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TLE502_Vol_3

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1.

1 Classification of Signals
1.2

A signal can be defined in one of the following ways −

 Anything that conveys information can be termed as a signal.


 A signal can also be defined as a single valued function of one or more independent
variables which has some information.
 A signal may also be defined as any physical quantity that varies with time or any
other independent variable.

A signal may be represented in time domain or frequency domain. Some common


examples of a signal are human speech, electric current, electric voltage, etc.

By the definition, a signal can be a function of one or more independent variables such as
time, position, pressure, temperature, etc. If a signal is a function of only one independent
variable, it is called one-dimensional signal and if a signal is a function of two
independent variables, it is called two-dimensional signal.

1.2.1 Classification of Signals

Depending upon the nature and characteristics in the time domain, the signals may be
classified into two categories –

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Continuous-time and discrete-time signal
A continuous-time signal is a signal that can be defined at every instant of time. A
continuous-time signal contains values for all real numbers along the X-axis. It is
denoted by 𝑥(𝑡). Figure 1.1 (a) shows continuous-time signal.

Signals that can be defined at discrete instant of time is called discrete time signal.
Basically discrete time signals can be obtained by sampling a continuous-time
signal. It is denoted as x(n).Figure 1.1 (b) shows discrete-time signal.

Figure 1.1: Graphical representations of (a) continuous-time and (b) discrete-time signals.

The values of a discrete time signal are often quantized, for many practical
applications, to obtain numbers that can be represented for use in a digital circuit
or system. A quantized, discrete time, signal is considered to be a digital signal.
Thus, if both the independent and dependent variables are only defined at discrete
values, then the signal is considered to be a digital signal. Digital signals can be
represented as a sequence of finite precision numbers.

Both discrete-time and continuous-time signals may be further classified as


follows −
1) Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals
2) Even and Odd Signals
3) Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
4) Energy and Power Signals

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5) Causal Signals, Anti-Causal Signals, and Non-Causal Signals

1) Deterministic and Non-deterministic (Stochastic) Signals


A random signal cannot be described by any mathematical function, where as a
deterministic signal is one that can be described mathematically. A common
example of random signal is noise Further, Continuous signals can be classified
into two groups:

Deterministic Signals: A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainty


with respect to its value at any instant of time. Or, signals which can be defined
exactly by a mathematical formula are known as deterministic signals.

Figure 1.2 Deterministic Signal

Stochastic or Non-deterministic Signals: A signal is said to be non-deterministic if


there is uncertainty with respect to its value at some instant of time.
Nondeterministic signals are random in nature hence they are called random
signals. Random signals cannot be described by a mathematical equation. They are
modeled in probabilistic terms.

Figure 1.3 Stochastic Signal

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2) Even and Odd Signals
One of characteristics of signal is symmetry that may be useful for signal analysis.
A signal which is symmetrical about the vertical axis or time origin is known
as even signal or even function. Therefore, the even signals are also called
the symmetrical signals. Cosine wave is an example of even signal. Moreover, a
signal is referred to as an even if it is identical to its time-reversed counterparts; x(t)
= x(-t).

Properties of Even Signals


The properties of the even signals are given as follows −

 The even signals are symmetrical about the vertical axis.


 The value of an even signal at time (t) is same as at time (-t).
 The even signal is identical with its reflection about the origin.
 Area under the even signal is two time of its one side area.

Odd Signal: A signal that is anti-symmetrical about the vertical axis is known as
odd signal or odd function. Therefore, the odd signals are also called
the antisymmetric signals. Sine wave is an example of odd signal. Moreover, a
signal is odd if x(t) = -x(-t). An odd signal must be 0 at t=0, in other words, odd
signal passes the origin.

Properties of Odd Signals


Following are the properties of the odd signals −
 The odd signal is antisymmetric about the origin.
 The value of odd signal at time (t) is negative of its value at time (-t) for all
t, i.e., −∞ < 𝑡 < ∞.
 The odd signal must necessarily be zero at time t = 0 to hold (0) = −(0).
 Area under the odd signal is always zero.

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Numerical Example
Find whether the signals are even or odd.
 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒−5𝑡
 𝑥(𝑡) = sin 2𝑡
 𝑥(𝑡) = cos 5𝑡

Solution
 Given signal is,
(𝑡) = 𝑒−5𝑡
(−𝑡) = 𝑒5𝑡
−(𝑡) = −𝑒−5𝑡
It is clear that (𝑡) ≠ (−𝑡) and (−𝑡) ≠ −(𝑡), thus the given signal is neither even
signal nor odd signal.
 The given signal is,
(𝑡) = sin 2𝑡
(−𝑡) = −sin 2𝑡
−(𝑡) = −sin 2𝑡
Hence, (𝑡) ≠ (−𝑡); but (−𝑡) = −(𝑡), thus the given signal is an odd signal.
 Given signal is,
(𝑡) = cos 5𝑡
(−𝑡) = cos 5𝑡
−(𝑡) = −cos 5𝑡
Therefore, (𝑡) = (−𝑡) and (−𝑡) ≠ −(𝑡), thus the given signal is an even signal.

3) Periodic and Aperiodic Signals


A signal is said to be periodic signal if it has a definite pattern and repeats itself at
a regular interval of time. Whereas, the signal which does not at the regular interval
of time is known as an aperiodic signal or non-periodic signal.

i. Continuous Time Periodic Signal

A continuous time signal x(t) is said to be periodic if and only if

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(𝑡 + 𝑇) = (𝑡) for − ∞ < 𝑡 < ∞

Where, T is a positive constant that represents the time period of the periodic signal.
The smallest value of the time period (T) which justifies the definition of the
periodic signal is known as fundamental time period of the signal and is denoted
by (𝑇0).

The reciprocal of the time period (T) of the periodic signal is called the frequency
(f) of the signal, i.e.,
1
𝑓=
𝑇
Since the angular frequency is given by,
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
1 2π
Time period 𝑇 = =
𝑓 ω

Some examples of continuous-time periodic signals are shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: continuous-time periodic signals

ii. Discrete Time Periodic Signal


A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be periodic if it satisfies the following
condition

(𝑛) = (𝑛 + 𝑁); for all integers 𝑛

Here, N is the time period of the periodic signal and a positive integer. The smallest
value of the time period (N) which satisfies the above condition is known as

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fundament time period of the signal. The fundamental time period (N) may be
defined as the minimum number of samples taken by signal to repeat itself.

The angular frequency of the discrete time periodic sequences is given by,

2𝜋
𝜔=
𝑁
Therefore, the time period of the sequence is
2𝜋
𝑁=
𝜔

Some examples of the discrete time periodic sequences are shown in Fig. 1.5.

Fig. 1.5: discrete time periodic sequences

iii. Continuous Time Aperiodic Signal


If a continuous time signal does not have a definite pattern and does not repeat at
regular intervals of time is known as continuous time aperiodic
signal or nonperiodic signal.

In other words, a signal x(t) for which no value of time t satisfies the condition of
periodicity, is known as aperiodic or non-periodic signal.

Some examples of continuous-time aperiodic signals is shown in Fig. 1.6.

Fig. 1.6: continuous-time aperiodic signals

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iv. Discrete Time Aperiodic Signal
If the condition of periodicity is not satisfied even for one value of n for a discrete
time signal x(n), then the discrete time signal is aperiodic or nonperiodic. Examples
of discrete time aperiodic signals are shown in Fig. 1.7.

Fig. 1.7: discrete time aperiodic signals

Numerical Example

For given signals, determine whether it is periodic or non-periodic signal and if find
its fundamental period.

1) 𝑥(𝑡) = 5cos⁡(200𝜋𝑡)

2) 𝑥(𝑛) = 12 sin(25𝜋𝑛)

3) 𝑥(𝑛) = 9 cos ⁡(25𝑛)

4) 𝑥(𝑡) = ⁡ cos2 (2𝜋𝑡)

𝜋 2𝜋
5) 𝑥(𝑡) = 4 cos ( 𝑡) + 2 cos ( 𝑡)
100 180

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Solution
1. Given signal is,

𝑥(𝑡) = 5cos⁡(200𝜋𝑡)

To check the periodicity of a signal , we compare the signal with standard cosine signal
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑜 𝑡)

Hence,

2𝜋𝑓𝑜 = 200𝜋𝑡

200𝜋 100
𝑓𝑜 = = = 100
2𝜋 1

1 1
Time period 𝑇 = = = 0.01 = 10𝑚𝑠
𝑓 100

Since, the given signal has time period 𝑇 =10ms, then the given signal is
periodic

2. 𝑥(𝑛) = 12 sin(25𝜋𝑛)

Given signal is discrete time signal. We know that the condition for a discrete time
signal to be periodic is
𝑘
𝑓𝑜 = i.e., the ratio of integers (such that N represent the period of the discrete time
𝑁

signal)

Comparing given signal with standard sine wave signal


𝑥(𝑛) = 𝐴 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑜 𝑛)

Therefore,
2𝜋𝑓𝑜 = 25𝜋
25𝜋 25 𝑘
𝑓𝑜 = = i.e., ratio of integers
2𝜋 2 𝑁

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Hence, the given signal 𝑥(𝑛) is periodic with period 𝑁 = 2 samples/cycle

3. 𝑥(𝑛) = 9 cos ⁡(25𝑛)


𝑘
Given signal is discrete time signal. It is periodic if 𝑓𝑜 = i.e., the ratio of
𝑁

integers
Therefore, if we compare the given signa 𝑥(𝑛)⁡ with standard cosine signal

2𝜋𝑓𝑜 = 25
25 𝑘
𝑓𝑜 = ⁡ ≠ ⁡⁡ i.e., not a ratio of integers
2𝜋 𝑁

Hence, given signal 𝑥(𝑛) is non-periodic signal.

4) 𝑥(𝑡) = ⁡ cos2 (2𝜋𝑡)

Given signal is not in the form of standard cosine or sine. We know the standard
formular
1 + cos 2𝜃 = 2 cos 2 𝜃

1 + cos 2𝜃
cos 2 𝜃 =
2
Applying this standard formular to the given signal 𝑥(𝑡)

1 + cos 2 × (2𝜋𝑡)
𝑥(𝑡) =
2
1 1
𝑥(𝑡) = + cos 2 × (2𝜋𝑡)
2 2
𝑥(𝑡) = 0.5 + 0.5 cos(4𝜋𝑡)

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Note that the first term does not have any frequency components but the second
term is a standard cosine term and has a frequency component

Hence,
2𝜋𝑓𝑜 = 4𝜋

4𝜋
𝑓𝑜 = = 2 Hz
2𝜋

1 1
The fundamental period 𝑇0 = = = 0.5⁡𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓𝑜 2

Hence the given signal 𝑥(𝑡)⁡is periodic with period 0.5 sec.

𝜋 2𝜋
5. 𝑥(𝑡) = 4 cos ( 𝑡) + 2 cos ( 𝑡)
100 180

Given signal 𝑥(𝑡) is of the form


𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑥2 (𝑡)

Where,
𝜋 2𝜋
𝑥1 (𝑡) = 4 cos ( 𝑡) and 𝑥2 (𝑡) = 2 cos ( 𝑡)⁡
100 180

Hence,
𝜋
𝑥1 (𝑡) = 4 cos ( 𝑡)
100
𝜋
2𝜋𝑓1 =
100
𝜋 1 1
𝑓1 = × =
100 2𝜋 200
1 1
Fundamental period 𝑇1 = = 1 = 200 sec
𝑓1 ⁡ ⁡
200

And

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2𝜋
𝑥2 (𝑡) = 2 cos ( 𝑡)
180
2𝜋
2𝜋𝑓2 =
180
2𝜋 1 1
𝑓2 = ⁡× =
180 2𝜋 180
1 1
Fundamental period 𝑇2 = = 1 = 180 sec
𝑓2 ⁡ ⁡
180

Hence, 𝑥1 (𝑡) and 𝑥2 (𝑡) are periodic. Hence, the given signal 𝑥(𝑡) is periodic if
⁡𝑇1 𝑛
= i.e., ratio of integers
⁡𝑇2 𝑚

⁡𝑇1 200 10 𝑛
= = i.e.,
⁡𝑇2 180 9 𝑚

𝑥(𝑡) is periodic with period 𝑇 such that 𝑇 = 𝐿𝐶𝑀(𝑇1 , 𝑇2 )

To find the LCM we use lamda method i.e., 𝑇 = ⁡ λ1 𝑇1 ⁡ = λ2 𝑇2


Hence,
λ1 𝑇2 9
= =
λ2 𝑇1 10

Hence, λ1 = 9 and λ2 = 10

𝑇 = ⁡ λ1 𝑇1 = 9 × 200 = 1800 sec

Given signal 𝑥(𝑡) is periodic with period 𝑇=1800 sec

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4) Energy and Power Signals
Energy Signal: A signal is said to be an energy signal if and only if its total energy
E is finite, i.e., 0 < 𝐸 < ∞. For an energy signal, the average power P = 0. The
nonperiodic signals are the examples of energy signals.

Power Signal: A signal is said to be a power signal if its average power P is finite,
i.e., 0 < 𝑃 < ∞. For a power signal, the total energy E = ∞. The periodic signals are
the examples of power signals.

Function = 𝒙(𝒕)
1. |𝒙(𝒕)|
𝑻
2. ∫−𝑻|𝒙(𝒕)|𝟐 𝒅𝒕 = (⁡)
3. 𝑬 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (⁡)⁡⁡ = − − − − 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔 (finite energy, infinity power signal)
𝑻→∞
(⁡) ⁡
4. 𝑷 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ⁡ = − − − − 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔 (finite power signal)
𝑻→∞ 𝟐𝑻

Numerical Example

For given signals, determine whether it is an Energy signal or a power signal.

1. 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)


2. 𝑥(𝑡) = 5𝑒 𝑗𝜋⁄2𝑡
3. 𝑥(𝑡) = 4⁡𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡6𝜋𝑡⁡

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1. 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)

|𝒙(𝒕)| = 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)


𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
𝒆−𝟒𝒕 𝟏 𝟏
∫ |𝒙(𝒕)|𝟐 𝒅𝒕 = ⁡⁡∫ 𝒆 −𝟒𝒕
𝒅𝒕 = [ ] = − [𝒆−𝟒𝒕 ]𝑻𝟎 = − [𝒆−𝟒𝑻 − 𝒆𝟎 ⁡]
−𝑻 𝟎 −𝟒 𝟎 𝟒 𝟒
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑬 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 |𝒙(𝒕)|𝟐 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ⁡ − [𝒆−𝟒𝑻 − 𝟏] =⁡ − [𝒆∞ − 𝟏] = ⁡
𝑻→∞ 𝑻→∞ 𝟒 𝟒 𝟒

Note 𝒆∞ = 𝟎. Since the energy is finite, it is an energy signal.

2. 𝑥(𝑡) = 5𝑒 𝑗𝜋⁄2𝑡

𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝜃 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝜃
|𝑒 𝑗𝜃 | = √cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 = 1

|𝑥(𝑡)| = 5(1)
𝑻 𝑻
∫ |𝒙(𝒕)|𝟐 𝒅𝒕 = ∫ 52 𝒅𝒕 ⁡ = [𝟐𝟓𝒕]𝑻−𝑻 = 𝟐𝟓[𝒕]𝑻−𝑻 = 𝟐𝟓[𝑻 − −𝑻] = 𝟐𝟓(𝟐𝑻)
−𝑻 −𝑻

𝐸 = lim 25(2𝑇) = 25(2∞) = ∞ is infinite (hence, a power signal)
𝑇→∞

25(2𝑇)
𝑃 = lim =⁡⁡ lim 25 = 25𝑊 ⁡ (since power is finite it is a power signal)
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 𝑇→∞

3. 𝑥(𝑡) = 4⁡𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡6𝜋𝑡⁡
|𝑥(𝑡)| = 4⁡𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡6𝜋𝑡⁡
𝑻 𝑻
∫−𝑻|𝒙(𝒕)|𝟐 𝒅𝒕 = ∫−𝑻 16 sin2 6𝜋𝑡 ⁡𝒅𝒕

1−cos 2𝜃
But sin2 𝜃 =
2

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𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
1 − cos 2(6𝜋𝑡)
∫ |𝒙(𝒕)|𝟐 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟏𝟔 ∫ ⁡𝒅𝒕 = 𝟖 ∫ [1 − cos 12𝜋𝑡]⁡𝒅𝒕
−𝑻 −𝑻 2 −𝑻

𝑻 𝑇
= 8 [∫ 𝑑𝑡 − ∫ ⁡ cos 12𝜋𝑡 ⁡𝒅𝒕] = 8([𝑡]𝑇−𝑇 − [sin 12𝜋𝑡]𝑇−𝑇 )
−𝑻 −𝑇

= 𝟖[(𝑻 − −𝑻) − [𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝝅𝑻 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏⁡𝟏𝟐𝝅𝑻]]

= 𝟖([𝟐𝑻] − [𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝝅𝑻 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏⁡𝟏𝟐𝝅𝑻])


= 𝟏𝟔𝑻 − 𝟖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝝅𝑻 + 𝟖𝒔𝒊𝒏⁡𝟏𝟐𝝅𝑻)

𝐸 = lim 𝟏𝟔𝑻 − 𝟖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝝅𝑻 + 𝟖𝒔𝒊𝒏⁡𝟏𝟐𝝅𝑻) =⁡ ∞


𝑇→∞

𝟏𝟔𝑻−𝟖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝝅𝑻+𝟖𝒔𝒊𝒏⁡𝟏𝟐𝝅𝑻 16𝑇 𝟖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝝅𝑻+𝟖𝒔𝒊𝒏⁡𝟏𝟐𝝅𝑻)


𝑃 = lim ⁡ =⁡⁡ lim −
𝑇→∞ 𝟐𝑻 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 2𝑇

𝟖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝝅𝑻 + 𝟖𝒔𝒊𝒏⁡𝟏𝟐𝝅𝑻)
= lim 8 −
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇
𝟖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝝅∞ + 𝟖𝒔𝒊𝒏⁡𝟏𝟐𝝅∞)
= lim 8 −
𝑇→∞ 2∞
=8−0
𝑃=8W

Important Points
 Both energy and power signals are mutually exclusive, i.e., no signal can be
both power signal and energy signal.
 A signal is neither energy nor power signal if both energy and power of the
signal are equal to infinity.
 All practical signals have finite energy; thus they are energy signals.
 In practice, the physical generation of power signal is impossible since its
requires infinite duration and infinite energy.

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 All finite duration signals of finite amplitude are energy signals.
 Sum of an energy signal and power signal is a power signal.
 A signal whose amplitude is constant over infinite duration is a power signal.
 The energy of a signal is not affected by the time shifting and time inversion.
It is only affected by the time scaling.

5) Causal Signals, Anti-Causal Signals, and Non-Causal Signals

 Causal Signals – A continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be causal signal if 𝑥(𝑡) ⁡ =


⁡0 for 𝑡⁡ < ⁡0. Similarly, a discrete time signal x(n) is said to be causal signal if x(n)
= 0 for n < 0. Thus, a causal signal does not exist for negative time. Example: u(t)
is a causal signal.
 Anti-Causal Signals – A continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be anticausal signal
if x(t) = 0 for t > 0. Similarly, a discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be anti-causal
signal if x(n) = 0 for n > 0. Therefore, an anticausal signal does not exist for positive
time. Example: u(-t) is an anticausal signal.
 Non-Causal Signals – Those continuous-time or discrete-time signals which are
not causal, are known as non-causal signals. For example, a signal which exists in
positive as well as negative time neither causal nor anti-causal but it is a non-causal
signal.

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Numerical examples
Find which of the following signals are causal or non-causal
1. 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡 − 1)

Causal signal

2. 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡 + 2)

Non-causal signal

3. 𝑥(𝑡) = 3⁡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐⁡(2𝑡)

Non-causal signal

4. 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡 + 2) − 𝑢(𝑡 − 2)

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Non-causal signal

5. 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡⁡𝑢(𝑡)

Causal signal

1.3 System

In signals and systems, a system can be defined in a number of ways as −

 A system is defined as a physical device that can produce an output or response for
the given input.
 A system may also be defined as an entity, which works on an input signal and
transforms it into an output signal.
 A system can also be defined as a set of elements, which are connected together and
generates an output signal corresponding to an input signal.

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Generally, a block diagram as shown in Fig. 1.10 represents a system. Here, the arrow
entering the box denotes the input signal or excitation [r(t)] and the arrow leaving the box
denotes the output signal or response [c(t)].

Fig. 1.10:

The relationship between the input signal 𝑟(𝑡) and the output signal 𝑐(𝑡) of a system is
given as

(𝑡) = 𝑇[r(𝑡)]

The output or response of the system depends upon the transfer function of the system. The
actual structure of the system determines the exact relation between the input r(t) and the
output c(t) of the system and specify the output for every input.

There are various types of systems such as mechanical system, electrical system,
electromechanical system, biological system, etc. All the physical devices such as an
electric motor, generator, filter, turbine, etc. are also examples of systems.

Depending upon the number of input and output, the systems may be single input and single
output systems or multi input and multi output systems.

1.3.1 Classification of Systems

Depending upon the time domain, the systems may be classified into two categories −

1) Continuous-Time Systems

2) Discrete-Time Systems

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Continuous-Time System

A system which transforms a continuous-time input signal into a continuous time output
signal is called the continuous-time system.

A signal is said to be continuous-time signal if it is defined for every instant of time.

If r(t) and c(t) are the input and output signals of a continuous time system respectively,
then the relation between input and output signals of the continuous time system is defined
as

𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑇[𝑟(𝑡)]

The block diagram of a continuous-time system is shown in Fig. 1.11.

Fig. 1.11: continuous-time system

Amplifiers, integrators, differentiators and filter circuits, etc. are some examples of
continuous time systems.

Discrete-Time System

A system which processes the discrete-time input signals and produces discrete time output
signals is shown as discrete-time system.

A signal is said to be discrete time signal if it is defined only at the discrete instants of time.

If r(n) and c(n) are the input and output signals of a discrete time system respectively, then
the relation between input and output of the discrete-time system is defined as

𝑐(𝑛) = 𝑇[𝑟(𝑛)]

The block diagram of the discrete-time system is represented in Fig. 1.12.

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Fig. 1.12: discrete-time system

Microprocessors, digital devices, semiconductor memories, shift registers, etc. are some
examples of discrete-time systems.

1.3.2 Systems are further classified into the following categories:

i. linear and Non-linear Systems


ii. Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems
iii. linear Time variant and linear Time invariant systems
iv. Static and Dynamic Systems
v. Causal and Non-causal Systems
vi. Invertible and Non-Invertible Systems
vii. Stable and Unstable Systems

1.3.2.1 Linear and Non-linear Systems

Linear System: A system is said to be linear if it obeys the principle of homogeneity and
principle of superposition.

Principle of Homogeneity

The principle of homogeneity says that a system which generates an output y(t) for an input
x(t) must produce an output ay(t) for an input ax(t).

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Superposition Principle

According to the principle of superposition, a system which gives an output 𝑦1(𝑡) for an
input 𝑥1(𝑡) and an output 𝑦2(𝑡) for an input 𝑥2(𝑡) must produce an output [𝑦1(𝑡) + 𝑦2(𝑡)] for
an input [𝑥1(𝑡) + 𝑥2(𝑡)].

Therefore, for a continuous-time linear system,

[𝑎𝑦1(𝑡) + 𝑏𝑦2(𝑡)] = [𝑎𝑥1(𝑡) + 𝑏𝑥2(𝑡)] = 𝑎𝑇[𝑥1(𝑡)] + 𝑏𝑇[𝑥2(𝑡)]

Also, for a discrete-time linear system,

[𝑎𝑦1(𝑛) + 𝑏𝑦2(𝑛)] = [𝑎𝑥1(𝑛) + 𝑏𝑥2(𝑛)] = 𝑎𝑇[𝑥1(𝑛)] + 𝑏𝑇[𝑥2(𝑛)]


Hence, we can say that a system is linear if the output of the system due to weighted sum
of inputs is equal to the weighted sum of outputs.

Filter circuits, communications channels, etc. are few examples of linear systems.

Non-Linear System: A system is said to be a non-linear system if it does not obey the
principle of homogeneity and principle of superposition.

Generally, if the equation describing the system contains square or higher order terms of
input/output or product of input/output and its derivatives or a constant, the system will be
a non-linear system. Triangulation of GPS signals is an example of non-linear system.

Numerical Example
Check whether the given systems are linear or non-linear systems −
𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡)
i. + 3𝑡𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
ii. 3 + 4𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥 2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

Solution
i. The given system is,
𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡)
+ 3𝑡𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2

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Consider an input 𝑥1(𝑡) which produces an output 𝑦1(𝑡), then,

𝑑 2 𝑦1 (𝑡)
+ 3𝑡𝑦1 (𝑡) = 𝑡 2 𝑥1 (𝑡) … … (1)
𝑑𝑡 2

And an input 𝑥2(𝑡) which produces an output 𝑦2(𝑡), then,

𝑑 2 𝑦2 (𝑡)
+ 3𝑡𝑦2 (𝑡) = 𝑡 2 𝑥2 (𝑡) … … (2)
𝑑𝑡 2

Now, the linear combination of the equations (1) and (2) gives,

𝑑 2 𝑦1 (𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑦2 (𝑡)
{𝑎 + 𝑎3𝑡𝑦1 (𝑡)} + {𝑏 + 𝑏3𝑡𝑦2 (𝑡)} = 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑡 2 𝑥2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2

Then

𝑑2
[𝑎𝑦1 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑡)] + 3𝑡[𝑎𝑦1 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑡)] = 𝑡 2 [𝑎𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑡)] .. ..(3)
𝑑𝑡 2

Where, [𝑎𝑦1(𝑡) + 𝑏𝑦2(𝑡)] is the weighted sum of outputs and [𝑎𝑥1(𝑡) + 𝑏𝑥2(𝑡)] is the
weighted sum of inputs.

Hence, the equation (3) shows that the weighted sum of inputs to the given system
generates an output that is equal to the weighted sum of outputs to each of the
individual inputs. Therefore, the given system is a linear system.

ii. The given system is,

𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
3 + 4𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥 2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

Let the output 𝑦1(𝑡) is corresponding to the input 𝑥1(𝑡), then,

𝑑𝑦1 (𝑡)
3 + 4𝑦1 (𝑡) = 𝑥12 (𝑡) … …(1)
𝑑𝑡

Similarly, the output 𝑦2(𝑡) is corresponding to the input 𝑥2(𝑡), then,

23
𝑑𝑦2 (𝑡)
3 + 4𝑦2 (𝑡) = 𝑥22 (𝑡) … …(2)
𝑑𝑡

Then, the linear combination (i.e., homogeneity and superposition) of the equations (1) and
(2) can be written as,
𝑑𝑦1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑦2 (𝑡)
{𝑎3 + 𝑎4𝑦1 (𝑡)} + {𝑏3 + 𝑏4𝑦2 (𝑡)} = 𝑎𝑥21 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑥22 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Hence,

𝑑
3 [𝑎𝑦1 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑡)] + 4[𝑎𝑦1 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑡)] = 𝑎𝑥21 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑥22 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

Where, [𝑎𝑦1 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑡)] is the weighted sum of outputs but [𝑎𝑥21 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑥22 (𝑡)] is not the
weighted sum of inputs. Here, the principle of superposition is not satisfied. Therefore, the
given system is a non-linear system.

1.3.2.2 Invertible and Non-Invertible Systems


Invertible System: If a system has a unique relationship between its input and output, the
system is called the invertible system. In other words, a system is said to be an invertible
system only if an inverse system exists which when cascaded with the original system
produces an output equal to the input of the first system. The block diagram representation
of an invertible system is shown in Fig. 1.13.

Fig. 1.13: an Invertible system

Mathematically, an invertible system is defined as,


(𝑡) = 𝑇−1[𝑦(𝑡)] = 𝑇−1{𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)]} … for continuous time system
(𝑛) = 𝑇−1[𝑦(𝑛)] = 𝑇−1{𝑇[𝑥(𝑛)]} … for discrete time system

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Invertible System: A system is said to be a non-invertible system if the system does not
have a unique relationship between its input and output. In other words, if there is many
to one mapping between input and output at any given instant for system, then the system
is known as non-invertible system.

Mathematically, a non-invertible system is represented as,

(𝑡) ≠ 𝑇−1{𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)]} … for continuous time system

(𝑛) ≠ 𝑇−1{𝑇[𝑥(𝑛)]} … for discrete time system

The block diagram representation of a non-invertible system is shown in Fig. 1.14.

Fig. 1.14: a non-invertible system

Numerical Example
Find whether the given systems are invertible or non-invertible −

 𝑦(𝑡) = 5𝑥(𝑡)
 𝑦(𝑡) = 3 + 𝑥(𝑡)
 𝑦(𝑡) = 5𝑥2(𝑡)

Solution (1)
The given system is,

(𝑡) = 5(𝑡)

Let, (𝑡) = 3, then the output of the system is,

(𝑡) = 5 × 3 = 15

Let, (𝑡) = −3, then the output of the system is,

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(𝑡) = 5 × (−3) = −15

Hence, for different inputs, there is different outputs. Therefore, the system is invertible
system.

Solution (2)
The expression describing the system is,

(𝑡) = 3 + (𝑡)

For (𝑡) = 10, the output of the system is,

(𝑡) = 3 + 10 = 13

And for (𝑡) = −10, the output of the system is,

(𝑡) = 3 + (−10) = −7

Since, for the given system, different inputs lead to a different output. Therefore, the
system is an invertible system.

Solution (3)
The given system is,

(𝑡) = 5𝑥2(𝑡)

Let (𝑡) = 5, the output of the system is,

(𝑡) = 5 × 52 = 125

Let (𝑡) = −5, then the output of the system is,

(𝑡) = 5 × (−5)2 = 125

Since, for the given system, different inputs generate same output. Hence, the given system
is a non-invertible system.

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1.3.2.3 Causal and Non-Causal System

Causal System: A system whose output or response at any time instant (t) depends only
on the present and past values of the input but not on the future values of the input is called
the causal system. For a causal system, the output or response does not begin before the
input signal is applied. This is why, a causal system is also called a non-anticipated
system.

The causal systems are real time systems and they can be physically realised. For a causal
system, the impulse response of the system is zero for negative time (i.e., t < 0) because
the impulse signal δ(t) or δ(n) exists only at t = 0 or n = 0, i.e.,

ℎ(𝑡) = 0; 𝑡 < 0 … for continuous time system

ℎ(𝑛) = 0; 𝑛 < 0 … for discrete time system

A resistor is an example of a continuous time causal system. Some more examples of


causal systems are given below −

(𝑡) = (𝑡 − 3) + 3(𝑡)

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑥(𝑡)

(𝑛) = (𝑛 − 1) + (𝑛)

𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑛𝑥(𝑛)

Where, y(t) or y(n) and x(t) or x(n) are the output and input of the system respectively.

Non-Causal System: A system whose output or response at any time instant (t) depends
upon future values of the input is called the non-causal system. The non-causal systems
can generate an output before the input is given, hence they are also known as anticipative
systems.

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The non-causal systems do not exist in real time. Also, these systems are not physically
realisable. The image processing systems are the examples of noncausal systems.

Some examples of the non-causal systems are given below −

(𝑡) = (𝑡 + 3) + 2(𝑡)

(𝑡) = 𝑥2(𝑡) + 𝑡𝑥(𝑡 + 3)

(𝑛) = (𝑛) + 3(3𝑛)

(𝑛) = 𝑥2(𝑛) + 2𝑥(𝑛 + 1)

Solved Example
Find whether the following systems are causal or non-causal system −

 𝑦(𝑡) ⁡ = ⁡𝑥2(𝑡) ⁡ + ⁡𝑥(𝑡⁡ − ⁡3)


 𝑦(𝑡) ⁡ = ⁡𝑥(3⁡ − ⁡𝑡) ⁡ + ⁡𝑥(𝑡⁡ − ⁡2)
 𝑦(𝑛) ⁡ = ⁡𝑥(2𝑛)
 𝑦(𝑛) ⁡ = ⁡𝑠𝑖𝑛[𝑥(𝑛)]
2𝑡
 𝑦(𝑡) = ∫−𝑎 𝑥(𝑢)𝑑𝑢

Solution
 Given system is,
(𝑡) = 𝑥2(𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡 − 3)
Causality of the given system can be determined by considering different values of t as
follows −
𝑡 = 0 → (0) = 𝑥2(0) + 𝑥(−3)
𝑡 = (−2) → (−2) = 𝑥2(−2) + 𝑥(−5)
𝑡 = 2 → (2) = 𝑥2(2) + 𝑥(−1)
Hence, for all the values of t, the output depends only on the present and past values of the
input. Thus, the given system is a causal system.

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 Given System is,
(𝑡) = (3 − 𝑡) + (𝑡 − 2)
Causality of the given system can be determined by considering different values of t as
follows −
𝑡 = 0 → (0) = (3) + (−2)
𝑡 = (−1) → (−1) = (4) + (−3)
𝑡 = 1 → (1) = (2) + (−1)
It is clear that for some values of t, the output of the system depends on the future values of
the input. Hence, the given system is a non-causal system.

 Given,
(𝑛) = (3𝑛)
The output of the system at different time instants is
𝑛 = 0 → (0) = (0)
𝑛 = −1 → (−1) = (−3)
𝑛 = 1 → (1) = (3)
𝑛 = 2 → (2) = (6)
Hence, for positive values of n, the output of the system depends upon the future values of
the input. Therefore, the given system is a non-causal system.

 Given system is,


(𝑛) = sin[𝑥(𝑛)]
The output of the system at different values of n is
𝑛 = 0 → (0) = sin[𝑥(0)]
𝑛 = −3 → (−3) = sin[𝑥(−3)]
𝑛 = 3 → (3) = sin[𝑥(3)]
Hence, for all values of n, the output of the system depends only on the present input values.
Therefore, the system is a causal system.

29
 The given system is,
2𝑡
𝑦(𝑡) = ∫−𝑎 𝑥(𝑢)𝑑𝑢

For different values of t, the output the system is,


0
t = 0 →𝑦(0) = ∫−𝑎 𝑥 (𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = [𝑥 (0) − 𝑥(𝑎)]
−2
t = -1⁡→𝑦(−1) = ∫−𝑎 𝑥 (𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = [𝑥 (−2) − 𝑥(𝑎)]
2
t = 1 →𝑦(1) = ∫−𝑎 𝑥 (𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = [𝑥 (2) − 𝑥(𝑎)]
4
t = 2 →𝑦(2) = ∫−𝑎 𝑥 (𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = [𝑥 (4) − 𝑥(𝑎)]

Hence, for the positive values of t, the output of the system depends upon the future
values of the input. Therefore, the given system is a non-causal system.

1.3.2.4 Static and Dynamic System


Static System: A system whose response or output is due to present input alone is known
as static system. The static system is also called the memoryless system. For a static or
memoryless system, the output of the system at any instant of time (t for continuous-time
system or n for discrete-time system) depends only on the input applied at that instant of
time (t or n), but not on the past or future values of the input.
A purely resistive electrical circuit is an example of static system. Some examples of
continuous-time and discrete-time static systems are given below −

𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑟(𝑡)
(𝑡) = 2𝑟2(𝑡)
𝑐(𝑛) = 𝑟(𝑛)

30
(𝑛) = 5𝑟2(𝑛)
Where, c(t) or c(n) and r(t) or r(n) are the output and input of the system respectively.

Dynamic System: A system whose response or output depends upon the past or future
inputs in addition to the present input is called the dynamic system. The dynamic systems
are also known as memory systems. Any continuous-time dynamic system can be
described by a differential equation or any discrete-time dynamic system by a difference
equation.
An electric circuit containing inductors and (or) capacitors is an example of dynamic
system. Also, a summer or accumulator, a delay circuit, etc. are some examples of discrete-
time dynamic systems.

Numerical Example
Find whether the following systems are static or dynamic −

 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 − 4)
 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(6𝑛)
 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛 − 1) + 𝑥(𝑛)

Solution
 Given system is,
(𝑡) = (𝑡 − 4)
From the equation of the system, it is clear that the output depends upon the past
values of the input. Hence, the given system is a dynamic system.

31
 Given system is,
(𝑛) = (6𝑛)
For this system, the output depends upon the present inputs only. Thus, it is a static
system.

 Given,
(𝑛) = (𝑛 − 1) + (𝑛)
The given discrete-time system is described by a difference equation. Hence, the
system is a dynamic system.

1.3.2.5 Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems


The property of a system which makes the behaviour of the system independent of time is
known as time invariance. Time invariance means that the behaviour of the system does
not depend on the time at which the input is applied to the system.

Time-Invariant System: If the input and output characteristics of a system do not change
with time, the system is called the time-invariant system.

Continuous-time Case
The time-invariance property of a continuous time system can be tested as follows −

Let x(t) is the input and x(t-t0) is the delayed input by t0 units. Then, the output of the system
for the input x(t) is

𝑥(𝑡) → 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)]

The output for the input x(t-t0) is

(𝑡 − 𝑡0) → (𝑡, 𝑡0) = [(𝑡 − 𝑡0)] = 𝑦(𝑡)|𝑥(𝑡)=𝑥(𝑡−𝑡0)

32
Also, the output delayed by t0 units is

(𝑡 − 𝑡0) = (𝑡)|𝑡=(𝑡−𝑡0)

If

(𝑡, 𝑡0) = (𝑡 − 𝑡0)

That is, when the delayed output of the system is equal to the output due to delayed input
for all possible values of t, then the given system is a timeinvariant system.

If the continuous-time system is described by a differential equation and if the coefficients


of the differential equation are constants, then the system is called time-invariant system.
For example,
𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
5 2
+4 + 3𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The system expressed by the above differential equation is a time-invariant system because
all its coefficients are constants.

Discrete-time Case
In the discrete-time case, the time-invariance property is known as shift invariance. A
given system is time invariant or not can be tested as follows −

Consider x(n) is the input and x(n-k) is the delayed input to the given discrete time system.
Then, the output of the system corresponding to the x(n) is given by

𝑥(𝑛) → 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑇[𝑥(𝑛)]

And the output for the delayed input isf

33
𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑘) → 𝑦(𝑛, 𝑘) = 𝑇[𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑘)] = 𝑦(𝑛)|𝑥(𝑛)=𝑥(𝑛−𝑘)

Also, the output of the system delayed by k units is

𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑘) = 𝑦(𝑛)|𝑛=(𝑛−𝑘)

If

𝑦(𝑛, 𝑘) = 𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑘)

That is, when the delayed output of the system is equal to the output due to delayed input
for all possible values of k, then the given system is a timeinvariant system.

If the discrete-time system is described by a difference equation and if the coefficients of


the difference equation are constants, then the given system will be a time-invariant
system. For example,

(𝑛) + 5(𝑛 − 2) + 4(𝑛 − 1) = 5(𝑛)

The system described by the above difference equation is a time-invariant system because
all the coefficients are constants.

Time-Variant System: A system whose input and output characteristics change with the
time is known as time-variant system.

Continuous-time Case
For a continuous-time, time-varying system, the delayed output of the system is not equal
to the output due to delayed input, i.e.,

(𝑡, 𝑡0) ≠ (𝑡 − 𝑡0)

If a continuous time system is described by a differential equation and if its coefficients


are the functions of time, then the system is a time-varying system. For example,

34
𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
5𝑡 2 2
+ 4𝑡 + 3𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The system described by this differential equation is a time-varying system because all its
coefficients are not constant or functions of time.

Discrete-time Case
For a discrete-time, time varying system, the output of the system is not equal to the output
due to delayed input, i.e.,

𝑦(𝑛, 𝑘) ≠ 𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑘)

If a difference equation is used to describe a discrete-time system, then the system will be a
time-varying system if its coefficients are the functions of time.For example,

(𝑛) + 5(𝑛 − 2) + 4𝑛2(𝑛 − 1) = 𝑥(𝑛) + 𝑥(𝑛 − 2)

This system is a time varying system because some of the coefficients are functions of
time.

Numerical Example
Determine whether the following systems are time-invariant or time-variant −
 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑡2 𝑥(𝑡)
 𝑦(𝑡) = 3𝑒3𝑥(𝑡)

Solution (1)
The given system is,

(𝑡) = 2𝑡2 (𝑡)

Here,

35
(𝑡) = [(𝑡)] = 2𝑡2 (𝑡)

The output of the system for the delayed input by 𝑡0 seconds is,

(𝑡, 𝑡0) = [(𝑡 − 𝑡0)] = (𝑡)|𝑥(𝑡)=𝑥(𝑡−𝑡0) = 2𝑡2 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0)

And the output of the system delayed by 𝑡0 seconds is,

(𝑡 − 𝑡0) = (𝑡)|𝑡=(𝑡−𝑡0) = 2(𝑡 − 𝑡0)2 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0)

Therefore,

(𝑡, 𝑡0) ≠ (𝑡 − 𝑡0)

Hence, the given system is a time-varying system.

Solution (2)
The given system is,

(𝑡) = 3𝑒3(𝑡)

Here,

(𝑡) = [(𝑡)] = 3𝑒3(𝑡)

The output of the system for the input delayed by 𝑡0 seconds is,

(𝑡, 𝑡0) = [(𝑡 − 𝑡0)] = (𝑡)|𝑥(𝑡)=𝑥(𝑡−𝑡0) = 3𝑒3𝑥(𝑡−𝑡0)

The output of the system delayed by 𝑡0 seconds is,

(𝑡- 𝑡0) = (𝑡)|t=(𝑡−𝑡0)= 3𝑒3𝑥(𝑡−𝑡0)

Hence for the given system,

(𝑡, 𝑡0) = (𝑡 − 𝑡0)

Therefore, the system is a time-invariant system.

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1.3.2.6 linear Time variant (LTV) and linear Time Invariant (LTI) Systems
If a system is both linear and time variant, then it is called linear time variant (LTV) system.
Linear Time-Invariant Systems: A system that possesses two basic properties namely
linearity and timeinvariant is known as linear time-invariant system or LTI system.

A system for which the principle of superposition and the principle of homogeneity are
valid and the input/output characteristics do not change with time is called the linear time-
invariant (LTI) system

There are two major reasons behind the use of the LTI systems −

 The mathematical analysis becomes easier.


 Many physical processes through not absolutely LTI systems can be approximated
with the properties of linearity and time-invariance.

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