Signals and Systems Jayapradha

SRI CHANDRASEKHARENDRA SARASWATHI VISWA MAHAVIDYALAYA
(University established under section 3of UGC Act 1956)

(Accredited with ‘A’ Grade by NAAC)
Enathur, Kanchipuram – 631 561
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Course Material
Signals and Systems

FULL TIME B.E II YEAR, IIIrd SEMESTER
Prepared by:
Dr. V.Jayapradha, Assistant Professor
Sri ChandrasekharendraSaraswathiViswaMahavidyalaya
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

Prerequisite: Basic knowledge on Mathematics which includes Fourier Series and Laplace
Transform
OBJECTIVES:
To understand the properties and representation of discrete and continuous signals
To understand the sampling process and analysis of discrete systems using z-transforms
To study the analysis and synthesis of discrete time systems
UNIT-I CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

Continuous Time Signals(CT signals) , Discrete time signals (DT signals) step, ramp, pulse,
impulse, exponential, Classification of CT and DT signals - periodic, aperiodic, random signals
- CT systems and DT systems, Basic properties of systems - Linear Time invariant systems and
properties
UNIT-II ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNALS
Fourier Series Analysis- Representation of periodic signals in trigonometric and exponential
form, Spectrum of CT signals-Fourier Transform and Laplace Transform in signal analysis
UNIT-III LINEAR TIME INVARIANT – CONTINUOUS TIME SYSTEMS
Differential Equation - Block diagram Representation, Impulse response, Convolution Integral-
Frequency response, Fourier and Laplace Transforms in analysis, State variable equations and
Matrix representation of systems
UNIT-IV ANALYSIS OF DISCRETE TIME SYSTEMS
Sampling of CT signals and aliasing, DTFT and properties, Z-transform and properties of Z-
transform
UNIT-V LINEAR TIME INVARIANT – DISCRETE TIME SYSTEMS
Difference equations, Block Diagram representation, Impulse response, Convolution sum, LTI
systems analysis using DTFT and Z-transforms, State variable equations and matrix
representation of systems
OUTCOMES:
Students will be able to:
Understand the properties and representation of continuous and discrete time signals.
Analyze the discrete time systems using z-transforms.
TEXTBOOKS:
1. P.Ramesh Babu & R.Anandanatarajan, signals and systems, 4th edition, scitech publication
private limited, 2009.
2. Allam V. Oppenheim, S.Wilsky and S.H.Nawab, Signals and systems, Pearson
Education,2007
REFERENCES:
1. Robert A.Gabel and Richard A.Roberts, Signals & Linear Systems, John Wiley & Sons 2004
2. Simon Haykins and Barry Van Veen, Signals and Systems, John Wiley & Sons,2004
SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
Prerequisite: Basic knowledge on Mathematics
Objectives:
To understand the properties and representation of discrete and continuous signals
Unit-I Classification of Signals and Systems
Continuous Time Signals(CT signals) , Discrete time signals (DT signals) step, ramp,
pulse, impulse, exponential, Classification of CT and DT signals - periodic, aperiodic,
random signals - CT systems and DT systems, Basic properties of systems - Linear
Time invariant systems and properties
Outcome:
On completion of the course, student will be able to
Understand mathematical description and representation of continuous and
discrete time signals and systems.
UNIT- I – Pre – Test - MCQ
1. _________ is defined as any physical quantity that varies with time, space or any other
independent variable
A. Signal
B. system
C. signals & system
D. none of the above
2. Which of the following time system operates with a continuous time signal & produces a
continuous time output signal
A. Continuous time system
B. Discrete time system
C. Time invariant system
D. Time variant system
3. Frequency and Time period are ______

A. Proportional to each other
B. Inverse of each other
C. Same
D. None of the above
4. Which of the following can weaken a signal

A. Attenuation
B. Distortion
C. Noise
D. All of the above
5. Which is a physical device that performs an operation on the signal

Signal
Response
System
All the above
SUBJECT: EC8352- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
Unit 1: Classification of signals and systems

1.1 Signal
Signal is one that carries information and is defined as a physical quantity that varies
with one or more independent variable.
Example: Music, speech
1.2 Classification of signals

1.2.1 Analog and Digital signal
Analog signal:
A signal that is defined for every instants of time is known as analog signal. Analog
signals are continuous in amplitude and continuous in time. It is denoted by x(t). It is also called
as Continuous time signal. Example for Continuous time signal is shown in Fig 1.1
Amplitude Sine Wave
time 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
Fig 1.2 Digital Signal

Fig 1.1 Continuous time signal
Digital signal:
The signals that are discrete in time and quantized in amplitude is called digital signal
(Fig 1.2)
1.2.2 Continuous time and discrete time signal
Continuous time signal:

A signal that is defined for every instants of time is known as continuous time signal.
Continuous time signals are continuous in amplitude and continuous in time. It is denoted by
x(t) and shown in Fig 1.1
Discrete time signal:

A signal that is defined for discrete instants of time is known as discrete time signal.
Discrete time signals are continuous in amplitude and discrete in time. It is also obtained by
sampling a continuous time signal. It is denoted by x(n) and shown in Fig 1.3
www.studentsfocus.com 1
Fig 1.3 Discrete time signal
1.2.3 Even (symmetric) and Odd (Anti-symmetric) signal

Continuous domain:
Even signal:
A signal that exhibits symmetry with respect to t=0 is called even signal
Even signal satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡)
Odd signal:
A signal that exhibits anti-symmetry with respect to t=0 is called odd signal
Odd signal satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑡) = −𝑥(−𝑡)
Even part 𝒙𝒆 (𝒕) and Odd part 𝒙𝟎 (𝒕) of continuous time signal 𝒙 𝒕 :
1
Even part 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = 2 [𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡 ]
1
Odd part 𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = 2 [𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡 ]
Discrete domain:
Even signal:
A signal that exhibits symmetry with respect to n=0 is called even signal
Even signal satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑥(−𝑛).
Odd signal:
A signal that exhibits anti-symmetry with respect to n=0 is called odd signal Odd signal
satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑛) = −𝑥(−𝑛).
Even part 𝒙𝒆 (𝒏) and Odd part 𝒙𝟎 (𝒏) of discrete time signal 𝒙 𝒏 :
1
Even part 𝑥𝑒 𝑛 = 2 [𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥 −𝑛 ]
1
Odd part 𝑥𝑜 𝑛 = 2 [𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑥 −𝑛 ]
2
www.studentsfocus.com
1.2.4 Periodic and Aperiodic signal

Periodic signal:
A signal is said to periodic if it repeats again and again over a certain period of time.
Aperiodic signal:
A signal that does not repeat at a definite interval of time is called aperiodic signal.
Continuous domain:
A Continuous time signal is said to periodic if it satisfies the condition
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
If the above condition is not satisfied then the signal is said to be aperiodic
𝟐𝛑
Fundamental time period 𝐓 = Ω
, where Ω is fundamental angular frequency in rad/sec
Discrete domain:
A Discrete time signal is said to periodic if it satisfies the condition
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑁 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
If the above condition is not satisfied then the signal is said to be aperiodic
𝟐𝛑𝐦
Fundamental time period 𝐍 = 𝛚
, where ω is fundamental angular frequency in rad/sec, 𝑚 is
smallest positive integer that makes N as positive integer
1.2.5 Energy and Power signal
Energy signal:
The signal which has finite energy and zero average power is called energy signal. The
non periodic signals like exponential signals will have constant energy and so non periodic
signals are energy signals.
i.e., For energy signal, 0 < 𝐸 < ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 = 0
For Continuous time signals,
𝑇
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸 = lim |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ −𝑇
For Discrete time signals,

𝑁
2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸 = lim 𝑥(𝑛)
𝑁→∞
𝑛=−𝑁
Power signal:
The signal which has finite average power and infinite energy is called power signal. The
periodic signals like sinusoidal complex exponential signals will have constant power and so
periodic signals are power signals.
i.e., For power signal, 0 < 𝑃 < ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = ∞
For Continuous time signals,
𝑇
1
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = lim |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇
For Discrete time signals,
𝑁
1 2
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = lim 𝑥(𝑛)
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁
1.2.6 Deterministic and Random signals
Deterministic signal:
A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainity over the signal at any
instant of time i.e., its instantaneous value can be predicted. It can be represented by
mathematical equation.
Example: sinusoidal signal
Random signal (Non-Deterministic signal):

A signal is said to be random if there is uncertainity over the signal at any instant of time
i.e., its instantaneous value cannot be predicted. It cannot be represented by mathematical
equation.
Example: noise signal
Sinusoidal Signal Random Signal
Random signal
Deterministic signal
1.2.7 Causal and Non-causal signal
Continuous domain:
Causal signal:
A signal is said to be causal if it is defined for t≥0.
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑡 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
Non-causal signal:
A signal is said to be non-causal, if it is defined for t< 0 or for both
𝑡 < 0 and 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑡 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
When a non-causal signal is defined only for t<0, it is called as anti-causal signal
4
Discrete domain:
Causal signal:
A signal is said to be causal, if it is defined for n≥0.
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑛 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
Non-causal signal:
A signal is said to be non-causal, if it is defined for n< 0
or for both n < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑛 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
When a non-causal signal is defined only for n<0, it is called as anti-causal signal
1.3 Basic(Elementary or Standard) continuous time signals

1.3.1 Step signal
Unit Step signal is defined as
u (t)
𝑢 𝑡 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0 1
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
0 t
Unit step signal
1.3.2 Ramp signal
Unit ramp signal is defined as

. r (t)
.
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
3
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
2
0 1 2 3 . . t
Unit ramp signal
1.3.3 Parabolic signal

Unit Parabolic signal is defined as
p(t)
:
4.5
𝑡2
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0 2
2
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0 0.5
0 1 2 3... t
Unit Parabolic signal
Relation between Unit Step signal, Unit ramp signal and Unit Parabolic signal:
Unit ramp signal is obtained by integrating unit step signal

𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑢 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 = 𝑟(𝑡)
Unti Parabolic signal is obtained by integrating unit ramp signal
𝑡2
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑟 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑑𝑡 = = 𝑝(𝑡)
2
Unit step signal is obtained by differentiating unit ramp signal

𝑑 𝑑
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡 = 1 = 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Unit ramp signal is obtained by differentiating unit Parabolic signal
𝑑 𝑑 𝑡2 1
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑝 𝑡 = = 2𝑡 = 𝑡 = 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 2
1.3.4 Unit Pulse signal is defined as

∏ (t)
1 1
∏ 𝑡 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤
2
= 0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒
-1/2 1/2 t
Unit Pulse signal
1.3.5 Impulse signal

Unit Impulse signal is defined as
𝛿 𝑡 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≠ 0
∞
𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1
−∞
Unit Impulse signal
6
Properties of Impulse signal:

Property 1:
∞
𝒙(𝒕)𝜹 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒙(𝟎)
−∞
Proof:
∞
𝑥(𝑡)𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 0 𝛿 0 = 𝑥 0 [∵ 𝛿 𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 0 = 1]

−∞
Thus proved
Property 2:
∞
𝒙(𝒕)𝜹 𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒙(𝒕𝟎 )
−∞
Proof:
∞
𝑥(𝑡)𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡0 𝛿 𝑡0 − 𝑡0 = 𝑥 𝑡0 𝛿 0 = 𝑥 𝑡0
−∞
∵ 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑡0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 0 = 1
Thus proved
1.3.6 Sinusoidal signal

Cosinusoidal signal is defined as Sinusoidal signal is defined as
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺𝑡 + 𝛷 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺𝑡 + 𝛷
2π
where Ω = 2πf = T
and Ω is angular frequency in rad/sec
f is frequency in cycles/sec or Hertz and
A is amplitude
T is time period in seconds
𝛷 is phase angle in radians
Cosinusoidal signal Sinusoidal signal

𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝜙 = 0, 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺𝑡 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝜙 = 0, 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺𝑡
x(t) φ=0
x(t) φ=0
A
A
t
t
-A
-A
Sinusoidal signal
Cosinusoidal signal
1.3.7 Exponential signal

Real Exponential signal is defined as 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑎𝑡
where A is amplitude
Depending on the value of ‘a’ we get dc signal or growing exponential signal or decaying
exponential signal
x(t) a=0 x(t) a>0 x(t) a<0
A t A t A t
DC signal Exponentially Exponentially

growing signal decaying signal
Complex exponential signal is defined as 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑠𝑡

where 𝐴 is amplitude, s is complex variable and 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗Ω
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑠𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎 +𝑗Ω 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎𝑡 𝑒 𝑗Ω𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑠Ω𝑡 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛Ω𝑡)
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝜎 = +𝑣𝑒, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑠Ω𝑡 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛Ω𝑡),
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥𝑟 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ω𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ω𝑡
xr(t) xi(t)
A A
t t
Exponentially growing sinusoidal signal

Exponentially growing Cosinusoidal signal
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝜎 = −𝑣𝑒, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑠Ω𝑡 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛Ω𝑡),

𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥𝑟 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ω𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ω𝑡
xr(t) xi(t)
A A
t t
8
Exponentially decaying Cosinusoidal signal Exponentially decaying sinusoidal signal
1.4 Basic(Elementary or Standard) Discrete time signals
1.4.1 Step signal

Unit Step signal is defined as
u(n)
𝑢 𝑛 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
1
. . .
0 1 2 3 4 n
Unit step signal

1.4.2 Unit Ramp signal
Unit Ramp signal is defined as
r(n)
:
4
𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0 3
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0 2 . . .
1
0 1 2 3 4 n
Unit Ramp signal
1.4.3 Pulse signal (Rectangular pulse function)

Pulse signal is defined as
x(n)
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑛2 A
. . . . . .
= 0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒
n1 -1 0 1 n2 n
Pulse signal
1.4.4 Unit Impulse signal

Unit Impulse signal is defined as
𝛿 𝑛 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0
𝛿 𝑛 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 0
Unit Impulse signal
1.4.5 Sinusoidal signal

Cosinusoidal signal is defined as Sinusoidal signal is defined as
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑛)
2π
where 𝜔 = 2πf = N
m and 𝜔 is frequency in radians/sample
m is smallest integer
f is frequency in cycles/sample, A is amplitude
Cosinusoidal signal Sinusoidal signal
Sinusoidal signal
Cosinusoidal signal
1.4.6 Exponential signal

Real Exponential signal is defined as 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0
Decreasing exponential signal Increasing exponential signal
Complex Exponential signal is defined as 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 𝑗 (𝜔 0 𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0 𝑛 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔0 𝑛]

𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑖 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔0 𝑛
10
Exponentially decreasing Cosinusoidal signal

Exponentially decreasing sinusoidal signal
Exponentially growing Cosinusoidal signal
Exponentially growing sinusoidal signal
1.5 Classification of System

Continuous time and Discrete time system
Linear and Non-Linear system
Static and Dynamic system
Time invariant and Time variant system
Causal and Non-Causal system
Stable and Unstable system
1.5.1 Continuous time and Discrete time system

Continuous time system:
Continuous time system operates on a continuous time signal (input or excitation) and
produces another continuous time signal (output or response) which is shown in Fig 1.84. The
signal 𝑥(𝑡) is transformed by the system into signal 𝑦(𝑡), this transformation can be expressed
as,
Response 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡
where 𝑥(𝑡) is input signal, 𝑦(𝑡) is output signal, and T denotes transformation
𝑥(𝑡) T 𝑦(𝑡)
Fig 1.84 Representation of continuous time system

Discrete time system:
Discrete time system operates on a discrete time signal (input or excitation) and
produces another discrete time signal (output or response) which is shown in Fig 1.85.
The signal 𝑥(𝑛) is transformed by the system into signal 𝑦(𝑛), this transformation can be
expressed as,
Response 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑛
where x(n) is input signal, y(n) is output signal, and T denotes transformation
𝑥(𝑛) T 𝑦(𝑛)
Fig 1.85 Representation of discrete time system
1.5.2 Linear system and Non Linear system

Continuous time domain:
Linear system:
A system is said to be linear if it obeys superposition theorem. Superposition theorem
states that the response of a system to a weighted sum of the signals is equal to the
corresponding weighted sum of responses to each of the individual input signals.
Condition for Linearity:
𝑇 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑡)
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦1 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦2 𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥1 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦
Non Linear system:
A system is said to be Non linear if it does not obeys superposition theorem.
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑇 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 ≠ 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑡)
where y1 t and y2 t are the responses of x1 t and x2 t respectively
Discrete time domain:

Linear system:
A system is said to be linear if it obeys superposition theorem. Superposition theorem
states that the response of a system to a weighted sum of the signals is equal to the
corresponding weighted sum of responses to each of the individual input signals.
Condition for Linearity:
𝑇 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑛)
where y1 n and y2 n are the responses of x1 n and x2 n respectively
Non Linear system:
A system is said to be Non linear if it does not obeys superposition theorem.
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑇 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 ≠ 𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑛)
12
where y1 n and y2 n are the responses of x1 n and x2 n respectively
1.5.3 Static (Memoryless) and Dynamic (Memory) system

Static system:
A system is said to be memoryless or static if the response of the system is due to
present input alone.
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥 2 (𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡)
Dynamic system:
A system is said to be memory or dynamic if the response of the system depends on
factors other than present input also.
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(−𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥 2 (𝑡) + 𝑥(2𝑡)

Static system:
A system is said to be memoryless or static if the response of the system is due to
present input alone.
Example: 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛)
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥 2 (𝑛) + 3𝑥(𝑛)
Dynamic system:
A system is said to be memory or dynamic if the response of the system depends on
factors other than present input also.
Example: 𝑦(𝑛) = 2𝑥(𝑛) + 𝑥(−𝑛)
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑛) + 𝑥(2𝑛)
1.5.4 Time invariant (Shift invariant) and Time variant (Shift variant) system
Time invariant system:
A system is said to time invariant if the relationship between the input and output does
not change with time.
If 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡
Then 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) should be satisfied for the system to be time invariant
Time variant system:

A system is said to time variant if the relationship between the input and output changes
with time.
If 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡
Then 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 ≠ 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) should be satisfied for the system to be time variant
Time invariant system:

A system is said to time invariant if the relationship between the input and output does
not change with time.
If 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑛
Then 𝑇 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑛0 = 𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑛0 ) should be satisfied for the system to be time invariant
Time variant system:
A system is said to time variant if the relationship between the input and output changes
with time.
If 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑛
Then 𝑇 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑛0 ≠ 𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑛0 ) should be satisfied for the system to be time variant
1.5.5 Causal and Non-Causal system

Causal system:
A system is said to be causal if the response of a system at any instant of time depends
only on the present input, past input and past output but does not depends upon the future
input and future output.
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 3𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡 − 1)
A system is said to be causal if impulse response 𝑕(𝑡) is zero for negative values of 𝑡
i.e., 𝑕(𝑡) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
Non-Causal system:
A system is said to be Non-causal if the response of a system at any instant of time
depends on the future input and also on the present input, past input, past output.
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 2) + 𝑥(𝑡 − 1)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡 + 4)
A system is said to be non-causal if impulse response 𝑕(𝑡) is non-zero for negative values of 𝑡
i.e., 𝑕(𝑡) ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0

Causal system:
A system is said to be causal if the response of a system at any instant of time depends
only on the present input, past input and past output but does not depends upon the future
input.
Example: 𝑦(𝑛) = 3𝑥(𝑛) + 𝑥(𝑛 − 1)
A system is said to be causal if impulse response h(n) is zero for negative values of n
i.e., 𝑕(𝑛) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
Non-Causal system:
A system is said to be Non-causal if the response of a system at any instant of time
depends on the future input and also on the present input, past input, past output.
Example: 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛 + 2) + 𝑥(𝑛 − 1)
14
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(−𝑛) + 𝑥(𝑛 + 4)

A system is said to be non-causal if impulse response 𝑕(𝑛) is non-zero for negative values of n
i.e., 𝑕(𝑛) ≠ 0 for 𝑛 < 0
1.5.6 Stable and Unstable system

A system is said to be stable if and only if it satisfies the BIBO stability criterion.
BIBO stable condition:
Every bounded input yields bounded output.
𝑖. 𝑒. , if 0 < 𝑥 t < ∞ 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 0 < 𝑦 t < ∞ should be satisfied for the system to be stable
Impulse response should be absolutely integrable
∞
𝑖. 𝑒. , 0 < 𝑕(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 < ∞

−∞
If the BIBO stable condition is not satisfied, then the system is said to be unstable system
A system is said to be stable if and only if it satisfies the BIBO stability criterion.
BIBO stable condition:
Every bounded input yields bounded output.
Impulse response should be absolutely summable
∞
𝑖. 𝑒. , 0 < 𝑕(𝑘) < ∞

𝑘=−∞
If the BIBO stable condition is not satisfied, then the system is said to be unstable system
1.6 Solved Problems
1. Draw 𝑟(𝑡 + 3), where r(t) is ramp signal

Solution:
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡; 𝑡 ≥ 0
r(t) r(t+3)
: :
: 4
3
3
2
2
1
1
0 1 2 3 ... t
-3 -2 -1 0 1 ... t
2. Sketch 𝑥(𝑡) = 3𝑟(𝑡 − 1) + 𝑟(−𝑡 + 2)
𝑥 𝑡 = 3𝑟 𝑡 − 1 + 𝑟(−𝑡 + 2)
= 0 + 4 − 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ −1
= 0 + 3 − 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 0
= 0 + 2 − 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1
= 3𝑡 + 1 − 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2
= 3 + 3𝑡 + 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 3
= 6 + 3𝑡 + 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4
and so on
Fig 1.163
3. Draw time reversal signal of unit step signal

Solution:
𝑢 𝑛 = 1; 𝑛 ≥ 0
16
4. Check whether the following is periodic or not. If periodic, determine fundamental time
period
a. 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟓𝒕 + 𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝒕
Here Ω1 = 5, Ω2 = 4
2π 2π 2π
𝑇1 = = =
Ω1 5 5
2π 2π π
𝑇2 = = =
Ω2 4 2
2π
𝑇1 5 = 4 (It is rational number)
= π
𝑇2 5
2
Hence 𝑥(𝑡) is periodic
𝑇 = 5𝑇1 = 4𝑇2 = 2𝜋
∴ 𝑥(𝑡) is periodic with period 𝟐𝝅
b. 𝑥 𝑛 = 3 cos 4𝜋𝑛 + 2 sin 𝜋𝑛

Here ω1 = 4π, ω2 = π
2πm 2πm m
𝑁1 = = =
ω1 4π 2
𝑁1 = 1 (taking m = 2)
2πm 2πm
𝑁2 = = = 2m
ω2 π
𝑁2 = 2 (taking m = 1)
𝑁 = 𝐿𝐶𝑀 1,2 = 2
Hence x(n) ∴ 𝑥(𝑛) is periodic with period 2
5. Determine whether the signals are energy or power signal

𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
2 −3𝑡 2
𝑒 −6𝑡
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑬∞ = lim |𝑥 𝑡 | 𝑑𝑡 = lim |𝑒 | 𝑑𝑡 = lim 𝑒 −6𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = lim
𝑇→∞ 𝑇→∞ 𝑇→∞ 𝑇→∞ −6 0
−𝑇 0 0
𝑒 −6𝑇 𝑒 −0 𝟏
= lim − = <∞ ∵ 𝑒 −∞ = 0, 𝑒 −0 = 1
𝑇→∞ −6 −6 𝟔
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
1 2
1 −3𝑡 2
1
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑷∞ = lim 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = lim 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = lim 𝑒 −6𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇
−𝑇 0 0
−6𝑡 𝑇 −6𝑇 −0
1 𝑒 1 𝑒 𝑒 1 1 1
= lim = lim − = lim =𝟎 ∵ 𝑒 −∞ = 0, 𝑒 −0 = 1, =0
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −6 0
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −6 −6 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 6 ∞
Since energy value is finite and average power is zero, the given signal is an energy signal.
6. Determine whether the signals are energy or power signal

𝝅𝒏 𝝅
𝒙 𝒏 = 𝒆𝒋 +
𝟒 𝟐
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
𝝅𝒏 𝝅 2
2 𝒋( + )
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑬∞ = lim 𝑥(𝑛) = lim 𝒆 𝟒 𝟐 = lim 12 = lim 2𝑁 + 1 = ∞
𝑁→∞ 𝑁→∞ 𝑁→∞ 𝑁→∞
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−𝑁
𝑁
𝑗 (𝜔𝑛 +𝜃 )
∵ 𝑒 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 = 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛 =−𝑁
𝑁 𝑁
1 1 𝝅𝒏 𝝅 2
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑷∞ = lim 𝑥(𝑛) 2
= lim 𝒆𝒋( 𝟒 +𝟐 )
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1 𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−𝑁
𝑁
1 1
lim 12 = lim 2𝑁 + 1 = 𝟏
=𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1 𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁
Since energy value is infinite and average power is finite, the given signal is power signal
7. Determine whether the following systems are linear or not
𝒅𝒚(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕
+ 𝒕𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕)
Output due to weighted sum of inputs:
𝑑[𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡 ] 2
+ 𝑡 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 … (1)
𝑑𝑡
Weighted sum of outputs:

For input 𝑥1 𝑡 :
𝑑𝑦1 𝑡
+ 𝑡𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝑥1 2 𝑡 … (2)
𝑑𝑡
For input 𝑥2 𝑡 :
𝑑𝑦2 𝑡
+ 𝑡𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑥2 2 𝑡 … (3)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦1 𝑡 𝑑𝑦2 𝑡
2 ×𝑎+ 3 ×𝑏 ⇒𝑎 + 𝑎𝑡𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏 + 𝑏𝑡𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥1 2 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 2 𝑡 … (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
18
1 ≠ (4)
The given system is Non-Linear
8. Determine whether the following systems are linear or not

𝒚 𝒏 = 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟐 + 𝒙(𝒏𝟐 )
Output due to weighted sum of inputs:
𝑦3 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑛2 )
Weighted sum of outputs:
For input 𝑥1 𝑛 :
𝑦1 𝑛 = 𝑥1 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑥1 𝑛2
For input 𝑥2 𝑛 :
𝑦2 𝑛 = 𝑥2 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑥2 (𝑛2 )
𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑛2 )
∵ 𝑦3 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑛
9. Determine whether the following systems are static or dynamic

𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙 𝟐𝒕 + 𝟐𝒙 𝒕
𝑦 0 = 𝑥 0 + 2𝑥 0 ⇒ present inputs
𝑦 −1 = 𝑥 −2 + 2𝑥 −1 ⇒ past and present inputs
𝑦 1 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 1 ⇒ future and present inputs
Since output depends on past and future inputs the given system is dynamic system
10. Determine whether the following systems are static or dynamic

𝒚(𝒏) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙(𝒏)
𝑦 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(0) ⇒ present input
𝑦 −1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(−1) ⇒ present input
Since output depends on present input the given system is Static system
11. Determine whether the following systems are time invariant or not
𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒙(𝒕)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒕
Output due to input delayed by T seconds
𝑦(𝑡, 𝑇) = 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑇)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
Output delayed by T seconds
𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑇) = 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑇)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤(𝑡 − 𝑇)
∵ 𝑦 𝑡, 𝑇 ≠ 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑇
The given system is time variant
12. Determine whether the following systems are time invariant or not
𝒚 𝒏 = 𝒙(−𝒏 + 𝟐)
Output due to input delayed by k seconds
𝑦 𝑛, 𝑘 = 𝑥(−𝑛 + 2 − 𝑘)
Output delayed by k seconds
𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑘 = 𝑥 −(𝑛 − 𝑘 + 2) = 𝑥(−𝑛 + 𝑘 + 2)
∵ 𝒚 𝒏, 𝒌 ≠ 𝒚 𝒏 − 𝒌
The given system is time variant
13. Determine whether the following systems are causal or not

𝒅𝒙(𝒕)
𝒚 𝒕 = + 𝟐𝒙(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕
The given equation is differential equation and the output depends on past input. Hence the
given system is 𝐂𝐚𝐮𝐬𝐚𝐥
14. Determine whether the following systems are causal or not

𝒚(𝒏) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙(𝒏)
𝑦 −1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(−1) ⇒ present input
Since output depends on present input the given system is Causal system
15. Determine whether the following systems are stable or not
𝒉 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝟒𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)
∞
Condition for stability 𝑕(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 < ∞

−∞
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
𝑒 −4𝜏 1
𝑕(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑒 −4𝜏 𝑢(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑒 −4𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = =
−4 0
4
−∞ −∞ 0
∞
∵ 𝑕(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 < ∞ the given system is 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞

−∞
16. Determine whether the following systems are stable or not

𝒚 𝒏 = 𝟑𝒙(𝒏)
Let 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿 𝑛 , 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑕(𝑛)
⇒ 𝑕 𝑛 = 3𝛿(𝑛)
∞
Condition for stability 𝑕(𝑘) < ∞

𝑘=−∞
∞ ∞ ∞
𝑕(𝑘) = 3𝛿(𝑘) = 3𝛿(𝑘) = 3

𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=0 𝑘=0
∵ 𝛿 𝑘 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 𝑘 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 0
∞
∵ 𝑕(𝑘) < ∞ the given system is 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞

𝑘=−∞
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GENERATION OF CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNALS
AIM:
To generate a functional sequence of a signal (Sine, Cosine, triangular, Square, Saw

tooth and sinc ) using MATLAB function.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
HARDWARE : Personal Computer
SOFTWARE : MATLAB R2014a
PROCEDURE:
1. Start the MATLAB program.
2. Open new M-file
3. Type the program
4. Save in current directory
5. Compile and Run the program
6. If any error occurs in the program correct the error and run it again
7. For the output see command window\ Figure window
8. Stop the program.
PROGRAM: (Generation of Continuous Time Signals)
%Program for sine wave

t=0:0.1:10;
y=sin(2*pi*t);
subplot(3,3,1);
plot(t,y,'k');
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Sine wave');
%Program for cosine wave

t=0:0.1:10;
y=cos(2*pi*t);
subplot(3,3,2);
plot(t,y,'k');
xlabel('Time');
title('Cosine wave');
%Program for square wave

t=0:0.001:10;
y=square(t);
subplot(3,3,3);
plot(t,y,'k');
xlabel('Time');
title('Square wave');
%Program for sawtooth wave

t=0:0.1:10;
y=sawtooth(t);
subplot(3,3,4);
plot(t,y,'k');
xlabel('Time');
title('Sawtooth wave');
%Program for Triangular wave

t=0:.0001:20;
y=sawtooth(t,.5); % sawtooth with 50% duty cycle
(triangular)
subplot(3,3,5);
plot(t,y);
ylabel ('Amplitude');
xlabel ('Time Index');
title('Triangular waveform');
%Program for Sinc Pulse
t=-10:.01:10;
y=sinc(t);
axis([-10 10 -2 2]);
subplot(3,3,6)
plot(t,y)
title('Sinc Pulse');
% Program for Exponential Growing signal

t=0:.1:8;
a=2;
y=exp(a*t);
subplot(3,3,7);
plot(t,y);
title('Exponential growing Signal');
% Program for Exponential Growing signal

t=0:.1:8;
a=2;
y=exp(-a*t);
subplot(3,3,8);
plot(t,y);
title('Exponential decaying Signal');
OUTPUT: (Generation of Continuous Time Signals)
RESULT:
Thus the MATLAB programs for functional sequence of a signal (Sine, Cosine,
triangular, Square, Saw tooth and sinc ) using MATLAB function written and the results were
plotted.
Ex. No: 1b
Date:
GENERATION OF DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS
AIM:
To generate a discrete time signal sequence (Unit step, Unit ramp, Sine, Cosine,
Exponential, Unit impulse) using MATLAB function.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
HARDWARE : Personal Computer
SOFTWARE : MATLAB R2014a
PROCEDURE:
1. Start the MATLAB program.
2. Open new M-file

3. Type the program
4. Save in current directory
5. Compile and Run the program
6. If any error occurs in the program correct the error and run it again
7. For the output see command window\ Figure window
8. Stop the program.

PROGRAM: (Generation of Discrete Time Signals)
%Program for unit step sequence
clc;
N=input('Enter the length of unit step sequence(N)= ');
n=0:1:N-1;
y=ones(1,N);
subplot(3,2,1);
stem(n,y,'k');
xlabel('Time')
ylabel('Amplitude')
title('Unit step sequence');
%Program for unit ramp sequence
N1=input('Enter the length of unit ramp sequence(N1)= ');
n1=0:1:N1-1;
y1=n1;
subplot(3,2,2);
stem(n1,y1,'k');
xlabel('Time');
title('Unit ramp sequence');
%Program for sinusoidal sequence
N2=input('Enter the length of sinusoidal sequence(N2)=
');
n2=0:0.1:N2-1;
y2=sin(2*pi*n2);
subplot(3,2,3);
stem(n2,y2,'k');
xlabel('Time');
title('Sinusoidal sequence');
%Program for cosine sequence
N3=input('Enter the length of the cosine sequence(N3)=');
n3=0:0.1:N3-1;
y3=cos(2*pi*n3);
subplot(3,2,4);
stem(n3,y3,'k');
xlabel('Time');
title('Cosine sequence');
%Program for exponential sequence
N4=input('Enter the length of the exponential
sequence(N4)= ');
n4=0:1:N4-1;
a=input('Enter the value of the exponential sequence(a)=
');
y4=exp(a*n4);
subplot(3,2,5);
stem(n4,y4,'k');
xlabel('Time');
title('Exponential sequence');
%Program for unit impulse
n=-3:1:3;
y=[zeros(1,3),ones(1,1),zeros(1,3)];
subplot(3,2,6);
stem(n,y,'k');
xlabel('Time');
title('Unit impulse');
OUTPUT: (Generation of Discrete Time Signals)
RESULT:
Thus the MATLAB programs for discrete time signal sequence (Unit step, Unit ramp,
Sine, Cosine, Exponential, Unit impulse) using MATLAB function written and the results were
plotted.
UNIT- I – Post – Test – MCQ
1. Which one of the following is correct? Energy of a power signal is
a) finite
b) zero
c) infinite
d) between 1 and 2
2. If x (-t) = -x (t) then the signal is said to be _____________

a. Even signal
b. Odd signal
c. Periodic signal
d. Non periodic signal
3. Determine the nature of the system y(t) = 10 x(t) +5 is

a. causal, linear and time invarient
b. causal, non-linear and time invarient
c. non causal, non non-linear and time varient
d. non causal, linear and time varient
4. Which of the following is an example for non- causal system?

a) y[n] = 1⁄3 {x[n-1] + x[n] + x[n-2]}
b) y[n] = 1⁄3 {x[n-1] + x[n] + x[n+1]}
c) y[n] = 1⁄2 {x[n-1] + x[n]}
d) y[n] = 1⁄2 {x[n] + x[n-2]}
5. Which of the following systems is memoryless?

a) y(t) = x(2t) + x(t)
b) y(t) = -x(t) + x(1-t)
c) y(t) = x(t) + 2x(t)
d) y(t) = x(t) + 2x(t+2)
SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
Prerequisite: Basic operations of signals and Basic knowledge on Mathematics

which includes Fourier series and Laplace Transform
Objectives:
To understand the properties and representation of Fourier series, Fourier

Transform and Laplace transform
Unit-II Analysis of Continuous Time Signals

Fourier Series Analysis- Representation of periodic signals in trigonometric and
exponential form, Spectrum of CT signals-Fourier Transform and Laplace Transform
in signal analysis
Outcome:
 Understand and resolve the signals in frequency domain using Fourier series
and Fourier transforms.
 Understand the limitations of Fourier transform and need for Laplace
transform and develop the ability to analyze the system in s- domain
UNIT- II – Pre – Test – MCQ
1. Which mathematical notation species the condition of periodicity for a continuous time
signal?
a. x(t) = x(t +T0)
b. x(n) = x(n+ N)
c. x(t) = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
d. None of the above
1
2. The inverse Laplace transform of 𝑠+𝑎 is
a) 𝑒 𝑎𝑡
b) t 𝑒 𝑎𝑡
c) t2 𝑒 𝑎𝑡
d) t
3. Double-sided phase & amplitude spectra _____

a. Possess an odd & even symmetry respectively
b. Possess an even & odd symmetry respectively
c. Both possess an odd symmetry
d. Both possess an even symmetry
4. The final value theorem is used to find the

a) Steady state value of the system
b) Initial value of the system output
c) Transient behavior of the system output
d) None of these
5. What are the two types of Fourier series?

a) Trigonometric and exponential
b) Trigonometric and logarithmic
c) Exponential and logarithmic
d) Trigonometric only
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR , AP/ECE/ RMDEC
Unit 2: Analysis of continuous time signals

2.1 Fourier series analysis
The Fourier representation of signals can be used to perform frequency domain analysis of
signals in which we can study the various frequency components present in the signal, magnitude
and phase of various frequency components.
Conditions for existence of Fourier series:

The Fourier series exist only if the following Dirichlet’s conditions are satisfied.
 The signal 𝑥(𝑡) must be single valued function.
 The signal 𝑥(𝑡) must possess only a finite number of discontinuous in the period T.
 The signal must have a finite number of maxima and minima in the period T.
𝑇
 𝑥(𝑡) must be absolutely integrable. i.e., 0
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 < ∞
Types of Fourier series:

 Trigonometric Fourier series
 Exponential Fourier series
 Cosine Fourier series
2.2 Trigonometric Fourier series
The trigonometric form of Fourier series of a periodic signal, 𝑥(𝑡) with period 𝑇 is defined
as
∞ ∞
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛Ω0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛Ω0 𝑡 ……… 1

𝑛=1 𝑛=1
𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 → Fourier coefficients of trigonometric form of Fourier series
𝑡 0 +𝑇
1
𝑎0 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡0
𝑡 0 +𝑇
2
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛Ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡0
𝑡 0 +𝑇
2
𝑏𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛Ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡0
1
Example 1 Find the trigonometric Fourier series for the periodic signal x(t) as shown in Figure
x(t)
1 x(t)
1
-7 -5 -3 -1 0 1 3 5 7 9 t
-1 --1 0 1 3 t
T -1
Solution:
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑇 = 3 − −1 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω0 = =
𝑇 2
Evaluation of 𝒂𝟎
1 𝑡 0 +𝑇 1 1 3
1 1 3
1
𝒂𝟎 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1 𝑑𝑡 + −1 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 −1 −1 𝑡 1 = (1 − (−1 ) − (3 − 1)]
𝑇 𝑡0 4 −1 1 4 4
1
= 2−2 = 𝟎
4
Evaluation of 𝒂𝒏
𝑡 0+𝑇 1 3
2 2
𝒂𝒏 = 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + (−1)cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡0 4 −1 1
𝜋 1 𝜋 3
1 sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 1
sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 3
1 sin 𝑛 2 𝑡 sin 𝑛 2 𝑡
= − = 𝜋 − 𝜋
2 𝑛𝛺0 −1 𝑛𝛺0 1 2 𝑛 𝑛
2 −1 2 1
1 2 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= sin 𝑛 − sin 𝑛 −1 − sin 𝑛 3 − sin 𝑛
2 𝑛𝜋 2 2 2 2
1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
= sin 𝑛 + sin 𝑛 − sin 3𝑛 + sin 𝑛 = 3sin − sin(2n𝜋 − )
𝑛𝜋 2 2 2 2 𝑛𝜋 2 2
1 𝑛𝜋 𝜋 𝟒 𝝅
= 3sin − −sin 𝑛 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏
𝑛𝜋 2 2 𝒏𝝅 𝟐
Evaluation of 𝒃𝒏
2 𝑡 0 +𝑇 2 1 3
𝒃𝒏 = 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + − sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡0 4 −1 1
𝜋 1 𝜋 3
1 −cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 1
−cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 3
1 −cos 𝑛 2 𝑡 cos 𝑛 2 𝑡
= − = 𝜋 + 𝜋
2 𝑛𝛺0 −1 𝑛𝛺0 1 2 𝑛2 𝑛2
−1 1
1 −2 𝜋 𝜋 2 𝜋 𝜋
= cos 𝑛 − cos 𝑛 −1 + cos 𝑛 3 − cos 𝑛
2 𝑛𝜋 2 2 𝑛𝜋 2 2
1 2 𝑛𝜋 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋
= 0+ cos 2𝑛𝜋 − − cos 𝑛 = cos 𝑛 − cos 𝑛 =𝟎
2 𝑛𝜋 2 2 𝑛𝜋 2 2
Trigonometric Fourier series
∞ ∞
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡

𝑛=1 𝑛=1
∞ ∞
4 𝑛𝜋 4 𝑛𝜋 𝜋
= sin cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 = sin cos 𝑛 𝑡
𝑛𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2 2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
Example 2 Obtain Fourier series of the following full wave rectified sine wave shown in figure
2
x(t)
-2 -1 0 1 2 t
Solution:
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡 ; ∴ 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙, 𝑠𝑜 𝒃𝒏 = 𝟎
2𝜋
𝑇 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω0 = = 2𝜋
1
The given signal is sinusoidal signal, ∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin Ω𝑡
2π 2π
Here Ω = = = π and A = 1
T 2
∴ 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝅𝒕
𝑇 1 1
2 2 2 1
2 2 cos 𝜋𝑡 2 2 𝜋 𝟐
𝒂𝟎 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 sin 𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 − =− cos − cos 0 =
𝑇 1 𝜋 0 𝜋 2 𝝅
0 0 0
𝑇 1 1
2 2 2
4 4
𝒂𝒏 = 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛Ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = sin 𝜋𝑡 cos 𝑛2𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 sin (1 + 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡 + sin (1 − 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 1
0 0 0
1
cos (1 + 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡 cos (1 − 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡 2
=2 − −
1 + 2𝑛 𝜋 1 − 2𝑛 𝜋 0
𝜋 𝜋
2 cos (1 + 2𝑛) 2 cos (1 − 2𝑛) 2 1 1
= − − + +
𝜋 1 + 2𝑛 1 − 2𝑛 1 + 2𝑛 1 − 2𝑛
2 1 1 2 1 − 2𝑛 + 1 + 2𝑛 𝟒
= + = =
𝜋 1 + 2𝑛 1 − 2𝑛 𝜋 1 − 4𝑛2 𝝅 𝟏 − 𝟒𝒏𝟐
Trigonometric Fourier series

∞ ∞
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡

𝑛=1 𝑛=1
∞
2 4
∴𝑥 𝑡 = + cos 𝑛2𝜋𝑡
𝜋 𝜋 1 − 4𝑛2
𝑛=1
2.3 Exponential Fourier series
The exponential form of Fourier series of a periodic signal 𝑥(𝑡) with period 𝑇 is defined as,
∞
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 Ω0 𝑡
𝑛=−∞
The Fourier coefficient 𝑐𝑛 can be evaluated using the following formulae
3
𝑇
2
1
𝑐𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛 Ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
−𝑇2
Example 3 Find exponential series for the signal shown in figure

x(t)
0 1 2 3
Fig 2.26
t
Solution:
2π 2π
𝑇 = 1, Ω0 = T
= 1
= 2π
Consider the equation of a straight line
𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑥 − 𝑥1
= ……… 9
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Consider one period of the given signal Fig 2.26 as shown in Fig 2.27 x(t)
Consider points P,Q as shown in fig 2.27 1 Q[1,1]

Coordinates of point 𝑃 = 0,0
Coordinates of point 𝑄 = 1,1
0 1 t
On substituting the coordinates of points 𝑃 and 𝑄 in eq 9 P[0,0]
𝑥 𝑡 −0 𝑡−0 Fig 2.27
= ⇒ 𝑥 𝑡 =𝑡
1−0 1−0
∵ 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑡)
Evaluation of 𝒄𝟎
𝑇 1 1
1 1 𝑡2 1
𝑐0 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = =
𝑇 0 1 0 2 0
2
Evaluation of 𝒄𝒏
𝑇 1 1 1
1 −𝑗𝑛 Ω 0 𝑡
1 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡
𝑒 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡
𝑐𝑛 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 − 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 1 0 −𝑗𝑛2𝜋 0 0 −𝑗𝑛2𝜋
−𝑗𝑛 2𝜋 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 1 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 1
= +0+ 2 2
=𝑗 + 2 2− 2 2
−𝑗𝑛2𝜋 −𝑗 (𝑛2𝜋) 0 𝑛2𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋
𝑗 1 1 𝑗
= + 2 2− 2 2=
𝑛2𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋 𝑛2𝜋
𝑗
𝑐𝑛 =
𝑛2𝜋
𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗
𝑐1 = , 𝑐2 = , 𝑐3 = , 𝑐−1 = , 𝑐−2 = , 𝑐−3 =
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 −2𝜋 −4𝜋 −6𝜋
Exponential Fourier series
∞
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 𝛺 0 𝑡
𝑛=−∞
4
𝑗 −𝑗6𝜋𝑡 𝑗 −𝑗4𝜋𝑡 𝑗 −𝑗2𝜋𝑡 1 𝑗 𝑗2𝜋𝑡 𝑗 𝑗4𝜋𝑡 𝑗 𝑗6𝜋𝑡
∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = +⋯− 𝑒 − 𝑒 − 𝑒 + + 𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑒 +⋯
6𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋 2 2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
1 𝑗 𝑗2𝜋𝑡 𝑗 𝑗4𝜋𝑡 𝑗 𝑗6𝜋𝑡
= + 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑡 + 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑗4𝜋𝑡 + 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑗6𝜋𝑡 + ⋯
2 2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
1 1 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑡 1 𝑒 𝑗4𝜋𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗4𝜋𝑡 1 𝑒 𝑗6𝜋𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗6𝜋𝑡
= + + +
2 𝜋 −1 2𝑗 2𝜋 −1 2𝑗 3𝜋 −1 2𝑗
1 −1 1 1
= + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜋𝑡 − sin 6𝜋𝑡
2 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋
1 1 1 1
= − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜋𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 6𝜋𝑡 + ⋯
2 𝜋 2 3
2.4 Cosine Fourier series
Cosine representation of 𝑥 𝑡 is
∞
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴0 + 𝐴𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛 )

𝑛=1
Where 𝐴0 is dc component, 𝐴𝑛 is harmonic amplitude or spectral amplitude and 𝜃𝑛 is phase
coefficient or phase angle 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
Example 4 Determine the cosine Fourier series of the signal shown in Figure
x(t)
-2π -π 0 π 2π 3π t
Solution:
2𝜋
The signal shown in is periodic with period 𝑇 = 2𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω0 = 2𝜋 = 1
The given signal is sinusoidal signal, ∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin Ω𝑡
2π 2π
Here Ω = = = 1, A = 1
T 2π
∴ 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕
1 𝑇 1 𝜋
1 𝜋
1 1 1
𝑎0 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 0 = [− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0] = [2] =
𝑇 0 2𝜋 0 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
5
𝑇
2 2 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 2𝜋 0 2𝜋 0
𝜋
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 + 𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 − 𝑛 𝑡
= − −
2𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛 0
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 + 𝑛 𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 − 𝑛 𝜋 1 1
= − − + +
2𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛 1+𝑛 1−𝑛
1 1 1 1 1
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ∶ 𝑎𝑛 = − − + + =0
2𝜋 1 + 𝑛 1 − 𝑛 1 + 𝑛 1 − 𝑛
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ∶ 𝑎𝑛 = + + + = +
2𝜋 1 + 𝑛 1 − 𝑛 1 + 𝑛 1 − 𝑛 2𝜋 1 + 𝑛 1 − 𝑛
1 1−𝑛+1+𝑛 2
= =
𝜋 1 − 𝑛2 𝜋(1 − 𝑛2 )
𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 = 𝒐𝒅𝒅
∴ 𝒂𝒏 = 𝟐
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 = 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏
𝝅(𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐 )
Evaluation of 𝒃𝒏
2 𝑇 2 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝒃𝒏 = 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 − 𝑛 𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 + 𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 2𝜋 0 2𝜋 0
𝜋
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝑛 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝑛 𝑡 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝑛 𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝑛 𝜋
= − = − −0 =𝟎
2𝜋 (1 − 𝑛) (1 + 𝑛) 0 2𝜋 (1 − 𝑛) (1 + 𝑛)
Evaluation of Fourier coefficients of Cosine Fourier series from Trigonometric Fourier series:
1
𝐴0 = 𝑎0 =
𝜋
2
𝐴𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 2 + 𝑏𝑛 2 = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝜋(1 − 𝑛2 )
𝑏𝑛
𝜃𝑛 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 =0
𝑎𝑛
Cosine Fourier series

∞
x t = A0 + An cos nΩ0 t + θn
n=1
∞
1 2 1 2 2
∴ 𝑥(𝑡) = + 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑡 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡 + ⋯
𝜋 𝜋(1 − 𝑛 ) 𝜋 𝜋(1 − 4) 𝜋(1 − 16)
𝑛 =1
(𝑛=𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 )
1 2 2 1 2 1 1
= − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡 + ⋯ = − [ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡 + ⋯ ]
𝜋 3𝜋 15𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3 15
2.5 Fourier transform

The Fourier representation of periodic signals has been extended to non-periodic signals by
letting the fundamental period T tend to infinity and this Fourier method of representing non-
periodic signals as a function of frequency is called Fourier transform.
Definition of Continuous time Fourier Transform
6
The Fourier transform (FT) of Continuous time signals is called Continuous Time Fourier
Transform
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑋 𝑗Ω = 𝐹 𝑥(𝑡)
The Fourier transform of continuous time signal, x(t) is defined as,
∞
𝑋 𝑗Ω = 𝐹 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
Conditions for existence of Fourier transform
The Fourier transform 𝑥(𝑡) exist if it satisfies the following Dirichlet condition
1. 𝑥(𝑡) should be absolutely integrable
∞
𝑖𝑒 , 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 < ∞
−∞
2. 𝑥(𝑡) should have a finite number of maxima and minima with in any finite interval.
3. 𝑥 𝑡 should have a finite number of discontinuities with in any interval.
Definition of Inverse Fourier Transform

The inverse Fourier Transform of 𝑋 𝑗Ω is defined as,
∞
1
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐹 −1 𝑋 𝑗Ω = 𝑋 𝑗Ω 𝑒 𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑Ω
2𝜋
−∞
Example 5 Find Fourier transform of impulse signal

Solution:
By definition of Fourier transform
∞
𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋 𝑗Ω = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
∴ 𝐹[𝛿(𝑡)] = 𝛿(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 0
𝐹𝛿 𝑡 = 𝛿 0 𝑒 −𝑗 𝛺 0
=1 ∵ 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝛿 𝑡 =
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≠ 0
Example 6 Find Fourier transform of double sided exponential signal

Solution:
Double sided exponential signal is given by
−𝑎𝑡
𝐹[𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡| ] = 𝑒𝑎𝑡 ∶𝑡≥0
𝑒 ∶𝑡≤0
0 ∞ 0 ∞
𝐹[𝑒 −𝑎 |𝑡| ] = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 (𝑎−𝑗 𝛺)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒 −(𝑎 +𝑗 𝛺)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ 0 −∞ 0
(𝑎−𝑗 𝛺)𝑡 0 −(𝑎+𝑗 𝛺)𝑡 ∞
𝑒 𝑒 1 1 𝑎+𝑗𝛺+𝑎−𝑗𝛺
= + = + =
𝑎−𝑗𝛺 −∞
−(𝑎 + 𝑗 𝛺) 0
𝑎−𝑗𝛺 𝑎+𝑗𝛺 𝑎 2 + 𝛺2
2𝑎
= 2
𝑎 + 𝛺2
7
Example 7 Find Fourier transform of rectangular pulse function shown in figure

x(t)
-T/2 0 T/2 t
Solution:
−𝑇 𝑇
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝜋(𝑡) = 𝐴 ; ≤𝑡≤
2 2
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇
2 𝑒 −𝑗𝛺𝑡 2 𝐴 𝑇 𝑇 2𝐴 𝑒 𝑗𝛺 2 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝛺 2 2𝐴 𝑇
𝐹[𝜋(𝑡)] = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑗𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴 = [𝑒 −𝑗𝛺 2 − 𝑒 𝑗𝛺 2 ] = [ ]= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺
−𝑇 −𝑗𝛺 −
𝑇 −𝑗𝛺 𝑗𝛺 2 𝛺 2
2 2
𝑇
2𝐴 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺 2 𝑇
= 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺 = 𝐴𝑇 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐 𝛺
𝛺𝑇 2 𝛺 2
2
Example 8 Find inverse Fourier transform 𝑋(𝑗 𝛺) = 𝛿(𝛺)

Solution:
∴ 𝐹 −1 [𝑋(𝑗 𝛺)] = 𝐹 −1 [𝛿(𝛺)]
1 ∞ 1 ∞ 1 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝛺 = 0
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋 𝑗 𝛺 𝑒 𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝛺 = 𝛿 𝛺 𝑒 𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝛺 = 1 ∵ 𝛿 𝛺 =
2𝜋 −∞ 2𝜋 −∞ 2𝜋 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝛺 ≠ 0
1
𝐹 −1 [𝛿(𝛺)] =
2𝜋
2.6 Laplace transform

It is used to transform a time domain to complex frequency domain signal(s-domain)
Two Sided Laplace transform (or) Bilateral Laplace transform

Let 𝑥(𝑡) be a continuous time signal defined for all values of 𝑡. Let 𝑋(𝑆) be Laplace transform of
𝑥(𝑡).
∞
𝐿 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑋 𝑆 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

−∞
One sided Laplace transform (or) Unilateral Laplace transform

Let 𝑥(𝑡) be a continuous time signal defined for 𝑡 ≥ 0 (ie If 𝑥(𝑡) is causal) then,
∞
𝐿 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑋 𝑆 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

0
Inverse Laplace transform

The S-domain signal 𝑋(𝑆) can be transformed to time domain signal x(t) by using inverse Laplace
transform.
8
The inverse Laplace transform of X(S) is defined as,
𝑠=𝜎 +𝑗Ω
−1
1
𝐿 𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋 𝑆 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋𝑗
𝑠=𝜎 −𝑗Ω
Existence of Laplace transform

The necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of Laplace transform are
 𝑥(𝑡) should be continuous in the given closed interval
 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 must be absolutely intergrable
∞
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑋 𝑆 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 −∞ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 𝑑𝑡 < ∞
Example 9 Find unilateral Laplace transform for the following signals
𝒊) 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝜹(𝒕)
∞ ∞
1 for t = 0
X S = x t e−st dt = δ t e−st dt = e−s 0
=1 ∵δ t =
0 0 0 for t ≠ 0
𝒊𝒊) 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕)

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 1 1 for t ≥ 0
𝑋 𝑆 = x t e−st dt = u t e−st dt = −𝑠𝑡
1𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = = ∵u t =
0 0 0 −𝑠 0 𝑠 0 for t < 0
Example 10 Find Laplace transform of 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡

Solution:
∞ ∞ ∞
𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 −𝑠𝑡 − 𝑠−𝑎 𝑡
𝑒 − 𝑠−𝑎 𝑡 1
𝑋 𝑆 =𝐿𝑒 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = =
− 𝑠−𝑎 0
𝑠−𝑎
0 0
1
Example 11 Determine initial value and final value of the following signal 𝑋(𝑆) = 𝑠 𝑠+2
Solution:
Initial value
1 1
𝑥 0 = Lt 𝑆𝑋 𝑆 = Lt 𝑠 = =0
𝑠→∞ 𝑠→∞ 𝑠 𝑠+2 ∞
Final value
1 1
𝑥 ∞ = Lt 𝑆𝑋 𝑆 = Lt 𝑠 =
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠 𝑠+2 2
𝑆 2 +9𝑆+1
Example 12 Find inverse Laplace Transform of 𝑋 𝑆 = 𝑆[𝑆 2 +6𝑆+8]. Find ROC for 𝑖) 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 > 0
𝑖𝑖) 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 < −4 𝑖𝑖𝑖) − 2 > 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 > −4
Solution:
9
𝑆 2 + 9𝑆 + 1 𝑆 2 + 9𝑆 + 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
X 𝑆 = 2
= = + +
𝑆[𝑆 + 6𝑆 + 8] 𝑆 𝑆 + 4 (𝑆 + 2) 𝑆 𝑆+4 (𝑆 + 2)
𝑆 2 + 9𝑆 + 1 = 𝐴 𝑆 + 4 𝑆 + 2 + B𝑆 𝑆 + 2 + C𝑆 𝑆 + 4
at 𝑆 = 0 𝑆 = −4 𝑆 = −2
1 19 13
𝐴= 𝐵=− 𝐶=
8 8 4
1 19 13
−8
∴𝑋 𝑆 = 8 + + 4
𝑆 𝑆+4 (𝑆 + 2)
Applying inverse Laplace transform
1 19 13
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
8 8 4
ROC
𝒊) 𝑹𝒆 𝒔 > 𝟎
jΩ
ROC lies right side of all poles
1 19 13
∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
8 8 4
-4 -2 0 σ
𝒊𝒊) 𝑹𝒆 𝒔 < −𝟒
jΩ
ROC lies left side of all poles
1 19 13
∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = − 𝑢 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)
-4 -2 0 σ 8 8 4
𝒊𝒊𝒊) − 𝟐 > 𝑅𝑒 𝒔 > −𝟒

ROC lies left side of poles s=-2, s=0 and right side of
jΩ pole s=-4
1 19 13
∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = − 𝑢 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)
8 8 4
-4 -2 0 σ
10
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Note:x(1)}=X(s); x,0X(8) L,(0 X(8)
Property Timedomain signal S-domain signal
Amplitude sealing A x(t) A X(S)
Linearity 1x(t) a, x.(0) a, X,(9)a, X,()

Time differentiation x(t) s X() x(0)
dt
d"
Kd xt)
d X(t)
s X(s)
d
where n1,2,3
inme ntegrati0n X(s) x0 d

x() dt
..x() (dt)" X(s)
where n 1,2,3.. s Jora (0
Frequency shifting e x(t) X(s+a)

Time shifting x(tt a) c Xs)
dX(s)
Frequency differentiation 1 x(1)
ds
t x() (-1" d X(s)

ds"
where n 1,2, 3..
Frequency ntegration x(t) X(s) ds
Time scaling x(at)
Periodicity x(t + nT) x(1) e d
Initial value theorem Lt x()x(0) Lt SX
Final value theorem LI X(t) x()
x(t)x, (1)
onyolution theorein
0)st-2)dh
Table-A4.3: Properties of Continuous Time Fourier Transform
Note:x(O}=Xj)Fx (0=X,G2)Fx0}-X0)
funetion
Property Time domain function Frequeney domain
Linearity 2, X,(1) a , x,(t) 2, X,G2)-a, X.(Q
Time shiling x(t-) i Xi2)
Time scaling x(at) x)

Tme reversal X-1) Xj2)
Conjugation x(1) X-iQ)
Frequency shifting eox(t) XG(2-2))
Time diffe entiation x(t)
Time integration
x(T) dr XG2) TX(0) 02)
j2
Frequency differentiation t x(t) JXj2)
Time convolution x,(t)#x (t)-X,(T) x,(t-T)dr XG2) X.(j2)
Frequency convolution x (t) x.(t) X()X.(i-2) di

(or Multiplication)
XGQ)X G2)
Symmetry of real signals x(1) 1s real
XGO-X(-i0
X(GQ)-Xj0)
Re XGO)) ReX-10
Real and Even x(1) 1s real and even
XG2)are real and even
Real and Odd x(t) 18 Teal and od XGQhare imaginary and odd
Duality If x.(t) X(2) 1.e.,x(nand X,(G)are sinilar fiunctons
then X(2)20x, j2) ie.X02)and 2rx12ure sinilar functions
Area under frequency
doman Signal KG d s0
Arca mder me
domangnal wdt
Finding the Fourier Transform of a given signal and plotting its magnitude and phase
Spectrum
AIM: To find the Fourier Transform of a given signal and plotting its magnitude and phase
spectrum.
Software Required:
Matlab software
Theory:
Fourier Transform:
The Fourier transform as follows. Suppose that ƒ is a function which is zero outside of some
interval [−L/2, L/2]. Then for any T ≥ L we may expand ƒ in a Fourier series on the interval
[−T/2,T/2], where the "amount" of the wave e2πinx/T in the Fourier series of ƒ is given by
By definition Fourier Transform of signal f(t) is defined as
Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
fs=1000;
N=1024; % length of fft sequence
t=[0:N-1]*(1/fs);
% input signal
x=0.8*cos(2*pi*100*t);
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(t,x);
axis([0 0.05 -1 1]);
grid;
xlabel('t');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('input signal');
% Fourier transformof given signal
x1=fft(x);
% magnitude spectrum
k=0:N-1;
Xmag=abs(x1);
subplot(3,1,2);
plot(k,Xmag);
grid;
xlabel('t');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('magnitude of fft signal')
%phase spectrum
Xphase=angle(x1);
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(k,Xphase);
grid;
xlabel('t');
ylabel('angle');
title('phase of fft signal');
Result: Magnitude and phase spectrum of FFT of a given signal is plotted.

Output:
UNIT- II – Post – Test – MCQ
1. What are the conditions called which are required for a signal to fulfil to be represented
as Fourier series?
a) Dirichlet’s conditions
b) Gibbs phenomenon
c) Fourier conditions
d) Fourier phenomenon
2. How is a trigonometric Fourier series represented?
a) A0 +∑ [an cos(ω0t)+ bn sin(ω0t)]
b) ∑ [an cos(ω0t)+ an sin(ω0t)]
c) A0 *∑ [an cos(ω0t )+ an sin(ω0t )]
d) A0 +∑ [an cos(ω0t)+ an sin(ω0t)] + sin ω0t
3. Which of the following is a Dirichlet condition with respect to the signal x(t)? a) x(t) has a
finite number of discontinuities in any period
b) x(t) has finite number of maxima and minima during any period
c) x(t) is absolutely integrable in any period
d) all of the mentioned
4. The Fourier transform of a function x(t) is X(f). The Fourier transform of 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)/ 𝑑𝑡 will be
(a) (𝑓) 𝑑𝑡
(b)𝑗2𝜋𝑓 (𝑓)
(c)𝑗𝑓 𝑋(𝑓)
(d)𝑋(𝑓) 𝑗𝑓
5. What should be the value of laplace transform for the time domain signal equation
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 cos ωt.u(t)?
1
a) 𝑠+𝑎 with ROC σ > – a
𝜔
b) with ROC σ > – a
(𝑠+𝑎)2+ 𝜔2
𝑠+𝑎
c) with ROC σ > – a
(𝑠+𝑎)2+ 𝜔2
𝜔
d) with ROC σ > 0
𝑠 2 + 𝜔2
SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
Prerequisite:
Knowledge about properties of Fourier and Laplace transform
Objectives:
To understand the linear time invariant systems and its properties
Unit-III Linear Time Invariant – Continuous Time Systems

Differential Equation - Block diagram Representation, Impulse response,
Convolution Integral- Frequency response, Fourier and Laplace Transforms in
analysis, State variable equations and Matrix representation of systems.
Outcome:

 understand linear time-invariant systems theory and applications
UNIT- III – Pre – Test – MCQ
1. What should be location of poles corresponding to ROC for bilateral Inverse Laplace
Transform especially for determining the nature of time domain signal?
a. On L.H.S of ROC
b. On R.H.S of ROC
c. On both sides of ROC
d. None of the above
2. Define transfer function in CT system using Fourier transform.

𝑌(𝑠)
a. 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑋(𝑠)
𝑌(𝑓)
b. 𝐻(𝑓) = 𝑋(𝑓)
𝑤(𝑠)
c. 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑋(𝑠)
𝑌(jω)
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 𝑤(jω)
3. Let h(t) be the impulse response of a linear time invariant system. Then the response of
the system for any input u(t) is
𝑡
(a) ∫0 h(τ) u(t − τ)dτ
𝑑 𝑑 𝑡
(b) 𝑑𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡 ∫0 h(τ) u(t − τ)dτ
𝑡 𝑡
(c)∫0 | ∫0 h(τ) u(t − τ)dτ |dt
𝑡
(d)∫0 ℎ2 (τ) u(t − τ)dτ
4. Let x(𝑡) ↔X (𝑗𝜔) be Fourier Transform pair. The Fourier Transform of the signal 𝑥(5𝑡 − 3)
in terms of 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) is given as
−𝑗3𝜔
1 𝑗𝜔
(a) 5 𝑒 5 𝑋( 5 )
𝑗3𝜔
1 𝑗𝜔
(b) 𝑒 5 𝑋( 5 )
5
1 𝑗𝜔
(c) ) 5 𝑒 −𝑗3𝜔 𝑋( 5 )
1 𝑗𝜔
(d) ) 𝑒 𝑗3𝜔 𝑋( )
5 5
5. When is the system said to be causal as well as stable in accordance to pole/zero of ROC
specfied by system transfer function?
a. Only if all the poles of system transfer function lie in left-half of S-plane
b. Only if all the poles of system transfer function lie in right-half of S-plane c. Only if all
the poles of system transfer function lie at the centre of S-plane d. None of the above
Faculty: Mrs.M.Shakunthala & Dr.M.N.Vimal Kumar
Unit 3: Linear Time Invariant-Continuous Time

Systems
3.1 LTI-CT (Linear Time Invariant-Continuous Time) Systems
When continuous time system satisfies the properties of linearity and time invariant
then it is called an LTI-CT (Linear Time Invariant-Continuous Time) System.
3.2 Impulse Response

When the input to a continuous time system is an unit impulse signal δ(t) then the
output is called an impulse response of the system and it is denoted by h(t)
Impulse response, h(t) = H{𝛿(t)}
Continuous time system

Impulse input
𝛿(𝑡) h(t)
H
Fig 3.1
3.3 Convolution Integral
∞
𝑦(𝑡 = 𝑥(𝜏 𝑕(𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
This is called convolution integral or simply convolution. The convolution of two signal x(t) and
h(t) can be represented as
𝑦(𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 ∗ 𝑕(𝑡)
3.4 Systems connected in series/parallel(Block diagram representation)

3.4.1 System Realization
There are four types of system realization in continuous time linear time invariant
systems.
They are
Direct form I realization
Direct form II realization
Cascade form realization
Parallel form realization
3.4.2 Direct form I realization

It is the direct implementation of differential equation or transfer function describing the
system. It uses separate integrators for input and output variables. It provides direct relation
between time domain and s-domain equations. In general, this form requires 2N delay elements
(for both input and output signals) for a filter of order N. This form is practical for small filters.
Advantages:
Simplicity
Most straight forward realization
202
Linear Time Invariant-Continuous Time systems
Disadvantages:
More number of integrators are used
Inefficient and impractical (numerically unstable) for complex design
3.4.3 Direct form II realization
It is the direct implementation of differential equation or transfer function describing the

system. Instead of using separate integrators for integrating input and output variables
separately, an intermediate variable is integrated. It provides direct relation between time
domain and s-domain equations.
Advantages:
It uses minimum number of integrators
Straight forward realization
Disadvantages:
It increases the possibility of arithmetic overflow for filters of high Q or resonance
3.4.4 Cascade form
In cascade form realization the given transfer function is expressed as a product of several
transfer function and each of these transfer function is realized in direct form II and then all those
realized structures are cascaded i.e., is connected in series.
3.4.5 Parallel form realization
The given transfer function is expressed into its partial fractions and each factor is
realized in direct form II and all those realized structures are connected in parallel.
3.5 Solved Problems

Example 3.1: Find the convolution by graphical method
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 3
𝑥(𝑡 = ; 𝑕(𝑡 =
0 𝑜𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 0 𝑜𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Solution:
∞
𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑥1 (𝑡 ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡 = 𝑥1 (𝜏 𝑥2 (𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
∞
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑕(𝑡 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡 = 𝑕(𝜏 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏

−∞
Replacing 𝑡 by 𝜏 in 𝑥(𝑡 and 𝑕(𝑡)
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝜏 ≤ 2 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝜏 ≤ 3
𝑥(𝜏 = ; 𝑕(𝜏 =
0 𝑜𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 0 𝑜𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
h(τ) x(τ) x(-τ)
1 1 1
0 3 τ 0 2 τ -2 0 τ
Fig 3.21 Fig 3.22 Fig 3.23
Case (i) 𝒕 < 0
h(τ)x(t-τ) Since overlap is absent between 𝑕(𝜏) and 𝑥(−𝜏 + 𝑡)

∴ 𝑦(𝑡 = 𝑕(𝑡 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡 = 0
1
t-2 t 0 3 τ
Fig 3.24
Case (ii) 𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 < 2
h(τ)x(t-τ) Since overlap is present

∞ 𝑡
(1 (1) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝜏 𝑡
1 ∴ 𝑦(𝑡 = 𝑕(𝑡 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡 = 𝑕(𝜏 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 0 =𝑡
t-2 0 t 3 τ −∞ 0
Fig 3.25
Case (iii) 𝟐 ≤ 𝒕 < 3

∞ 𝑡
(1 (1) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝜏 𝑡
1 ∴ 𝑦(𝑡 = 𝑕(𝑡 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡 = 𝑕(𝜏 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑡−2 =2
0 t-2 t 3 τ −∞ 𝑡−2
Fig 3.26
Case (iv) 𝟑 ≤ 𝒕 < 5

∞ 3
1 (1 (1) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝜏 3
∴ 𝑦(𝑡 = 𝑕(𝑡 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡 = 𝑕(𝜏 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑡−2
0 t-2 3 t τ −∞ 𝑡−2
= 5−𝑡
Fig 3.27
Case (v) 𝒕 > 5
h(τ)x(t-τ) Since overlap is absent

∴ 𝑦(𝑡 = 𝑕(𝑡 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡 = 0
1
0 3 t-2 t τ
Fig 3.28
204
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡<0
𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 2
∴ 𝑦(𝑡 = 𝑕(𝑡 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡 = 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 ≤ 𝑡 < 3
5−𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3 ≤ 𝑡 < 5
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡≥5
Example 3.2: Find impulse response of the following equation

𝑑2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
2
+5 + 6𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Solution:
2
+5 + 6𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Assume all the initial conditions are zero

Applying Laplace transform of the given equation
𝑆 2 𝑌(𝑆 + 5𝑆𝑌(𝑆 + 6𝑌(𝑆 = 𝑋(𝑆)
𝑌(𝑆 (𝑆 2 + 5𝑆 + 6) = 𝑋(𝑆)
𝑌(𝑆 1
Transfer function 𝐻(𝑆 = 𝑋(𝑆) = (𝑆 2 +5𝑆+6)
1
𝐻(𝑆 = 𝑌(𝑆 = (∵ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝛿(𝑡) => 𝑋(𝑆) = 1)
𝑆2 + 5𝑆 + 6
1 𝐴 𝐵
𝐻(𝑆 = = +
(𝑆 + 3 (𝑆 + 2) 𝑆 + 3 𝑆 + 2
1 = 𝐴(𝑆 + 2 + 𝐵(𝑆 + 3)
at 𝑆 = −3 𝑆 = −2
𝐴 = −1 𝐵=1
1 1
∴ 𝐻(𝑆 = − +
𝑆+3 𝑆+2
Applying Inverse Laplace transform
𝒉(𝒕 = −𝒆−𝟑𝒕𝒖(𝒕 + 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)
Example 3.3: Using Laplace transform solve differential equation

𝑑2 𝑦(𝑡)
+ 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2
Where y ′ (0) = 2; 𝑦(0 = 1; 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥(𝑡 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑡
Solution:
𝑑2 𝑦(𝑡)
+ 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2
Applying Laplace transform
𝑆 2 𝑌(𝑆 − 𝑆𝑦(0 − 𝑦 ′ (0 + 𝑌(𝑆 = 𝑋(𝑆)
𝑆
𝑆 2 𝑌(𝑆 − 𝑆 − 2 + 𝑌(𝑆 = 2
𝑆 +4
𝑆
∴ 𝑌(𝑆 (𝑆 2 + 1 = 2 +𝑆+2
𝑆 +4
𝑆 𝑆 2
𝑌(𝑆 = + 2 + 2
(𝑆 2 2
+ 4)(𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 1
𝑆 𝐴𝑆 + 𝐵 𝐶𝑆 + 𝐷
𝐿𝑒𝑡 2 = 2 +
(𝑆 + 4)(𝑆 2 + 1 (𝑆 + 4) (𝑆 2 + 1
𝑆 = (𝐴𝑆 + 𝐵 (𝑆 2 + 1 + (𝐶𝑆 + 𝐷)(𝑆 2 + 4
𝑆 = 𝐴𝑆 3 + 𝐵𝑆 2 + 𝐴𝑆 + 𝐵 + 𝐶𝑆 3 + 𝐷𝑆 2 + 4𝐶𝑆 + 4𝐷
Comparing constant term
0 = 𝐵 + 4𝐷
𝐵 = −4𝐷 … (7)
Comparing coeff of 𝑆 3
0=𝐴+𝐶
𝐴 = −𝐶 … (8)
2
Comparing coeff of 𝑆
0=𝐵+𝐷 … (9)
Comparing coeff of S
1 = 𝐴 + 4𝐶 … (10)
Substitute 𝑒𝑞 8 in 𝑒𝑞 10 and 𝑒𝑞 7 in 𝑒𝑞 9
𝟏
𝑪 = ,𝑫 = 𝟎
𝟑
Substitute value of C and D in 𝑒𝑞 8 and 𝑒𝑞 7
𝟏
𝑨 = − ,𝑩 = 𝟎
𝟑
1 1
𝑆 − 𝑆 𝑆
∴ 2 = 3 + 3
(𝑆 + 4)(𝑆 2 + 1 (𝑆 2 + 4) (𝑆 2 + 1
1 1
−3𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 2
𝑌(𝑆 = 2 + 23 + 2 + 2
(𝑆 + 4) (𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 1
1 4
−3𝑆 𝑆 2
𝑌(𝑆 = 2 + 23 + 2
(𝑆 + 4) (𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 1
Taking Inverse Laplace transform
𝟏 𝟒
𝒚(𝒕 = − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒕 𝒖(𝒕 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒖(𝒕 + 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)
𝟑 𝟑
Example 3.4: Find step response of the circuit shown in Fig 3.30
R
x(t) L y(t)
i(t)
Fig 3.30
Solution:
Applying KVL to the circuit shown in Fig 3.30
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑥(𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡 + 𝐿 𝑦(𝑡 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Applying Laplace transform
𝑋(𝑆 = 𝑅𝐼(𝑆 + 𝐿𝑆𝐼(𝑆) 𝑌(𝑆 = 𝐿𝑆𝐼(𝑆)
𝑋(𝑆 = [𝑅 + 𝐿𝑆]𝐼(𝑆)
206
𝑋(𝑆
𝐼(𝑆 =
[𝑅 + 𝐿𝑆]
𝑋(𝑆
𝑌(𝑆 = 𝐿𝑆
[𝑅 + 𝐿𝑆]
1
For Step response 𝑥(𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡 => 𝑋(𝑆 =
𝑆
1
𝐿 1
𝑌(𝑆 = 𝐿𝑆 𝑆 = =
𝑅 + 𝐿𝑆 𝐿𝑆 + 𝑅 𝑆 + 𝑅
𝐿
Applying Inverse Laplace transform
𝑹
𝒚(𝒕 = 𝒆−𝑳 𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)
Example 3.5: Solve the differential equation using Fourier transform

2
+6 + 8𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
(i) Find the impulse response of the system
(ii) What is the response of the system if 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
Solution:
2
+6 + 8𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Applying Fourier transform
(𝑗𝛺 2 Y(𝑗Ω + 6𝑗Ω𝑌(𝑗Ω + 8𝑌(𝑗Ω = 2X(𝑗Ω)
Y(𝑗Ω [(𝑗𝛺 2 + 6𝑗Ω + 8] = 2X(𝑗Ω)
Y(𝑗Ω 2
H(𝑗Ω = = 2
X(𝑗Ω) [(𝑗𝛺 + 6𝑗Ω + 8]
(i) Impulse response 𝑥(𝑡 = 𝛿(𝑡 => 𝑋(𝑗Ω = 1

2 𝐴 𝐵
∴ H(𝑗Ω = Y(𝑗Ω = 2
= +
[(𝑗𝛺 + 6𝑗Ω + 8] 𝑗Ω + 4 𝑗Ω + 2
2 = 𝐴(𝑗Ω + 2 + 𝐵(𝑗Ω + 4
at 𝑗Ω = −4 𝑗𝛺 = −2
𝐴 = −1 𝐵=1
−1 1
H(𝑗Ω = +
𝑗Ω + 4 𝑗Ω + 2
Applying Inverse Fourier Transform
𝒉(𝒕 = −𝒆−𝟒𝒕𝒖(𝒕 + 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒖(𝒕
(ii) 𝑥(𝑡 = 𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡

1
𝑋(𝑗Ω =
(𝑗Ω + 2 2
Y(𝑗Ω 2
= 2
X(𝑗Ω) [(𝑗𝛺 + 6𝑗Ω + 8]
2 1 2
∴ Y(𝑗Ω = 2
. 2
= 3
[(𝑗𝛺 + 6𝑗Ω + 8] (𝑗Ω + 2 (𝑗Ω + 4 (𝑗Ω + 2
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
= + + 2
+
𝑗Ω + 4 𝑗Ω + 2 (𝑗Ω +2 (𝑗Ω +2 3
at 𝑗Ω = −4 𝑗𝛺 = −2
2 2 2 3
(𝑗Ω + 2
𝐴=
(𝑗Ω + 4 (𝑗Ω + 2 3
(𝑗Ω + 4 1𝑑 (𝑗Ω + 4 (𝑗Ω + 2 3
𝑗 Ω=−4 𝐵=
1 2! 𝑑(𝑗Ω 2
𝐴=− 𝑗𝛺 =−2
4
1
𝐵=
4
𝑗𝛺 = −2 𝑗𝛺 = −2
2 3 2
3 (𝑗Ω
𝑑 +2 (𝑗Ω + 2 3
(𝑗Ω + 4 (𝑗Ω + 2 𝐷= 3
𝐶= (𝑗Ω + 4 (𝑗Ω + 2 𝑗𝛺 =−2
𝑑(𝑗Ω
𝐷=1
𝑗𝛺 =−2
1
𝐶=−
2
1 1 1
4 −4−2 1
∴ Y(𝑗Ω = + + 2
+
𝑗Ω + 4 𝑗Ω + 2 (𝑗Ω + 2 (𝑗Ω + 2 3
Applying Inverse Fourier Transform
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒚(𝒕 = − 𝒆−𝟒𝒕 𝒖(𝒕 + 𝒆−𝟐𝒕𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒕𝒖(𝒕 + 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒕𝟐 𝒖(𝒕
𝟒 𝟒 𝟐 𝟐
Example 3.6: Find the direct form II structure of

5𝑆 3 − 4𝑆 2 + 11𝑆 − 2
𝐻(𝑆 =
1 1
𝑆− 𝑆2 − 𝑆 +
4 2
Solution:
5𝑆 3 − 4𝑆 2 + 11𝑆 − 2 5𝑆 3 − 4𝑆 2 + 11𝑆 − 2
𝐻(𝑆 = =
1 1 𝑆2 𝑆 𝑆 1
𝑆 − 4 𝑆2 − 𝑆 + 2 𝑆3 − 4 − 𝑆2 + 4 + 2 − 8
4 11 2
5𝑆 3 − 4𝑆 2 + 11𝑆 − 2 5− + 2 − 3
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
𝐻(𝑆 = 2 =
5𝑆 3𝑆 1 5 3 1
𝑆3 − 4 + 4 − 8 1 − 4𝑆 + 2 − 3
4𝑆 8𝑆
Direct form II structure

X(S) W(S) 5 Y(S)
1/S
5/4 -4
1/S
-3/4 11
1/8 -2
Fig 3.39
Example 3.7: Realize the system with following differential equation in direct form I
𝑑 3 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑡)
+3 +5 + 7𝑦(𝑡) = 2 + 0.4 + 0.5𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
208
Solution:
𝑑 3 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 3
+3 𝑑𝑡 2
+5 𝑑𝑡
+ 7𝑦(𝑡 = 2 𝑑𝑡 2
+ 0.4 𝑑𝑡
+ 0.5𝑥(𝑡)
Taking Laplace transform
𝑆 3 𝑌(𝑆 + 3𝑆 2 𝑌(𝑆 + 5𝑆𝑌(𝑆 + 7𝑌(𝑆 = 2𝑆 2 𝑋(𝑆 + 0.4𝑆𝑋(𝑆 + 0.5𝑋(𝑆
Dividing both the side by 𝑆 3
3 5 7 2 0.4 0.5
𝑌(𝑆 + 𝑌(𝑆 + 2 𝑌(𝑆 + 3 𝑌(𝑆 = 𝑋(𝑆 + 2 𝑋(𝑆 + 3 𝑋(𝑆
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
2 0.4 0.5 3 5 7
𝑌(𝑆 = 𝑋(𝑆 + 2 𝑋(𝑆 + 3 𝑋(𝑆 − 𝑌(𝑆 − 2 𝑌(𝑆 − 3 𝑌(𝑆
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
Direct form I structure
X(S) W(S) Y(S)
1/S 1/S
2 -3
1/S 1/S
-5
0.4
1/S 1/S
0.5 -7
Fig 3.42
Example 3.8: Realize the system with transfer function in cascade form
4(𝑆 2 + 4𝑆 + 3
𝐻(𝑆 = 3
𝑆 + 6.5𝑆 2 + 11𝑆 + 4
Solution:
4(𝑆 2 + 4𝑆 + 3 4(𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 3 4 𝑆+1 𝑆+3
𝐻(𝑆 = 3 2
= = . .
𝑆 + 6.5𝑆 + 11𝑆 + 4 (𝑆 + 0.5 (𝑆 + 2 (𝑆 + 4 𝑆 + 0.5 𝑆 + 2 𝑆 + 4
4 𝑆+1 𝑆+3
𝐻1 (𝑆 𝐻2 (𝑆 𝐻3 (𝑆 = . .
𝑆 + 0.5 𝑆 + 2 𝑆 + 4
4 4
𝑆 𝑆+1 1+1 𝑆 𝑆+3 1+3 𝑆
𝐻1 (𝑆 = = 𝐻2 (𝑆 = = 𝐻3 (𝑆 = =
𝑆 + 0.5 1 + 0.5 𝑆+2 1+2 𝑆+4 1+4
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
𝑌1 (𝑆) 4 𝑌2 (𝑆) 𝑌3 (𝑆)
= =1+1 𝑆 =1+3 𝑆
𝑊1 (𝑆) 𝑆 𝑊2 (𝑆) 𝑊3 (𝑆)
𝑊1 (𝑆) 1 𝑊2 (𝑆) 1 𝑊3 (𝑆) 1
= = =
𝑋1 (𝑆) 1 + 0.5 𝑋2 (𝑆) 1 + 2 𝑋3 (𝑆) 1 + 4
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
X2(S) W2(S) Y2(S) X3(S) W3(S) Y3(S)
X1(S) W1(S)
1/S 1/S 1/S

-0.5 4 Y1(S) 1 -4 3
-2
Fig 3.54 Fig 3.55 Fig 3.56
Cascade form:
X(S)
1/S
Y(S)
-0.5 4
1/S
1/S
1 -4 3
-2
Fig 3.57
Example 3.9: Realize the following system in parallel form

𝑆(𝑆 + 2
𝐻(𝑆 =
(𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 3 (𝑆 + 4
Solution:
𝑆(𝑆 + 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐻(𝑆 = = + +
(𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 3 (𝑆 + 4 𝑆+1 𝑆+3 𝑆+4
𝑆(𝑆 + 2 = 𝐴(𝑆 + 3 (𝑆 + 4 + 𝐵(𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 4 + 𝐶(𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 3)
Let S= −1 Let S= −3 Let S= −4
−1(1 = 𝐴(2 (3) −3(−1 = 𝐵(−2 (1) −4(−2 = 𝐶(−3 (−1)
𝟏 𝟑 𝟖
𝑨=− 𝑩=− 𝑪=
𝟔 𝟐 𝟑
1 3 8
−6 −
∴ 𝐻(𝑆 = + 2 + 3
𝑆+1 𝑆+3 𝑆+4
Parallel form structure
X (S)
1/S
-1 -1/6
1/S
-3/2
-3
1/S
8/3 Y (S)
-4
210
2.57. Determine the output of the systems described by the following differential equations with input
andinitial conditions as specified:
d
(a) dt y(t) + 10y(t) = 2x(t), y(0− ) = 1, x(t) = u(t)
t≥0 natural: characteristic equation

r + 10 = 0
r = −10
y (n) (t) = ce−10t
particular
1
y (p) (t) = ku(t) = u(t)
5
1
y(t) = + ce−10t
5
1
y(0− ) = 1 = +c
5
4
c =
5
1
y(t) = 1 + 4e−10t u(t)
5
d2 d d d

(b) dt2 y(t) + 5 dt y(t) + 4y(t) = dt x(t), y(0− ) = 0, dt y(t) t=0−
= 1, x(t) = sin(t)u(t)

2
r + 5r + 4 = 0
r = −4, − 1
(n)
y (t) = c1 e−4t + c2 e−t
particular
y (p) (t) = A sin(t) + B cos(t)
5 3
= sin(t) + cos(t)
34 34
5 3
y(t) = sin(t) + cos(t) + c1 e−4t + c2 e−t
34 34
3
y(0− ) = 0 = + c1 + c2
34
d 5
y(0) =1 = − 4c1 − c2
dt t=0− 34
13
c1 = −
51
1
c2 =
6
5 3 13 1
y(t) = sin(t) + cos(t) − e−4t + e−t
34 34 51 6
d 2
d d

(c) dt2 y(t) + 6 dt y(t) + 8y(t) = 2x(t), y(0− ) = −1, dt y(t) t=0−
= 1, x(t) = e−t u(t)
61
2
r + 6r + 8 = 0
r = −4, − 2
y (n) (t) = c1 e−2t + c2 e−4t
particular
(p)
y (t) = ke−t u(t)
2 −t
= e u(t)
3
2 −t
y(t) = e u(t) + c1 e−2t + c2 e−4t
3
2
y(0− ) = −1 = + c1 + c2
3
d 2
y(0) =1 = − − 2c1 − 4c2
dt t=0− 3
5
c1 = −
2
5
c2 =
6
2 −t 5 5
y(t) = e u(t) − e−2t + e−4t
3 2 6
d2 d d

(d) dt2 y(t) + y(t) = 3 dt x(t), y(0− ) = −1, dt y(t) t=0−
= 1, x(t) = 2te−t u(t)

2
r +1 = 0
r = ±j
y (n) (t) = A cos(t) + B sin(t)
particular
(p)
y (t) = kte−t u(t)
d2 (p)
y (t) = −2ke−t + kte−t
dt2
−2ke−t + kte−t + kte−t = 3[2e−t − 2te−t ]
k = −3
(p)
y (t) = −3te−t u(t)
y(t) = −3te−t u(t) + A cos(t) + B sin(t)
y(0− ) = −1 = 0 + A + 0

d
y(t) = 1 = −3 + 0 + B
dt − t=0
y(t) = −3te−t u(t) − cos(t) + 4 sin(t)
62
3.88. Use the result of Problem 3.87 to determine the frequency response, impulse response, and dif-
ferential equation descriptions for the continuous-time systems described by the following state variable
descriptions.

−2 0 0
(a) A = , b= , c = 1 1 , D = [0]
0 −1 2
H(jω) = c(jωI − A)−1 b + D

2
=
jω + 1
h(t) = 2e−t u(t)
Y (jω)
=
X(jω)
Y (jω)(jω + 1) = 2X(jω)
d
y(t) + y(t) = 2x(t)
dt

1 2 1
(b) A = , b= , c= 0 1 , D = [0]
−3 −4 2
H(jω) = c(jωI − A)−1 b + D

2jω − 5
=
(jω)2 + 3jω + 2
Y (jω)
=
X(jω)
Y (jω)((jω)2 + 3jω + 2) = X(jω)(2jω − 5)
d2 d d
2
y(t) + 3 y(t) + 2y(t) = 2 x(t) − 5x(t)
dt dt dt
A B
H(jω) = +
2 + jω 1 + jω
2 = A+B
−5 = A + 2B
9 7
= −
2 + jω 1 + jω
h(t) = (9e−2t − 7e−t )u(t)
3.89. Use the result of Problem 3.87 to determine the frequency response, impulse response, and
difference equation descriptions for the discrete-time systems described by the following state variable
descriptions.

− 12 1 0
(a) A = 1
, b= , c = 1 0 , D = [1]
0 4 1
H(ejΩ ) = c(ejΩ I − A)−1 b + D

1
= 1 + jΩ 1 jΩ 1
(e + 2 )(e − 4 )
58
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Waveform Synthesis Using Laplace transforms
AIM:
Finding the Laplace transform & Inverse Laplace transform of some signals.
Software Required:
Matlab software
Theory:
Bilateral Laplace transforms:

The Laplace transform of a signal f(t) can be defined as follows:
Inverse Laplace transform
The inverse Laplace transform is given by the following formula :

Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%representation of symbolic variables
syms f t w s;
%laplace transform of t
f=t;
z=laplace(f);
disp('the laplace transform of f = ');
disp(z);
% laplace transform of a signal
%f1=sin(w*t);
f1=-1.25+3.5*t*exp(-2*t)+1.25*exp(-2*t);
v=laplace(f1);
disp('the laplace transform of f1 = ');
disp(v);
lv=simplify(v);
pretty(lv)
%inverse laplace transform
y1=ilaplace(z);
disp('the inverse laplace transform of z = ');
disp(y1);
y2=ilaplace(v);
disp('the inverse laplace transform of v = ');
disp(y2);
ezplot(y1);
figure;
ezplot(y2)
Output:
UNIT- III – Post – Test – MCQ
1. Which among the following are the interconnected units of state diagram
representation?
a.Scalars
b. Adders
c. Integrators
d. All of the above
2. State space analysis is applicable even if the initial conditions are _____
a. Zero
b. Non-zero
c. Equal
d. Not equal
3. What is the overall impulse response h(t) when two systems with impulse response h1(t)
and h2(t) are in parallel?
a. h(t) = h1(t) /h2(t)
b. h(t) = h1(t) *h2(t)
c. h(t) = h1(t) h2(t)
d. h(t) = h1(t) +h2(t)
4. What is the transfer function of a system whose poles are at -0.3± j 0.4 and a zero at –
0.2?
𝑠+2
a. (𝑆 2 +0.6𝑆+0.25)
𝑠
b. (𝑆 2 +0.6𝑆+0.25)
𝑠+0.2
c. (𝑆 2 +0.6𝑆+0.25)
𝑠+0.2
d. (𝑆 2 +0.3𝑠+0.4)
5. The particular solution for the input 𝑥(𝑡) = cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛷) is

a) K
b) 𝑘𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
c) 𝑘1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘2 sin 𝜔𝑡
d) 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 [k1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + k2 sin 𝜔𝑡 ]
SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
Prerequisite: Basic operations of discrete time signals
Objectives:
To understand the properties and representation of discrete time fourier transform

and Z-transform
Unit-IV Analysis of Discrete Time Systems

Sampling of CT signals and aliasing, DTFT and properties, Z-transform and
properties of Z-transform
Outcome:
Understand mathematical description and analysis of discrete time systems.

UNIT- IV – Pre – Test – MCQ
1. Discrete-time signals are _________________

a) Continuous in amplitude and continuous in time
b) Continuous in amplitude and discrete in time
c) Discrete in amplitude and discrete in time
d) Discrete in amplitude and continuous in time
2. Determine the discrete-time signal: x(n)=1 for n≥0 and x(n)=0 for n<0
a) Unit ramp sequence
b) Unit impulse sequence
c) Exponential sequence
d) Unit step sequence
3. What are the important block(s) required to process an input analog signal to get an
output analog signal?
a) A/D converter.
b) Digital signal processor.
c) D/A converter.
d) All of the above.
4. The Fourier transform exists for a discrete time sequence x (n) if and only if the
sequence is:
a) Absolutely summable
b) Absolutely integrable.
c) Not summable
d) None of the above
5. Which of the following should be done in order to convert a continuous time signal to
a discrete time signal?
a) Differentiating
b) Integrating
c) Sampling
Faculty : Mrs.M.Shakunthala & M.N. Vimal Kumar
Unit 4: Analysis of Discrete Time Signals

4.1 Sampling of CT signals
4.1.1 Sampling theorem (or) uniform sampling theorem (or) Low pass sampling theorem
It is one of useful theorem that applies to digital communication systems.
Sampling theorem states that “A band limited signal 𝒙(𝒕) with 𝑿(𝝎) = 𝟎 for |𝝎| ≥ 𝝎𝒎 can
be represented into and uniquely determined from its samples 𝒙(𝒏𝑻) if the sampling frequency
𝒇𝒔 ≥ 𝟐𝒇𝒎 , where 𝒇𝒎 is the frequency component present in it”.
(i.e) for signal recovery, the sampling frequency must be at least twice the highest
frequency present in the signal.
Proof:
Sampling Operation:
𝝳T(t) is impulse train
𝝳T(t)
xs(t)=x(nT)
x(t)
-5T -4T -3T -2T -T 0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T
0 nT
t
t Fig 4.2
x(t) xs(t)=x(nT)
Fig 4.1 Fig 4.4

𝝳T(t)
Fig 4.3
Analog signal 𝑥(𝑡) is input signal as shown in Fig 4.1, 𝛿𝑇 𝑡 is the train of impulse shown in Fig 4.2
Sampled signal 𝑥𝑠 (𝑡) is the product of signal 𝑥(𝑡) and impulse train 𝛿𝑇 (𝑡) as shown in Fig 4.2
∴ 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝛿𝑇 (𝑡)
∞ ∞
1
𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝛿𝑇 𝑡 = 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇 = 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 𝜔 𝑠 𝑡
𝑇
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
∞
1
∴ 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 𝜔 𝑠 𝑡
𝑇
𝑛=−∞
Applying Fourier transform on both sides
∞
1
𝑋𝑠 𝜔 = 𝐹[𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 𝜔 𝑠 𝑡 ]
𝑇
𝑛=−∞
∞
1
𝑋𝑠 𝜔 = 𝑋(𝜔 − 𝑛𝜔𝑠 )
𝑇
𝑛=−∞
2𝜋
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜔𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑠 =
𝑇
279
Faculty : Mrs.M.Shakunthala & Dr.M.N. Vimal Kumar
∞
1 2𝜋𝑛
∴ 𝑋𝑠 𝜔 = 𝑋(𝜔 − )
𝑇 𝑇
𝑛=−∞
(𝑜𝑟)
∞
1
𝑋𝑠 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑠 𝑋(𝑓 − 𝑛𝑓𝑠 ) 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑠 =
𝑇
𝑛=−∞
Where 𝑋(𝜔) 𝑜𝑟 𝑋(𝑓) 𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙.
Where 𝑋𝑠 (𝜔) 𝑜𝑟 𝑋𝑠 (𝑓) 𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙.
Spectrum of continuous time signal x(t) with maximum frequency 𝜔𝑚 is shown in Fig 4.5.
X(Ѡ)
-Ѡm 0 Ѡm Ѡ
Fig 4.5 Spectrum of x(t)
Xs(Ѡ)
1/T
-Ѡs-Ѡm -Ѡs -Ѡs+Ѡm -Ѡm 0 Ѡm Ѡs-Ѡm Ѡs Ѡs+Ѡm Ѡ
Fig 4.6 Spectrum of 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 when 𝝎𝒔 − 𝝎𝒎 > 𝝎𝒎

Xs(Ѡ)
1/T
-Ѡs-Ѡm -Ѡs -Ѡm 0 Ѡm Ѡs Ѡs+Ѡm Ѡ

-Ѡs+Ѡm Ѡs-Ѡm
Fig 4.7 Spectrum of 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 when 𝝎𝒔 − 𝝎𝒎 = 𝝎𝒎

Xs(Ѡ)
1/T
-Ѡs-Ѡm -Ѡs -Ѡm 0 Ѡm Ѡs Ѡs+Ѡm Ѡ

-Ѡs+Ѡm Ѡs-Ѡm
Fig 4.8 Spectrum of 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 when 𝝎𝒔 − 𝝎𝒎 < 𝝎𝒎
From the plot of 𝑋𝑠 (𝜔) (Fig 4.6, Fig 4.7, Fig 4.8),
For 𝝎𝒔 > 2𝝎𝒎

The spectral replicates have a larger separation between them known as guard band which
makes process of filtering much easier and effective. Even a non-ideal filter which does not have a
sharp cut off can also be used.
For 𝝎𝒔 = 𝟐𝝎𝒎
There is no separation between the spectral replicates so no guard band exists and 𝑋(𝜔)
can be obtained from 𝑋𝑠 (𝜔) by using only an ideal low pass filter (LPF) with sharp cutoff.
For 𝝎𝒔 < 2𝝎𝒎
The low frequency component in 𝑋𝑠 𝜔 overlap on high frequency components of 𝑋 𝜔 so
that there is presence of distortion and 𝑋 𝜔 cannot be recovered from 𝑋𝑠 𝜔 by using any
filter. This distortion is called aliasing.
So we can conclude that the frequency spectrum of 𝑋𝑠 (𝜔) is not overlapped for
𝝎𝒔 − 𝝎𝒎 ≥ 𝝎𝒎 , therefore the Original signal can be recovered from the sampled signal.
For 𝝎𝒔 − 𝝎𝒎 < 𝝎𝒎 , the frequency spectrum will overlap and hence the original signal cannot be
recovered from the sampled signal.
∴ For signal recovery,

𝜔𝑠 − 𝜔𝑚 ≥ 𝜔𝑚 𝑖. 𝑒 𝝎𝒔 ≥ 𝟐𝝎𝒎
(𝑜𝑟)
𝒇𝒔 ≥ 𝟐𝒇𝒎
i.e., Aliasing can be avoided if 𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚
4.1.2 Aliasing effect (or) fold over effect
It is defined as the phenomenon in which a high frequency component in the frequency

spectrum of signal takes identity of a lower frequency component in the spectrum of the sampled
signal.
When 𝑓𝑠 < 2𝑓𝑚 , (i.e) when signal is under sampled, the individual terms in equation
1 ∞
𝑋𝑠 (ω) = T n=−∞ 𝑥(𝜔 − 𝑛𝜔𝑠 ) get overlap. This process of spectral overlap is called frequency
folding effect.
Occurrence of aliasing
Aliasing Occurs if
i) The signal is not band-Limited to a finite range.
ii) The sampling rate is too low.
To Avoid Aliasing
i) 𝑥(𝑡) should be strictly band limited.
It can be ensured by using anti-aliasing filter before the sampler.
ii) 𝑓𝑠 should be greater than 2𝑓𝑚 .
4.1.3 Nyquist rate
It is the theoretical minimum sampling rate at which a signal can be sampled and still be
reconstructed from its samples without any distortion
𝑁𝑦𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑁 = 2𝑓𝑚 . 𝐻𝑧
281
4.1.4 Data Reconstruction or Interpolation
The process of obtaining analog signal 𝑥(𝑡) from the sampled signal 𝑥𝑠 (𝑡) is called data
reconstruction or interpolation.
∞
𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝛿𝑇 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇
𝑛=−∞
𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇
∞
∴ 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑡 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇)
𝑛=−∞
The reconstruction filter, which is assumed to be linear and time invariant, has unit impulse
response 𝑕(𝑡).
The reconstruction filter, output 𝑦(𝑡) is given by convolution of 𝑥𝑠 (𝑡) and 𝑕(𝑡).
∞ ∞
∴ 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 ∗ 𝑕 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑇 𝛿 𝜏 − 𝑛𝑇 . 𝑕 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞ 𝑛=−∞
∞ ∞
= 𝑥 𝑛𝑇 𝛿 𝜏 − 𝑛𝑇 𝑕 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑛=−∞ −∞
𝛿 𝜏 − 𝑛𝑇 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝜏 = 𝑛𝑇
𝛿 𝜏 − 𝑛𝑇 = 1 𝑎𝑡 𝜏 = 𝑛𝑇
∞
∴𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑇 𝑕(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇)
𝑛=−∞
4.1.5 Ideal Reconstruction filter
The sampled signal 𝑥𝑠 (𝑡) is passed through an ideal LPF (Fig 4.9) with bandwidth greater
than 𝑓𝑚 and a pass band amplitude response of T, then the filter output is 𝑥(𝑡).
Transfer function of ideal reconstruction filter is
𝐻 𝑓 = 𝑇 ; 𝑓 < 0.5𝑓𝑠
Ideal Reconstruction filter

H(f)
Xs(t) T x(t)
-fs/2 fs/2 f
Fig 4.9
The impulse response of ideal reconstruction filter is
𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠
2 2 𝑓𝑠
𝑒 𝑗 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 2 𝑇 𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠
𝑕 𝑡 = 𝑇 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑓 = 𝑇 𝑒 𝑗 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑓 = 𝑇 = 𝑒 𝑗 2𝜋 2 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗 2𝜋 2 𝑡
𝑗2𝜋𝑡 𝑓
− 𝑠
𝑗2𝜋𝑡
𝑓 𝑓
− 2𝑠 − 2𝑠 2
𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠
1 𝑒 𝑗 2𝜋 2 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗 2𝜋 2 𝑡 1
= = sin 𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑡 = sin 𝑐 𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑡
𝑓𝑠 𝜋𝑡 2𝑗 𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑡
∴ 𝑕 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇 = sin 𝑐 𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇 ……… 1
∞
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑇 𝑕(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇)
𝑛=−∞
Substitute equation 1 in above equation

∞ ∞
𝑡
∴𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑇 sin 𝑐 𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑇 sin 𝑐 𝜋 −𝑛
𝑇
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
1
∵ 𝑓𝑠 =
𝑇
Example 4.1: Determine Nyquist rate and Nyquist interval corresponding to each of the following
signals
𝑥 𝑡 = cos 1000𝜋𝑡 + cos 3000𝜋𝑡 + sin 4000𝜋𝑡
𝜔𝑚 = 4000𝜋 ⇒ 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 = 4000𝜋 ⇒ 𝑓𝑚 = 2000𝐻𝑧
𝑁𝑦𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 2𝑓𝑚 = 4000 𝐻𝑧
1 1
𝑁𝑦𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 = = = 0.25 𝑚𝑆
2𝑓𝑚 4000
4.2 Discrete time Fourier Transform

∞
𝑗𝜔
𝐹[𝑥 𝑛 ] = 𝑋 𝑒 = 𝑥(𝑛)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝑛=−∞
4.2.2 Inverse Discrete Time Fourier Transform
𝜋
1
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐹 −1 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑑𝜔 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = −∞ 𝑡𝑜 ∞
2𝜋
−𝜋
Example 4.9: Find Fourier transform of the following
i) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿(𝑛)
ii) 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑢(𝑛)
iii) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)
Solution:
i) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿(𝑛)
∞ 0, 𝑛≠0
𝑗𝜔 𝛿 𝑛 =
𝑋 𝑒 =𝐹 𝛿 𝑛 = 𝛿 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛 = 𝑒 0 = 1 1, 𝑛=0
𝑛=−∞

∞ ∞
𝑗𝜔 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝑋 𝑒 =𝐹 𝑢 𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 𝑒 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛 0, 𝑛<0
𝑢 𝑛 =
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=0 1, 𝑛≥0
1 1
= 1 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 + 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔 + ⋯ ∞ = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ =
1 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 1−𝑥
iii) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)
It is Right handed exponential signal
283
∞ ∞
𝑗𝜔 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝑋 𝑒 = 𝐹 𝑎 𝑢(𝑛) = 𝑎 𝑢(𝑛)𝑒 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=0
−𝑗𝜔 2
1
= 1 + 𝑎𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 + 𝑎𝑒 + ⋯+∞ =
1 − 𝑎𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
Example 4.11: Obtain DTFT of rectangular pulse

𝐴, 0≤𝑛 ≤𝐿−1
𝑥 𝑛 =
0, 𝑜𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Solution:
𝐿−1 𝑁−1
𝑗𝜔 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
1 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝐿 1 − 𝑥𝑁
𝑋 𝑒 = 𝐴𝑒 =𝐴 𝑥𝑛 =
1 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 1−𝑥
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑗𝜔𝐿 −𝑗𝜔𝐿 −𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝜔𝐿 𝜔𝐿
𝑒 2 −𝑒 2 𝑒 2
2𝑗 sin 𝑗𝜔 𝐿−1 𝑗𝜔 𝐿−1 sin
𝑗𝜔 2 − − 2
𝑋 𝑒 =𝐴 𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔 −𝑗𝜔 =𝐴 𝜔 𝑒 2 = 𝐴𝑒 2
𝜔
𝑒 2 − 𝑒− 2 𝑒 2 2𝑗 sin 2 sin 2
Example 4.16: Find DTFT of 𝑥 𝑛 = sin(n θ)u(n)

Solution:
𝑥 𝑛 = sin(n θ)u(n)
∞
∞ ∞ ∞
𝑗𝜔 −j𝜔𝑛
ej𝜃n − e−j𝜃n −j𝜔𝑛 1 j(𝜃−𝜔)n
𝑋 𝑒 = sin(n θ)𝑒 = 𝑒 = e − e−j(𝜃+𝜔 )n
2j 2𝑗
𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛=0
−j(𝜃+𝜔) j(𝜃−𝜔)
1 1 1 1 1−e −1+e
= − = −j𝜔
2𝑗 1 − e j(𝜃−𝜔) 1−e −j(𝜃+𝜔) 2𝑗 1 − 2e cos θ + 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔
1 2je−j𝜔 sin θ e−j𝜔 sin θ
= =
2𝑗 1 − 2e−j𝜔 cos θ + 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔 1 − 2e−j𝜔 cos θ + 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔
4.4 Z-Transform
The Z-transform of discrete time signal 𝑥(𝑛) is defined as

∞
𝑍[𝑥 𝑛 ] = 𝑋 𝑍 = 𝑥(𝑛)𝑍 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞
4.4.2 Inverse Z-transform
The inverse Z-transform of 𝑋 𝑍 is defined as

1
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑍 −1 𝑋 𝑍 = 𝑋 𝑍 𝑍 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑍
2𝜋𝑗
𝐶
Example 4.21: Find Z-transform of the following

i) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿(𝑛)
iii) 𝑥 𝑛 = −𝑎𝑛 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑂𝐶
i) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿(𝑛)
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0
𝛿 𝑛 =
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 0
∞
𝑍𝛿 𝑛 = δ n 𝑧 −n = Z −0 = 1
𝑛=−∞
∴𝑍 𝛿 𝑛 =1

∞ ∞
−𝑛
1 1 1
𝑍𝑢 𝑛 = u(n)𝑧 = 𝑧 −𝑛 = 1 + 𝑧 −1 + 𝑧 −2 + 𝑧 −3 + ⋯ ⋯ = 1 + + 2 + 3 + ⋯ ⋯
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=0
1 1 𝑍
= 1 = −1
=
1− 1−𝑧 𝑍−1
𝑧
The above series convergence if 𝑍 −1 < 1 i.e ROC is 𝑍 > 1
iii) 𝑥 𝑛 = −𝑎𝑛 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1
∞ ∞ −1
−𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
𝑋 𝑍 = 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 = −𝑎 𝑢(−𝑛 − 1)𝑧 =− 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
∞
𝑋 𝑍 =− 𝑎−𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 = −[𝑎−1 𝑍 + 𝑎−1 𝑍 2

+ 𝑎−1 𝑍 3
+ ⋯ ] = −𝑎−1 𝑍[1 + 𝑎−1 𝑍 + 𝑎−1 𝑍 2
+⋯]
𝑛=1
𝑎−1 𝑧 −𝑎−1 𝑧 1 𝑧
=− −1
= −1 −1
= −1
=
1−𝑎 𝑧 −𝑎 𝑧 1 − 𝑎𝑧 1 − 𝑎𝑧 𝑧−𝑎
ROC: 𝑎−1 𝑍 < 1 ⇒ 𝑍 < 𝑎

Im(z)
Re(z)
xample 4.25: Obtain Inverse Z-Transform of

1
𝑋 𝑧 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖) 𝑍 > 0.4 𝑖𝑖) 𝑍 < 0.2 𝑖𝑖𝑖)0.2 < 𝑍 < 0.4
1 − 0.6𝑍 −1 + 0.08𝑍 −2
Solution:
1 𝑍2
𝑋 𝑧 = =
1 − 0.6𝑍 −1 + 0.08𝑍 −2 𝑍 2 − 0.6𝑍 + 0.08
𝑋(𝑍) 𝑍 𝐴 𝐵
= = +
𝑍 𝑍 − 0.2 𝑍 − 0.4 𝑍 − 0.2 𝑍 − 0.4
𝑍 𝑍
𝐴= 𝑍 − 0.2 = −1 𝐵= 𝑍 − 0.4 =2
𝑍 − 0.2 𝑍 − 0.4 𝑍=0.2 𝑍 − 0.2 𝑍 − 0.4 𝑍=0.4
𝑋(𝑍) −1 2 −𝑍 2𝑍
∴ = + ⇒ 𝑋(𝑍) = +
𝑍 𝑍 − 0.2 𝑍 − 0.4 𝑍 − 0.2 𝑍 − 0.4
285
Applying inverse Z-transform

𝑥 𝑛 = − 0.2 𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 + 2 0.4 𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)
Im (z)
ROC: 𝑍 > 0.4
ROC lies outside of all poles. So both the terms
are causal 0.2 0.4
Re(z)
∴ 𝑥 𝑛 = − 0.2 𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 + 2 0.4 𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)
Im(z)
ROC : 𝑍 < 0.2

ROC lies inside of all poles. So both the terms are
non-causal 0.2 0.4Re(z)
∴ 𝑥 𝑛 = 0.2 𝑛 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1 − 2 0.4 𝑛 𝑢(−𝑛 − 1)
ROC :
0.5 < 𝑧 < 1 Im(z)
ROC lies inside of pole Z=0.4 and lies outside of

pole Z=0.2. So the term with pole Z=0.4 is non- Re(z)
causal and the term with pole Z=0.2 is causal 0.2 0.4
∴ 𝑥 𝑛 = − 0.2 𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 − 2 0.4 𝑛 𝑢(−𝑛 − 1)
𝑍3
Example 4.29: Find the inverse Z transform of 𝑋 𝑍 = 𝑍+1 𝑍−1 2
using Cauchy residue method.
Solution:
𝑍3
𝑋 𝑍 =
𝑍+1 𝑍−1 2
𝑛−1
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 𝑍 𝑍 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑍 = −1
+ 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑋 𝑍 𝑍 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑍 = 1 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 2
𝑍3 𝑍 + 1 𝑛−1
𝑑 𝑍3 𝑍 − 1 2
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑍 + 𝑍 𝑛−1
𝑍+1 𝑍−1 2 𝑍=−1
𝑑𝑍 𝑍 + 1 𝑍 − 1 2
𝑍=1
1 2 𝑛 + 2 − 1 1 2𝑛 + 3
= − −1 𝑛−1 + = − −1 𝑛−1 𝑢(𝑛) + 𝑢(𝑛)
4 4 4 4
𝑥 0 =1 𝑥 1 =1 𝑥 2 =2 𝑥 3 =2
∴ 𝑥 𝑛 = 1,1,2,2, …
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Locating Poles and Zeros in s-plane & z-plane
AIM:
Write the program for locating poles and zeros and plotting pole-zero maps in s-plane and z-plane for
the given transfer function.
Software Required:
Matlab software 7.0 and above.
Theory:
Z-transforms The Z-transform, like many other integral transforms, can be defined aseither a one-sided or
two-sided transform.Bilateral Z-transform. The bilateral or two-sided Z-transform of a discrete-time
signal x[n] is thefunction X(z) defined as
Unilateral Z-transform Alternatively, in cases where x[n] is define
In signal processing, this definition is used when the signal is causal.
The roots of the equation P(z) = 0 correspond to the 'zeros' of X(z) The roots of the equation Q(z) = 0
correspond to the 'poles' of X(z)
Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%enter the numerator and denamenator cofficients in square brackets
num=input('enter numerator co-efficients');
den=input('enter denominator co-efficients');

% find poles and zeros
poles=roots(den)
zeros=roots(num)
% find transfer function H(s)
h=tf(num,den);
% plot the pole-zero map in s-plane
sgrid;
pzmap(h);
grid on;
title('locating poles and zeros on s-plane');
%plot the pole zero map in z-plane
figure
zplane(poles,zeros);
grid on;
title('locating poler and zeros on z-plane');
Result: Pole-zero maps are plotted in s-plane and z-plane for the given transfer function.
Output:
enter numerator co-efficients[1 -1 4 3.5]
enter denominator co-efficients[2 3 -2.5 6]
poles =
-2.4874
0.4937 + 0.9810i
0.4937 - 0.9810i
zeros =
0.8402 + 2.1065i
0.8402 - 2.1065i
-0.6805
UNIT- IV – Post – Test – MCQ
1. Which statement is true for the given functions

x(n) = an u(n) and x(n) = -an u(-n-1)
A) Both have the same X(Z) and ROC.
B) Both have the different X(Z) and same ROC.
C) Both have the same X(Z) and different ROC
D) Both have the different X(Z) and ROC.
2. The DTFT 𝑋(𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 ) of a discrete time signal x(n) is defined as:
a) 𝑋(𝑛) = ∑∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑒
−𝑗𝜔𝑛
b) 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) = ∑𝑛=−∞ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛

∞
c) 𝑋(𝑍) = ∑∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑒

−𝑗𝜔𝑛
d) None of the above.
3. DTFT is a periodic function of ω with period:

a) 𝜋
𝝅
b) 𝟐
c) 2𝜋
4. If complex variable z is replaced with the complex variable 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 , then the z-transform
reduces to:
a) Discrete time Fourier Transform
b) Laplace Transform
c) Both (a) and (b)
5. The process of reconstructing an analog signal from its samples is known as:
a) A/D conversion
b) D/A conversion
c) Integration
SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
Prerequisite:
Knowledge about properties of Discrete time Fourier transform and Z- transform
Objectives:
To understand the use of mathematical transforms and state-variables
Unit-V Linear Time Invariant – Discrete Time Systems

Difference equations, Block Diagram representation, Impulse response,
Convolution sum, LTI systems analysis using DTFT and Z-transforms, State variable
equations and matrix representation of systems
Outcome:

 Understand linear time-invariant systems theory and applications
 Understand mathematical and graphical convolution of signals and systems
UNIT- V – Pre – Test – MCQ
1. What is the convolution of a signal with an impulse?

a) Signal itself
b) Impulse
c) A new signal
d) Signal multiplied by impulse
2. The basic elements required for the implementation of a linear time-invariant

discrete-time system are:
a) Adders
b) Multipliers
c) Memory for storing delayed sequence values
d) All of the above
3. The forced response of the system is produced at the conditions
a. Input and initial conditions are zero.
b. Only due to initial conditions
c. Only due to input
d. Initial conditions as well as input both are considered.
4. Which of the following schemes of system realization uses separate delays for input
and output samples?
A) Direct form I
B) Direct form II
C) Cascade
D) Parallel
5. The scaling of a sequence x (n) by a factor a is given by:

a) (n) = 𝑎 [(𝑛)]2
b) (𝑛) = [n]2
c) (𝑛) = a(𝑛)
UNIT 5: Linear Time Invariant –Discrete Time Systems

5.1 Linear Time Invariant Discrete Time System (LTI-DT System)
When a discrete time system satisfies the properties of linearity and time invariance,
then it is called an LTI System.
Discrete time system
A discrete time system is a device that operates on a discrete time signal to produce
another discrete time signal called the output or response of the system.
Discrete time system
input output
𝑥(𝑛) 𝑦(𝑛)
H
The input signal x(n) is transformed to output signal y(n) through the above system
5.2 Impulse Response

When the input to a discrete time system is a unit impulse 𝛿(𝑛) then the output is called
an impulse response of the system and is denoted by ℎ(𝑛)
∴Impulse response ℎ(𝑛) = Η{𝛿(𝑛)}
𝛿(𝑛) → 𝐻 → ℎ(𝑛)
Impulse response of interconnected systems

Parallel connections of discrete time systems (Distributive property)
Consider two LTI systems with impulse response h1(n) and h2(n) connected in parallel as
shown in Fig 5.1
y (n)
h1(n) 1
y(n) x(n) y(n)
x(n) System 1
h(n)=h1(n)+h2(n)
h2(n)
y2(n)
System 2
2
Fig 5.1 Parallel connections of discrete time systems
Cascade connection of discrete time systems (Associative property)

𝑥(𝑛) 𝑦1 (𝑛) 𝑦(𝑛) 𝑥(𝑛)
ℎ1 (𝑛) ℎ2 (𝑛) ℎ(𝑛) = ℎ1 (𝑛) ∗ ℎ2 (𝑛) 𝑦(𝑛)
System1 System2
Fig 5.2
Let us consider two systems with impulse ℎ1 (𝑛) and ℎ2 (𝑛) connected in cascade as shown in
Fig 5.2
348
Linear Time Invariant – Discrete Time Systems
5.3 Block diagram representation (System connected in series/parallel)
5.3.1 System Realization

There are four types of system realization in discrete time linear time invariant systems.
They are
Direct form I realization
Direct form II realization
Cascade form realization
Parallel form realization
5.3.2 Direct form I realization
It is the direct implementation of transfer function describing the system. It uses
separate unit delay element for input and output variables. It provides direct relation between
time domain and Z-domain equations. This form is practical for small filters.
Advantages:
Simplicity
Most straight forward realization
Disadvantages:
More number of unit delay elements are used
Inefficient and impractical for complex design
Consider a system with system function

𝑌(𝑍) 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏2 𝑍 −2
𝐻(𝑍) = =
𝑋(𝑍) 1 + 𝑎1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑎2 𝑍 −2
𝑌(𝑍) + 𝑎1 𝑍 −1 𝑌(𝑍) + 𝑎2 𝑍 −2 𝑌(𝑍) = 𝑏0 𝑋(𝑍) + 𝑏1 𝑍 −1 𝑋(𝑍) + 𝑏2 𝑍 −2 𝑋(𝑍)
Direct form – I realization of 𝐻(𝑍)
𝑋(𝑍) 𝑏0 𝑊(𝑍) 𝑌(𝑍)
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
𝑏1 −𝑎1
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
𝑏2 −𝑎2
Fig 5.3 Direct form – I realization
5.3.3 Direct form II realization

It is the direct implementation of transfer function describing the system. Instead of
using separate unit delay elements for input and output variables separately, an intermediate
variable is unit delay element. It provides direct relation between time domain and z-domain
equations.
Advantages:
It uses minimum number of unit delay element
Straight forward realization
Consider a system with system function

𝑌(𝑍) 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏2 𝑍 −2
𝐻(𝑍) = = … … … 〈4〉
𝑋(𝑍) 1 + 𝑎1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑎2 𝑍 −2
𝑌(𝑍) 𝑌(𝑍) 𝑊(𝑍)

𝐿𝑒𝑡
= .
𝑋(𝑍) 𝑊(𝑍) 𝑋(𝑍)
𝑊(𝑍) 1
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = … … … 〈5〉
𝑋(𝑍) 1 + 𝑎1 𝑍 + 𝑎2 𝑍 −2
−1
𝑌(𝑍)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏2 𝑍 −2 … … … 〈6〉
𝑊(𝑍)
From eq 〈5〉 we have
𝑊(𝑍) = 𝑋(𝑍) − 𝑎1 𝑍 −1 𝑊(𝑍) − 𝑎2 𝑍 −2 𝑊(𝑍) … … … 〈7〉
From eq 〈6〉 we have
𝑌(𝑍) = 𝑏0 𝑊(𝑍) + 𝑏1 𝑍 −1 𝑊(𝑍) + 𝑏2 𝑍 −2 𝑊(𝑍) … … … 〈8〉
Realization of eq 〈7〉 Realization of eq 〈8〉
X(Z) W(Z) b0
W(Z) Y(Z)
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
-a1 b1
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
-a2 b2
Fig 5.4 Fig 5.5
Combined form of Fig 5.4 and Fig 5.5 gives direct form II realization as shown in Fig 5.6
X(Z) Y(Z)
b0
𝑍 −1
-a1 b1
𝑍 −1
-a2 b2
Fig 5.6 Direct form II realization
5.3.4 Cascade form(Series form)

In cascade form realization the given transfer function is expressed as a product of
several transfer function and each of these transfer function is realized in direct form II and
then all those realized structures are cascaded i.e., connected in series.
Consider a system with the following system function
(𝑏𝑘0 + 𝑏𝑘1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏𝑘2 𝑍 −2 )(𝑏𝑚0 + 𝑏𝑚1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏𝑚2 𝑍 −2 )
𝐻(𝑍) = = 𝐻1 (𝑍)𝐻2 (𝑍)
(1 + 𝑎𝑘1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑎𝑘2 𝑍 −2 )(1 + 𝑎𝑚1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑍 −2 )
Where
(𝑏𝑘0 + 𝑏𝑘1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏𝑘2 𝑍 −2 )
𝐻1 (𝑍) =
(1 + 𝑎𝑘1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑎𝑘2 𝑍 −2 )
(𝑏𝑚0 + 𝑏𝑚1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏𝑚2 𝑍 −2 )
𝐻2 (𝑍) =
(1 + 𝑎𝑚1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑍 −2 )
350
X(Z) bk0 bm0 Y(Z)
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
-ak1 bk1 -am1 bm1
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
-ak2 bk2 -am2 bm2
Fig 5.7 Cascade form realization
Realizing 𝐻1 (𝑍) and 𝐻2 (𝑍) in direct form II and the cascade form of the system function 𝐻(𝑍) is
shown in Fig 5.7
5.3.5 Parallel form realization

The given transfer function is expressed into its partial fractions and each factor is
realized in direct form II and all those realized structures are connected in parallel as shown in
Fig 5.8.
Consider a system with the following system function

𝑁
𝐶𝑘
𝐻(𝑍) = 𝑐 + ∑
1 − 𝑃𝑘 𝑍 −1
𝑘=1
Where {𝑃𝑘 } are poles of the system function
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑁
𝐻(𝑍) = 𝑐 + −1
+ −1
+ ………+
1 − 𝑃1 𝑍 1 − 𝑃2 𝑍 1 − 𝑃𝑁 𝑍 −1
X(Z) C
C1
𝑍 −1
P1
C2
P2 𝑍 −1
CN Y(Z)
PN 𝑍 −1
Fig 5.8 Parallel form realization
5.4 Solved Problems

Example 5.1: Determine the frequency response and impulse response
1 1
𝑦(𝑛) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 1) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 2) = 𝑥(𝑛)
6 6
Solution:
1 1
𝑦(𝑛) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 1) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 2) = 𝑥(𝑛)
6 6
Applying DTFT
1 1
𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) − 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔 𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 )
6 6
𝑗𝜔
𝑌(𝑒 ) 1 𝑒 2𝑗𝜔
Frequency response 𝐻(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = = 1 1 = 2𝑗𝜔 − 1𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 1
𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) 1 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 − 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔 𝑒 6 6
6 6
𝐻(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝐴 𝐵
= 1 = 𝑗𝜔 1 + 𝑗𝜔
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 2𝑗𝜔 − 6𝑒 − 6 𝑒 − 2 𝑒 + 13
1 𝑗𝜔
1 1
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐴 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 + 3) + 𝐵 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 2)
At 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = −13 At 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 12
−13 = 𝐵(−13 − 12) , ∴ 𝐵 = 25 1
2
= 𝐴(12 + 13) , ∴ 𝐴 = 35
3 𝑗𝜔 2 𝑗𝜔
5
𝑒 5
𝑒
𝑗𝜔
𝐻(𝑒 )= 1 + 𝑗𝜔
𝑗𝜔
𝑒 − 𝑒 +1
2 3
Applying inverse DTFT
3 1 𝑛 2 1 𝑛
ℎ(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) + (− ) 𝑢(𝑛)
5 2 5 3
Example 5.2: Find response of system using DTFT

1 𝑛 3 𝑛
ℎ(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) ; 𝑥(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛)
2 4
Solution:
1 𝑛 3 𝑛
ℎ(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) ; 𝑥(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛)
2 4
Applying DTFT
1 1
𝐻(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = 1 −𝑗𝜔 ; 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) =
1− 2
𝑒 1 − 34𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = 𝐻(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 )𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 )
1 1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = . = .
1 − 12𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 1 − 34𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 12 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 34
𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝐴 𝐵
= = 1 + 3
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 12)(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 34) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 2 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 4
3 1
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐴 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 4) + 𝐵 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 2)
At 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 12 At 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 34
1
2
= 𝐴(12 − 34) , ∴ 𝐴 = −2 3
4
= 𝐵(34 − 12) , ∴ 𝐵 = 3
𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) −2 3 𝑗𝜔
−2𝑒 𝑗𝜔 3𝑒 𝑗𝜔
= + => 𝑌(𝑒 ) = +
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 12 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 34 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 12 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 34
Applying IDTFT
1 𝑛 3 𝑛
𝑦(𝑛) = −2 ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) + 3 ( ) 𝑢(𝑛)
2 4
352
Example 5.3: Find output response using Z-transform

3 1 3
𝑦(𝑛) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 1) + 𝑦(𝑛 − 2) = 2𝑥(𝑛) + 𝑥(𝑛 − 1)
2 2 2
1 𝑛
Where 𝑦(−1) = 0 𝑦(−2) = 1 𝑥(𝑛) = (4) 𝑢(𝑛)
Solution:
3 1 3
𝑦(𝑛) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 1) + 𝑦(𝑛 − 2) = 2𝑥(𝑛) + 𝑥(𝑛 − 1)
2 2 2
Taking Z-transform
3 1
𝑌(𝑍) − [𝑍 −1 𝑌(𝑍) + 𝑦(−1)] + [𝑍 −2 𝑌(𝑍) + 𝑍 −1 𝑦(−1) + 𝑦(−2)]
2 2
3 −1
= 2𝑋 (𝑍) + [𝑍 𝑋(𝑍) + 𝑥(−1)]
2
3 −1 1 −2 3
𝑌(𝑍) − [𝑍 𝑌(𝑍)] + [𝑍 𝑌(𝑍) + 1] = 𝑋(𝑍) [2 + 𝑍 −1 ] ∵ 𝑦(−1) = 0, 𝑦(−2) = 1
2 2 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥(𝑛)𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑥(−1) = 0
1 𝑛 1 𝑍
𝑥(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) ⟹ 𝑋(𝑍) = 1 = 1
4 1 − 𝑍 −1 𝑍 −
4 4
3 1 𝑍 3 1
∴ 𝑌(𝑍) [1 − 𝑍 −1 + 𝑍 −2 ] = 1 [2 + 𝑍 −1 ] −
2 2 𝑍− 2 2
4
3 −1 1
𝑍 (2 + 𝑍 )
2 2
𝑌(𝑍) = 1 3 −1 1 −2
− 3 −1 1
𝑍 − (1 − 𝑍 + 𝑍 ) 1 − 𝑍 + 𝑍 −2
4 2 2 2 2
3 1
𝑍 2𝑍 2 + 2 𝑍 2
𝑍2
𝑌(𝑍) = 1 ( 3 1 ) − 3 1
𝑍 − 𝑍2 − 𝑍 + 𝑍2 − 𝑍 +
4 2 2 2 2
3 1 3 1 1
𝑌(𝑍) (2𝑍 2 + 𝑍) 𝑍 (2𝑍 2 + 𝑍) − 𝑍 (𝑍 − )
2 2 2 2 4
= 1 1
− 1
= 1 1
𝑍 (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − )
4 2 2 4 2
2 3 1 2 1 3 2 13
2𝑍 + 𝑍 − 𝑍 + 𝑍 𝑍 + 𝑍
2 2 8 2 8
= 1 1
= 1 1
(𝑍 − 4) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − 2) (𝑍 − 4) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − 2)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= 1
+ +
(𝑍 − 4) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − 1)
2
3 2 13 1 1 1 1
𝑍 + 𝑍 = 𝐴(𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − ) + 𝐵 (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − ) + 𝐶 (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − 1)
2 8 2 4 2 4
1 8
At 𝑍 = 4 :𝐴=3
25
At 𝑍 = 1 :𝐵 = 3
1 −19
At 𝑍 = 2 :𝐶 = 2
8 25 19
𝑌(𝑍)
∴ = 3 1+ 3 − 2 1
𝑍 𝑍− 𝑍−1 𝑍−
4 2
8 𝑍 25 𝑍 19 𝑍
𝑌(𝑍) = 1 + −
3𝑍 − 3 𝑍−1 2 𝑍−1
4 2
Applying inverse Z transform

8 1 𝑛 25 19 1 𝑛
𝑦(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) + 𝑢(𝑛) − ( ) 𝑢(𝑛)
3 4 3 2 2
Example 5.4: Convolve the following sequences using Tabulation method

𝑛
𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 6
3
ℎ(𝑛) = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 2 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1
𝑥(𝑛) = { , , , , , , } ℎ(𝑛) = {1, 1, , 1, 1}
↑ 3 3 3 3 3 3 ↑
Tabulation method
∞ ∞
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛) ∗ ℎ(𝑛) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑘)ℎ(𝑛 − 𝑘) 𝑜𝑟 𝑦(𝑛) = ℎ(𝑛) ∗ 𝑥(𝑛) = ∑ ℎ(𝑘)𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑘)

𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=−∞
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1
𝑥(𝑛) = { , , , , , , } ℎ(𝑛) = {1, 1, , 1, 1}
↑ 3 3 3 3 3 3 ↑
𝒌 −𝟒 −𝟑 −𝟐 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓 𝟔 𝟕 𝟖 9
𝒙(𝒌) 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
3 3 3 3 3 3
𝒉(𝒌) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 − 𝟐) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 − 𝟏) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌) 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟏) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟐) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟑) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟒) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟓) 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟔) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟕) 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟖) 1 1 1 1
𝑦(−2) = (0)(1) = 0
1 1
𝑦(−1) = (0)(1) + (3) (1) = 3
1 2
𝑦(0) = (0)(1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) = 1
1 2 3
𝑦(1) = (0)(1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) = 2
1 2 3 4 10
𝑦(2) = (0)(1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) = 3
354
1 2 3 4 5
𝑦(3) = ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) = 5
3 3 3 3 3
2 3 4 5 6 20
𝑦(4) = ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) =
3 3 3 3 3 3
3 4 5 6
𝑦(5) = ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) = 6
3 3 3 3
4 5 6
𝑦(6) = ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) = 5
3 3 3
5 6 11
𝑦(7) = ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) =
3 3 3
6
𝑦(8) = ( ) (1) = 2
3
1 1 10 20 11
∴ 𝑦(𝑛) = {0, , , 2, , 5, , 6, 5, , 2}
3 ↑ 3 3 3
Example 5.5: Obtain Cascade form realization

1 1
𝑦(𝑛) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 1) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 2) = 𝑥(𝑛) + 3𝑥(𝑛 − 1) + 2𝑥(𝑛 − 2)
4 8
Solution:
1 1
𝑦(𝑛) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 1) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 2) = 𝑥(𝑛) + 3𝑥(𝑛 − 1) + 2𝑥(𝑛 − 2)
4 8
Taking Z-transform
1 1
𝑌(𝑍) − 𝑍 −1 𝑌(𝑍) − 𝑍 −2 𝑌(𝑍) = 𝑋(𝑍) + 3𝑍 −1 𝑋(𝑍) + 2𝑍 −1 𝑋(𝑍)
4 8
𝑌(𝑍) 1 + 3𝑍 −1 + 2𝑍 −1 (1 + 𝑍 −1 )(1 + 2𝑍 −1 )
= = = 𝐻1 (𝑍). 𝐻2 (𝑍)
𝑋(𝑍) 1 − 1 𝑍 −1 − 1 𝑍 −2 (1 − 1 𝑍 −1 )(1 + 1 𝑍 −1 )
4 8 2 4
(1 + 𝑍 −1 ) (1 + 2𝑍 −1 )
𝐻1 (𝑍) = 1 𝐻2 (𝑍) = 1
(1 − 2 𝑍 −1 ) (1 + 4 𝑍 −1 )
X1(Z) 1 Y1(Z) X2(Z) 1 1 Y2(Z)
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
1/2 1 -1/4 2
Fig 5.19 Direct form II structure of 𝐻1 (𝑍) Fig 5.20 Direct form II structure of 𝐻2 (𝑍)
X(Z) 1 1 1 Y(Z)
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
1/2 1 -1/4 2
Fig 5.21 Cascade form
Example 5.6: Obtain Parallel form realization

1 1
𝑦(𝑛) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 1) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 2) = 𝑥(𝑛) + 3𝑥(𝑛 − 1) + 2𝑥(𝑛 − 2)
4 8
Solution:
1 1
𝑦(𝑛) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 1) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 2) = 𝑥(𝑛) + 3𝑥(𝑛 − 1) + 2𝑥(𝑛 − 2)
4 8
𝑌(𝑍) 1 + 3𝑍 −1 + 2𝑍 −2
=
𝑋(𝑍) 1 − 1 𝑍 −1 − 1 𝑍 −2
4 8
−16
1 1 2𝑍 −2 + 3𝑍 −1 + 1
− 𝑍 −2 − 𝑍 −1 + 1
8 4
2𝑍 −2 + 4𝑍 −1 − 16
(−) (−) (+)
−1
−𝑍 + 17
𝑌(𝑍) −𝑍 −1 + 17 17−𝑍 −1
= −16 + 1 1 = −16 + 1 1
𝑋(𝑍) 1 − 𝑍 −1 − 𝑍 −2 (1 − 𝑍 −1 )(1 + 𝑍 −1 )
4 8 2 4
17−𝑍 −1 𝐴 𝐵
𝐿𝑒𝑡1 1 = 1 + 1
(1 − 2 𝑍 −1 )(1 + 4 𝑍 −1 ) 1 − 2 𝑍 −1 1 + 4 𝑍 −1
1 1
17−𝑍 −1 = 𝐴 (1 + 𝑍 −1 ) + 𝐵(1 − 𝑍 −1 )
4 2
𝑎𝑡 𝑍 −1 = −4 −1
𝑎𝑡 𝑍 = 2
1 1
17 + 4 = 𝐵(1 − (−4)) 17 − 2 = 𝐴(1 + (2))
2 4
∴ 𝐵=7 ∴ 𝐴 = 10
10 7
∴ 𝐻(𝑍) = −16 + 1 −1 + 1
1− 2
𝑍 1 + 4 𝑍 −1
𝑌1 (𝑍) 10 𝑌2 (𝑍) 7
𝐻1 (𝑍) = = 𝐻2 (𝑍) = =
𝑋1 (𝑍) 1 − 1 𝑍 −1 𝑋2 (𝑍) 1 + 1 𝑍 −1
2 4
𝑌1 (𝑍) 𝑌2 (𝑍)
= 10 ⇒ 𝑌1 (𝑍) = 10𝑊1 (𝑍) = 7 ⇒ 𝑌2 (𝑍) = 7𝑊2 (𝑍)
𝑊1 (𝑍) 𝑊2 (𝑍)
𝑊1 (𝑍) 1 𝑊2 (𝑍) 1
= =
𝑋1 (𝑍) 1 − 1 𝑍 −1 𝑋2 (𝑍) 1 + 1 𝑍 −1
2 4
1 1
𝑊1 (𝑍) = 𝑋1 (𝑍) + 𝑍 −1 𝑊1 (𝑍) 𝑊2 (𝑍) = 𝑋2 (𝑍) − 𝑍 −1 𝑊2 (𝑍)
2 4
X1(Z) 10 X2(Z) 7
Y1(Z) Y2(Z)
𝑍 −1 -1/4 𝑍 −1
1/2
Fig 5.22 Direct form II structure of 𝐻1 (𝑍) Fig 5.23 Direct form II structure of 𝐻2 (𝑍)
Combining figures Fig 5.22 and Fig 5.23 we can form parallel form realization as shown in
356
Fig 5.24
X(Z) -16
10
𝑍 −1
1/2
Y(Z)
7
-1/4 𝑍 −1
Fig 5.24 Parallel form
Example 5.7: Convolve the following discrete time signals using graphical convolution
𝑥(𝑛) = ℎ(𝑛) = 𝑢(𝑛)
Solution:
𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑢(𝑛) = 1; 𝑛 ≥ 0
ℎ(𝑛) = 𝑢(𝑛) = 1; 𝑛 ≥ 0
x(n) h(n) h(-k)
1 1 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 n
∞
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛) ∗ ℎ(𝑛) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑘)ℎ(𝑛 − 𝑘)

𝑘=−∞
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 0
𝑦(0) = (1)(1) = 1
𝑦(1) = (1)(1) + (1)(1) = 2
h(-k+1)
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 n
𝑦(2) = (1)(1) + (1)(1) + (1)(1) = 3
h(-k+2)
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 n
∴ 𝑦(𝑛) = {1,2,3,4,5, … . }
Example 5.8: Compute linear convolution.

𝑥(𝑛) = {2,2,0,1,1} ℎ(𝑛) = {1,2,3,4}
Solution:
2 2 0 1 1
1 2 2 0 1 1
2 4 4 0 2 2
3 6 6 0 3 3
4 8 8 0 4 4
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛) ∗ ℎ(𝑛) = {2,6,10,15,11,5,7,4}
358

h(n) = T[δ(n)], and x(n) =  x(k)  (n  k)

k  
we have
  
y(n) = T[x(n)] = T   x(k)  (n  k)
k   
Since T[.] is linear we can apply linearity a countable infinite number of times to write
 
y(n) = T x(k) (n  k) =  x(k)T[ (n  k)]

k   k  
In above equation since the system is shift-invariant we write T[δ(n–k)] = h(n–k). Else write
hk(n) or h(n, k) in place of h(n–k). Thus for a linear shift-invariant system

y(n) =  x(k)h(n  k)
k  
Note that if the system is not specified to be shift-invariant we would leave the above
result in the form
 
y(n) =  x(k)h(n, k)
k 
or y(n) =  x(k)hk (n)
k  
Then if shift-invariance is invoked we replace h(n, k) with h(n–k).

As in the case of continuous-time systems, the impulse response, h(n), is determined
assuming that the system has no initial energy; otherwise the linearity property does not hold, so
that y(n), as determined using the above equation, corresponds to only the forced response of the
system.

The sum  x(k)h(n, k) is called the convolution sum, and is denoted x(n) * h(n).
k 
A discrete-time linear shift-invariant system is completely characterized by its unit

sample response h(n).
Theorem If a discrete-time system linear shift-invariant, T[.], has the unit sample response
T[δ(n)] = h(n) then the output y(n) corresponding to any input x(n) is given by
 
y(n) =  x(k) h(n  k)=  x(n  k) h(k)

k   k  
= x(n) * h(n) = h(n) * x(n)
The second summation is obtained by setting m = n–k; then for k = –  we have m = +  , and for
k =  we have m = – . Thus
  
 x(k) h(n  k)=  x(n  m) h(m)

k   m  
=  x(n  k) h(k)
k  
m is a dummy variable. The order of summation

(forward or backward) makes no difference.
Hence change m to k and switch limits

33 of 77
Example 1.4.17 [Linear Convolution] Given the input {x(n)} ={1, 2, 3, 1} and the unit sample
response {h(n)} = {4, 3, 2, 1} find the response y(n) = x(n) * h(n).
Answer Since x(k) = 0 for k < 0 and h(n – k) = 0 for k > n, the convolution sum becomes
 n
y(n) =  x(k) h(n  k)=  x(k) h(n  k)

k   k 0
Now y(n) can be evaluated for various values of n; for example, setting n = 0 gives y(0). See
table below. The product terms shown in bold italics need not be calculated; they are zero
because the signal values involved are zero.
Linear Convolution of {x(n)} ={1, 2, 3, 1} and {h(n)} = {4, 3, 2, 1}

n
y(n) =  x(k) h(n  k)

k 0
0
n=0 = x(0) h(0)
y(0) =  x(k) h(0  k) = 1 . 4 = 4
k0
1
n=1 = x(0) h(1) + x(1) h(0)
y(1) =  x(k) h(1  k) = 1 . 3 + 2 . 4 = 11
k0
2
n=2 = x(0) h(2) + x(1) h(1) + x(2) h(0)
y(2) =  x(k) h(2  k) = 1 . 2 + 2 . 3 + 3 . 4 = 20
k0
3
n=3 = x(0) h(3) + x(1) h(2) + x(2) h(1) + x(3) h(0)
y(3) =  x(k) h(3  k) = 1 . 1 + 2 . 2 + 3 . 3 + 1 . 4 = 18
k0
4
n=4 = x(0) h(4) + x(1) h(3) + x(2) h(2) + x(3) h(1) + x(4) h(0)
y(4) =  x(k) h(4  k) = 1 . 0 + 2 . 1 + 3 . 2 + 1 . 3 + 0 . 4 = 11
k0
5
n=5 = x(0) h(5) + x(1) h(4) + x(2) h(3) + x(3) h(2) + x(4) h(1)
y(5) =  x(k) h(5  k) + x(5) h(0)
k0
=3.1+1.2=5
6
n=6 = x(0) h(6) + x(1) h(5) + x(2) h(4) + x(3) h(3) + x(4) h(2)
y(6) =  x(k) h(6  k) + x(5) h(1) + x(6) h(0)
k0
=1.1=1
7
n=7 = x(0) h(7) + x(1) h(6) + x(2) h(5) + x(3) h(4) + x(4) h(3)
y(7) =  x(k) h(7  k) + x(5) h(2) + x(6) h(1) + x(7) h(0)
k0
=0
y(n) = 0 for n < 0 and n > 6 Product terms in bold italics are zero.
34 of 77
Sketches of the two sequences x(n) and h(n) are shown below.
x(n)
x(n) = 0, n < 0 & > 3
3
2
1
1
n
0 1 2 3
h(n)
h(n) = 0, n < 0 & > 3
4
3
2
1
n
0 1 2 3
To do the convolution we need the sequences x(k) and h(n–k), k being the independent
variable. Of these x(k) is simply x(n) with k replacing n, shown below.
x(k)
x(k) = 0, k < 0
3
2
1 1
k
0 1 2 3
h(n–k) = h(–(k–n))
4 h(n–k) = 0, k > n
3
----
k
n–1 n
The sequence h(–k) is the reflected version of h(k). If h(–k) is delayed by n samples we get h(–
(k–n)) that is h(n–k), shown above.
For each value of n the sequences x(k) and h(n–k) are multiplied point by point and the
products are added, yielding the value of y (.) for the corresponding n.
35 of 77
Tabular method The following tabular method uses the second of the two forms, viz., y(n) =
h(k) x(n  k) , for the convolution sum.
Tabular method of linear convolution

k –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
h(k) 4 3 2 1
n x(k) 1 2 3 1 n y(n)
0 x(0–k) 1 3 2 1 0 4
1 x(1–k) 1 3 2 1 1 11
2 x(2–k) 1 3 2 1 2 20
3 x(3–k) 1 3 2 1 3 18
4 x(4–k) 1 3 2 1 4 11
5 x(5–k) 1 3 2 1 5 5
6 x(6–k) 1 3 2 1 6 1
7 x(7–k) 1 3 2 1 7 0
. . . .
The sequence y(n) is shown plotted below. Note that Ly, the length of y(n), equals the sum of the
lengths of x(n) and h(n) minus 1: Ly = Lx + Lh – 1.
22
y(n) 18
y(n) = h(k) x(n  k)

11 11
n
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
36 of 77
DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING UNIT 2
3
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE
4
5
6
3.88. Use the result of Problem 3.87 to determine the frequency response, impulse response, and dif-
ferential equation descriptions for the continuous-time systems described by the following state variable
descriptions.

−2 0 0
(a) A = , b= , c = 1 1 , D = [0]
0 −1 2
H(jω) = c(jωI − A)−1 b + D

2
=
jω + 1
h(t) = 2e−t u(t)
Y (jω)
=
X(jω)
Y (jω)(jω + 1) = 2X(jω)
d
y(t) + y(t) = 2x(t)
dt

1 2 1
(b) A = , b= , c= 0 1 , D = [0]
−3 −4 2
H(jω) = c(jωI − A)−1 b + D

2jω − 5
=
(jω)2 + 3jω + 2
Y (jω)
=
X(jω)
Y (jω)((jω)2 + 3jω + 2) = X(jω)(2jω − 5)
d2 d d
2
y(t) + 3 y(t) + 2y(t) = 2 x(t) − 5x(t)
dt dt dt
A B
H(jω) = +
2 + jω 1 + jω
2 = A+B
−5 = A + 2B
9 7
= −
2 + jω 1 + jω
h(t) = (9e−2t − 7e−t )u(t)
3.89. Use the result of Problem 3.87 to determine the frequency response, impulse response, and
difference equation descriptions for the discrete-time systems described by the following state variable
descriptions.

− 12 1 0
(a) A = 1
, b= , c = 1 0 , D = [1]
0 4 1

1
= 1 + jΩ 1 jΩ 1
(e + 2 )(e − 4 )
58
1 + 41 e−jΩ + 78 e−j2Ω
=
1 + 1 e−jΩ − 18 e−j2Ω
4
8 1 n 16 1 n
h[n] = (− ) + ( ) u[n] − 7δ[n]
3 2 3 4
Y (ejΩ )
H(ejΩ ) =
X(ejΩ )

jΩ 1 −jΩ 1 −j2Ω jΩ 1 −jΩ 7 −j2Ω
Y (e ) 1 + e − e = X(e ) 1 + e + e
4 8 4 8
1 1 1 7
y[n] + y[n − 1] − y[n − 2] = x[n] + x[n − 1] + x[n − 2]
4 8 4 8

1 3
4 4 1
(b) A = 1
, b= , c= 0 1 , D = [0]
4 − 41 1

ejΩ
=
ej2Ω − 41
e−jΩ
=
1 − 41 e−j2Ω
A B
= 1 −jΩ +
1 + 2e 1 − 12 e−jΩ
0 = A+B
1 1
1 = − A+ B
2 2
1 1
H(ejΩ ) = − +
1 + 21 e−jΩ 1 − 21 e−jΩ
1 1
h[n] = [−(− )n + ( )n ]u[n]
2 2
Y (ejΩ )
H(ejΩ ) =
X(ejΩ )
1
Y (ejΩ )(1 − e−j2Ω ) = X(ejΩ )e−jΩ
4
1
y[n] − y[n − 2] = x[n − 1]
4
3.90. A continuous-time system is described by the state variable description

−1 0 0
A= , b= , c = 0 1 , D = [0]
0 −3 2
Transform the state vector associated with this system using the matrix

1 −1
T=
1 1
to find a new state variable description for the system. Show that the frequency response of the original
and transformed systems are equal.
H(jω) = c(jωI − A)−1 b + D
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Convolution between signals& sequences
Aim:
Write the program for convolution between two signals and also between two
sequences.
Software Required:
Matlab software
Theory:
Convolution involves the following operations.

1. Folding
2. Multiplication
3. Addition
4. Shifting
These operations can be represented by a Mathematical Expression as follows:

x[n]= Input signal Samples
h[ n-k]= Impulse response co-efficient.
y[ n]= Convolution output.
n = No. of Input samples
h = No. of Impulse response co-efficient.
Example : X(n)={1 2 -1 0 1}, h(n)={ 1,2,3,-1}
Program:
clc;
close all;
clear all;
%program for convolution of two sequences
x=input('enter input sequence: ');
h=input('enter impulse response: ');
y=conv(x,h);
subplot(3,1,1);
stem(x);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('input sequence')
subplot(3,1,2);
stem(h);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('h(n)');
title('impulse response sequence')
subplot(3,1,3);
stem(y);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('y(n)');
title('linear convolution')
disp('linear convolution y=');
disp(y)
%program for signal convolution
t=0:0.1:10;
x1=sin(2*pi*t);
h1=cos(2*pi*t);
y1=conv(x1,h1);
figure;
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(x1);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('x(t)');
title('input signal')
subplot(3,1,2);
plot(h1);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('h(t)');
title('impulse response')
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(y1);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('y(n)');
title('linear convolution');
RESULT: convolution between signals and sequences is computed.

Output:
enter input sequence: [1 3 4 5]
enter impulse response: [2 1 4]
linear convolution y=
2 7 15 26 21 20
UNIT- V – Post – Test – MCQ
1. The Discrete Fourier transform DFT is:

a) Same as the DTFT.
b) The sampled version of DTFT output.
c) Both (a) and (b)
2. Write the difference equation for the realization given in the figure.
a) y(n)= y(n-1)-y(n-2)
b) y(n)= x(n-1) + x(n-2)
c) y(n)= x(n) + y(n-2)
d) y(n)= x(n) + x(n-2)
3. The number of memory locations required to realize the system

1+3𝑧 −2+2𝑧 −3
𝐻(𝑧) = 1+2𝑧 2 +𝑧 −4
(A) 5
(B) 7
(C) 4
(D) 10
4. Which among the following operations is/are not involved /associated with the
computation process of linear convolution?
a. Folding Operation
b. Shifting Operation
c. Multiplication Operation
d. Integration Operation
5. The particular solution for the input x(n)= 𝑎𝑛 is

a) K
b) 𝑘𝑎𝑛
c) k1 + k2n
d) 𝑎𝑛 (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 n)

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SRI CHANDRASEKHARENDRA SARASWATHI VISWA MAHAVIDYALAYA

(University established under section 3of UGC Act 1956)

Signals and Systems

SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

UNIT-I CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

Prerequisite: Basic knowledge on Mathematics

To understand the properties and representation of discrete and continuous signals

Unit-I Classification of Signals and Systems

3. Frequency and Time period are ______

4. Which of the following can weaken a signal

5. Which is a physical device that performs an operation on the signal

Unit 1: Classification of signals and systems

1.2 Classification of signals

Amplitude Sine Wave

Fig 1.2 Digital Signal

1.2.2 Continuous time and discrete time signal

Continuous time signal:

Discrete time signal:

Fig 1.3 Discrete time signal

1.2.3 Even (symmetric) and Odd (Anti-symmetric) signal

1.2.4 Periodic and Aperiodic signal

1.2.5 Energy and Power signal

For Discrete time signals,

Random signal (Non-Deterministic signal):

1.2.7 Causal and Non-causal signal

1.3 Basic(Elementary or Standard) continuous time signals

1.3.2 Ramp signal

Unit ramp signal is defined as

1.3.3 Parabolic signal

Unit Parabolic signal

Unit ramp signal is obtained by integrating unit step signal

Unit step signal is obtained by differentiating unit ramp signal

1.3.4 Unit Pulse signal is defined as

Unit Pulse signal

1.3.5 Impulse signal

Unit Impulse signal

Properties of Impulse signal:

𝑥(𝑡)𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 0 𝛿 0 = 𝑥 0 [∵ 𝛿 𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 0 = 1]

1.3.6 Sinusoidal signal

Cosinusoidal signal Sinusoidal signal

1.3.7 Exponential signal

x(t) a=0 x(t) a>0 x(t) a<0

DC signal Exponentially Exponentially

Complex exponential signal is defined as 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑠𝑡

Exponentially growing sinusoidal signal

𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝜎 = −𝑣𝑒, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑠Ω𝑡 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛Ω𝑡),

Exponentially decaying Cosinusoidal signal Exponentially decaying sinusoidal signal

1.4 Basic(Elementary or Standard) Discrete time signals

1.4.1 Step signal

Unit step signal

Unit Ramp signal

1.4.3 Pulse signal (Rectangular pulse function)

1.4.4 Unit Impulse signal

Unit Impulse signal

1.4.5 Sinusoidal signal

1.4.6 Exponential signal

Decreasing exponential signal Increasing exponential signal

Complex Exponential signal is defined as 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 𝑗 (𝜔 0 𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0 𝑛 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔0 𝑛]

Exponentially decreasing Cosinusoidal signal

Exponentially growing Cosinusoidal signal