 2.5
> 161.001 kV 1.0 1.5

IEEE 519 Standard also specifies limits on the harmonic currents from an individual
customer that are evaluated at the PCC. The limits are dependent on the customer load in relation
to the system short circuit capacity at the PCC. Note that all current limits are expressed as a
percentage of the customer's average maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency
component) at PCC. The term the total demand distortion (TDD) is usually used which is the same
as THD except that the distortion is expressed as a percentage of some rated load current rather
than as a percentage of the fundamental current magnitude. TDD is defined as:


I
n2
2
n
TDD   100
IL
where, In, is the RMS magnitude of an individual harmonic current component, IL, is the maximum
RMS demand load current and n is the harmonic order. Table V provides limits on every individual
harmonic current component as well as limits on total demand distortion (TDD) for different
voltage levels.
Table V Harmonic Current Distortion Limits (In) In % of Load Current (IL)
Vn<69kV
I SC
 11 11  n  17 17  n  23 23  n  35  35 TDD
IL
 20 4.00 2.00 1.50 0.60 0.30 5.00
20  50 7.00 3.50 2.50 1.00 0.50 8.00
50  100 10.00 4.50 4.00 1.50 0.70 12.00
100-1000 12.00 5.50 5.00 2.00 1.00 15.00
 1000 15.00 7.00 6.00 2.50 1.40 20.00
69kV<Vn<161kV
 20 2.00 1.00 0.75 0.30 0.15 2.50
20  50 3.50 1.75 1.25 0.50 0.25 4.00
50  100 5.00 2.25 2.00 1.25 0.35 6.00
100-1000 6.00 2.75 2.50 1.00 0.50 7.50
 1000 7.50 3.50 3.00 1.25 0.70 10.00
Vn>161kV
<50 2.00 1.00 0.75 0.30 0.15 2.50
>50 3.50 1.75 1.25 0.50 0.25 4.00

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 INTERNATIONAL ELECTRO TECHNICAL COMMISSION STANDARD- IEC 61000- 3-2
The standard that forms the foundation for both present and proposed future harmonic
current standards is the IEC 555 (now the IEC 61000-3-2). The IEC 555 was first released in draft
form in 1982, has since received a number of revisions, and is presently considered the de facto
worldwide harmonic current emission standard for commercial equipment.
The IEC 61000-3-2 standard covers a number of different types of low-power
equipment, with varied harmonic limits. It specifically limits harmonics for equipment having an
input current of up to 16 A, connected to 50 or 60 Hz, 220 V to 240 V single-phase circuits (two or
three wires), as well as 380 V to 415 V three-phase (three or four wires) circuits. In a city
environment such as a large building, a great fraction of the total power system load can be
nonlinear. For example, a major portion of the electrical load in a building is comprised of
fluorescent lights, which present a very nonlinear characteristic to the utility system. A modern
office may also contain a large number of personal computers, printers, copiers, etc., each of which
may employ diode rectifier circuits. Although each individual load is a negligible fraction of the total
local load, these loads can collectively become significant.
There are four categories of equipment, each of which is covered by different limits.
Class A: It consists of balanced three-phase equipment; household appliances, excluding
equipment identified as in Class D; tools, excluding portable tools; and audio equipment. Equipment
not specified in one of the three other classes should be considered to be Class A equipment. These
limits are given in Table VI, and are absolute ampere limits. Class B: It consists of portable tools and
arc welding equipment that is not professional equipment. The limits are equal to the Table VII
limits, multiplied by a factor of 1.5.
Class C: It consists of lighting equipment. The input current harmonic of ballasted lamps
with an input power of more than 25 W must meet the limits given in Table VII expressed as a
percent of the fundamental current. If the input power is less than 25 W then Table VII applies.
Incandescent lamp fixtures containing phase-control dimmers, rated at greater than 1 kW, must
meet the limits given in Table VII. When testing for compliance, the dimmer must drive a rated-
power lamp, with the phase control set to a firing angle of 90 o ± 5 o. Discharge lamps containing
dimmers must meet the limits given in both Tables VII and VIII at maximum load. Harmonic current
at any dimming position may not exceed the maximum load harmonic current.
Class D: Equipment having a specified power of less than or equal to 1 kW, of the
following types: personal computers and personal computer monitors and television receivers. In
general, Class D limits are reserved for equipment that can be shown to have a pronounced effect
on the public electricity supply system. This pronounced effect could be related to factors such as:
number of pieces of equipment in use; duration of use; power consumption; and harmonic
spectrum, including phase. The limits for Class D equipment are given in Table VIII. The limits given
in Table VIII are valid for all applications having an active input power >75 W. No limits apply for
equipment with an active input power up to and including 75 W. This lower limit of 75 W will be
reduced to 50 W four years after the implementation day of the standard.

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 Table VI IEC 61000-3-2 Harmonic Current Limits, Class A and certain Class C
Odd Harmonics Even Harmonics
Maximum Current in Maximum Current in
Harmonic Number Harmonic Number
Amps Amps
3 2.30 2 1.08
5 1.14 4 0.43
7 0.77 6 0.30

9 0.40 8<n<40 0.23 8 n 

11 0.33 - -
13 0.21 - -

15<n<39 0.15 15 n  - -

Table VII IEC 61000-3-2 Harmonic Current Limits, certain Class C

Maximum Current, Percent of
Harmonic Number
Fundamental
2 2
3 30power factor
5 10
7 7
9 5
11  n<39 3

Table VIII IEC 61000-3-2 Harmonic Current Limits, Class D and Certain Class C
Harmonic Number Relative Limit (mA/W) Absolute Limit (A)
3 3.40 2.30
5 1.90 1.14
7 1.00 0.77
9 0.50 0.40
11 0.35 0.33
13<n<39 3.85 n 0. 0.2  (13 n )

GROUNDING ISSUES
Many power quality variations that occur within customer facilities are related to wiring
and grounding problems. The primary function of grounding is to provide safety for equipment and
personnel. Other important functions of the grounding are to assure protective device operation and
noise control. However, grounding also provides a path for lightning and surge mitigation and
establishes an equi potential or zero-voltage reference point for the electrical system. In addition, a
grounding system is designed to ensure the proper and efficient operation of sensitive electronic
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equipment. Performance grounding must be accomplished without conflict with the safety
requirements of the National Electric Code.
Typical power quality problems that are due to inadequacies in the wiring and grounding of
electrical systems are
 Problems with conductors and connectors
 Missing safety ground
 Multiple neutral-to-ground connections
 Ungrounded equipment
 Additional ground rods
 Ground loops
 Insufficient neutral conductor
ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is any natural or man-made electrical or
electromagnetic energy that results in unintentional and undesirable equipment responses.
Electromagnetic energy travels in the form of emissions, either conducted or radiated.
EMI is generally common-mode noise, which is induced onto a signal with respect to a
reference ground. The noise is coupled to ground from the power cables through the capacitance
between the power cable and ground.
Conducted emissions are generated inside electrical or electronic equipment and may be
transmitted outward through the equipment’s data input or output lines, its control leads, or its
power conductors. Conducted emissions may cause an EMI problem between equipment that
generates useful emissions and other equipment with low immunity to those same emissions.
Radiated emissions are radio-frequency electromagnetic energy that travels through the air.
Radiated emissions are also generated by electrical or electronic equipment and may be emitted
from poorly shielded or unshielded power and data cables, leaky equipment apertures,
inadequately shielded equipment housings, or normally operating equipment antenna.
Whether conducted or radiated, emissions include three properties: amplitude, frequency,
and waveform. EMI can occur in equipment with low immunity to emissions when any or all of
these properties vary from normal—for example, emissions that are too high in amplitude, too low
or too high in frequency, or whose waveforms are distorted. EMI can also occur when these
properties are within normal operating parameters, usually resulting from equipment’s low
immunity to emissions.

Some common symptoms of EMI related problems are:

 Unexplained drive trips with no correlation with voltage disturbances.
 Malfunctions of barcode/vision systems, ultrasonic sensors, weighing and
temperature sensors
 Intermittent data errors in drive-control interfaces such as encoder feedback, I/O,
and 0-10- V analog out
 Interference with TV, AM radio, radio-controlled devices

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 Radiated emissions from many types of electronic equipment—including ASDs, lighting
systems, broadcast communication equipment, and medical equipment—have been shown to cause
electromagnetic interference with other types of sensitive electronic equipment.
SOLUTIONS TO COMMON POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS
Utility Transients
 Utility voltage surges caused by lightning or switching can be mitigated by surge-
suppression devices. Metal-Oxide Varistor (MOV) or Transient voltage surge suppressors
(TVSSs) can be used.
 Using reactors at the input of an ASD or connected to its DC link is the most cost effective
way to minimize the effect of capacitor-switching transients on ASDs.
 Switching capacitor banks in incremental steps by installing individual breakers for each
step.
 Installing line reactors or pre-insertion resistors in series with the capacitor bank.
 Installing synchronous close-switching devices on the capacitor banks.
Voltage Sags
The PQ problems due to voltage sag may solved by using
 Ferro resonant Transformer
 Uninterruptible Power Supply
 DSTATCOM
 Dynamic Voltage Restorer
 Dip-Proof Inverters
 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
Harmonics
The affect of harmonic currents on facility devices can be reduced in several ways. One
method is to add harmonic filters to divert the harmonic current from facility equipment. A second
method is to add reactors or isolation transformers on the feeders connected to harmonic
producing loads. A third method is to isolate the harmonic loads from other sensitive equipment so
that the harmonic level at the sensitive loads is lower due to the system impedance between the
harmonic source and the sensitive loads.
Harmonic-current filters (passive filters, active power filters and hybrid filters) prevent the
harmonic currents drawn by facility non-sinusoidal loads from being fed back into the power
system. Filters can be applied at substations to prevent the harmonic current from being fed back
into the utility, or they can be installed parallel to individual loads to prevent the currents from
affecting the plant power distribution system.
Harmonic filters also provide the benefit of increasing the power factor of the facility due to
the capacitance present in the filter.
Isolation transformers and line reactors can also be used to reduce the effects of harmonics
on the power distribution system. The most common application of line reactors are with ASDs. As
mentioned previously, line reactors will decrease the likelihood of ASDs tripping on overvoltage

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when exposed to a capacitor-switching transient. In addition to this benefit, the reactance of this
device will attenuate the harmonics produced by an ASD.
Isolation transformers also provide reactance to attenuate harmonics in a manner similar to
line reactors. In addition to providing reactance to the circuit, most isolation transformers will
eliminate third harmonics. Isolation transformers usually include a delta winding. One
characteristic of a transformer with a delta winding is that zero-sequence currents cannot pass
through the winding. Zero-sequence currents include ground currents as well as third-harmonic
currents, so the application of this device isolates the feeder from third harmonics and ground
faults produced at the load.
Grounding Problems
Grounding problems will typically manifest themselves as equipment failures. This will be
most apparent in electronic solid-state devices, particularly if they are spread out over a large area
and connected by data cables. A typical electronic device has one side of its circuit connected to its
chassis, which is grounded through the grounding conductor in its power cord. The grounds of two
devices in separate chassis may be connected with a data cable that has grounds or a shield. This
configuration presents a ground loop. Ground loops may not cause a problem if there is insufficient
voltage (less than 0.5 volts) between the two devices. However, damage can occur when a large
enough current exists in one of the circuits to raise the ground potential of one device. Damage to
devices can also occur when the power ground has been lost. If the ground has been disconnected,
ground currents will find a path to the power ground. This path may flow through circuits and
devices that are not designed to withstand that current and cause damage.
Grounding can be tested by a ground-impedance tester. A ground-impedance tester is a
multifunctional instrument designed to detect certain types of wiring and grounding problems in
low-voltage power distribution systems. The primary test function is impedance measurement of
the equipment grounding conductor from the point of test back to the source neutral-to-ground
bond, as well as the impedance of the neutral conductor. This impedance should not exceed 0.25
ohms. It is also important to test the building grounding system with respect to earth ground. This
should be done with a fall-of-potential test instrument during the installation of the building
grounding system. In addition to testing, checking the condition of the power and grounding system
in a facility should be part of a routine preventive maintenance program. This includes checking for
missing or improper ground connections, ensuring that the neutral and ground are bonded only at
the power source, and checking for proper application of isolated grounds.
Electromagnetic Interference Problems
There are four methods to mitigate EMI in the industrial facility:
 proper grounding,
 attenuating emissions at the source,
 shielding sensitive equipment, and
 capturing and returning emissions to the source

*****0*****

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