Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100186

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Hybrid Advances
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Research Article

Investigation of tensile strength performance of green concrete

incorporating steel slag
Oladele J. Olatoyan a, e, *, Oriyomi M. Okeyinka b, Bello Oluwafemi b, Seun T. Oyewo a,
Opeyemi K. Olayanju a, Mutiu A. Kareem a, Abiola Usman Adebanjo c, d, Muinat O. Salami b
a
Redeemer’s University, Civil Engineering Department, Osun State, Nigeria
b
University of Ibadan, Civil Engineering Department, Ibadan, Nigeria
c
Osun State University, Civil Engineering Department, Osogbo, Nigeria
d
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Malaysia
e
Redeemer’s University SDG 13, Climate Action Research Group, Nigeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study examined the compressive and tensile strength performance of steel slag-containing concrete com­
Steel slag posites in a sulphate environment. Steel slag sourced locally was mechanically crushed and sieved into aggre­
Green concrete gates ranging in size from 20 to 1 mm. The control concrete of grade 20 and other five (5) batches of concrete
Carbon capture
with 10 to 50% steel slag at a step of 10% as replacement for natural coarse aggregate were produced. The
Global warming
Alkaline silicate
physical properties of the aggregate specimens (steel slag and granite) were evaluated in the laboratory, as well
Compressive strength as the concrete workability and the 7- and 28-day compressive and tensile strengths after exposure to 50 g/l of
Tensile strength magnesium and sodium for 7 and 28 days. According to the results, the concrete workability decreased as the
Sulphate steel slag content increases. The 20 N/mm2 desire strength with rise in compressive and split tensile strengths as
the steel slag contents increased from 0 to 50% after curing in water for 28 days. The concrete compressive and
tensile strengths improved with steel slag content ranging from 0 to 40% but decreased with increase in steel slag
content from 30 to 50% after exposure to Na2SO4 for 28 days. For the concrete exposed to MgSO4, the
compressive and split tensile strengths increased when the steel slag content increased from 0 to 40% before it
decreased with further increase in steel slag from 40 to 50% after 28 days. The experimental findings revealed
that up to 40% steel slag is sufficient as replacement for natural coarse aggregate in concrete work exposed to
aggressive sulphate climate. Thus, for improved compressive and tensile performance, the optimum of 40% steel
slag is suggested as replacement for natural coarse aggregate substitution for healthier sulphate attack resistance.

1. Introduction only be completely understood through extensive experimentation and

careful observation [4].
The use of concrete for Civil Engineering projects is increasing at a Slag is a non-metallic byproduct that is produced when metal is
rapid pace in the construction industry. Therefore, concrete is second extracted from its source [4]. The composition and nature of slag are
only to water as the most heavily consumed substance in the world, with determined by the type of metal to be produced and the cooling tech­
an average annual production of six billion tons according to Kazi et al. nique employed [5]. In general, slag is classified as either ferrous or
[1]. Usually, the crucial role of coarse aggregate in concrete production non-ferrous. Once it has served its purpose of refining the metal, slag is
beyond its production is acknowledged. The bulk of concrete is at least considered a waste with little to no value [5]. With the first ore-smelting
one-third filled with coarse aggregate Jiong and Kejin [2], altering the process, slag’s usefulness became apparent. However, steel slag con­
coarse aggregate in concrete tends to change concrete strength and tinues to be an industrial byproduct generated primarily by the steel
rupture its characteristics properties [3]. Understanding the effects of manufacturing industry in an electric arc furnace. At least 90% by
aggregate type, size, and content is necessary to forecast how concrete weight of the solid wastes made when iron and basic steel are made are
will behave under typical loading circumstances. This phenomenon can slags. Other results are sediment, dust, and gases. Slags are made by

* Corresponding author. Redeemer’s University, Civil Engineering Department, Osun State, Nigeria.
E-mail address: olatoyanola@run.edu.ng (O.J. Olatoyan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hybadv.2024.100186
Received 19 January 2024; Received in revised form 30 March 2024; Accepted 2 April 2024
Available online 9 April 2024
2773-207X/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
O.J. Olatoyan et al. Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100186

taking impurities out of molten steel with a filter. They are made of iron, 2. Materials and method
aluminum, calcium oxide, and magnesium oxide. Tamlyn et al. [6] re­
ported that the steel and iron industries make more than 400 million 2.1. Ordinary portland cement
tonnage of slag every year. The properties of slag vary based on the type
of furnace, feedstock, and slag mould used for steel production [7]. Cement, a major component of concrete, served two primary func­
Calcium oxide (CaO), silicon oxide (SiO2), magnesium oxide (MgO), iron tions. First, it binds the fine and coarse aggregates together, and second,
oxide (Fe2O3), manganese oxide (MnO), sulfur oxide (SO3), and it fills the spaces between aggregates. The cement composition incor­
aluminum oxide (Al2O3) make up the slag aggregate [8]. The steel slag porated into the concrete determines its strength. Consideration was
from an electric arc furnace contains the highest concentration of iron given to ordinary Portland cement of grade 42.5 that was free of lumps
oxide of any other slag, which explains its increased hardness and higher and met all requirements outlined in BS 12 [19].
density in comparison to other slags (Juan et al. 2020).
Maslehuddin et al. [9] compared the mechanical properties and 2.2. Fine aggregates
resiliency of concrete containing slag to that of concrete containing
crushed limestone. Water penetrability, pulse velocity, dimensional Fine aggregate (river sand) which met the requirements of BS 882
stability, and reinforcement corrosion of these materials were investi­ [20] was selected. The fine aggregate is free of organic impurities or salts
gated to determine the specimens’ durability. However, in terms of and passed through a 4.75 mm sieve.
durability, concrete containing steel slag produced reliable results. Ac­
cording to Bharani et al. [10], water-binder ratios of 0.55, 0.45, and 0.40 2.3. Coarse aggregates
were used to assess concrete grades; M20, M30, and M40, at varying slag
content ranging from 10 to 100%. The study found that mechanical The coarse aggregate utilized in this research is a mechanically
properties (compressive, split tensile, and flexural strengths) increased crushed granite sorted into sizes ranging from 19 mm downsized
by 4 to 8%. Also, density improved by 5 to 7% different from the control (Fig. 1). Dust and other particles were removed from the granite by
blend at 100% replacement. Hence, the research reported that washing and sun-drying. The evaluated aggregate met the requirements
slag-containing concrete had 4 to 7% increase in compressive strength. of BS 882 [20].
Similarly, Saxena et al. [11] examined the compressive strength of
concrete by substituting fine aggregate with iron slag at percentages of 2.4. Steel slag
0 to 60%. The results demonstrated improved durable than natural
aggregate made concrete. The waste steel slag sourced from Phoenix Steel Mill Limited located
On the other hand, Simonova et al. [12] investigated how at Ogijo Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria was used. The slag obtained was first
alkali-activated slag composites containing steel microfibers fail under crushed manually into smaller sizes then mechanically crushed to
stress. The effective crack model, the work-of-fracture method, and the needed sizes using grinding milling machine locally fabricated by iron
double-K fracture model were utilized to obtain fracture parameter smelter and then sieved to required aggregate sizes ranging from 20 mm
values. On a 50-m test track with separate sections of each ballast ma­ down size. The slag comprises of two colours; black and greyish in
terial, vertical loading has been compared between the two forms of colour and its properties were examined in line with BS 882 [20]. Slag in
ballast [13]. Also, studies have been conducted on the application of its solidified and aggregate form are captured in Figs. 2 and 3.
steel slag in preventive maintenance, and it is still unknown how it
makes surfaces less slippery. Peide et al. [14], explored how steel slag 2.5. Sulphate solution
can be utilized to reduce the likelihood of bitumen pavement slipping
during preventive maintenance according to the authors, laser scanning Magnesium and Sodium sulphate (MgSO4 and Na2SO4) whitish in
and digital analysis were used to investigate this issue. Beaucour [15] colour, obtained in powdery form were used. A 50 g/L standard solution
studied the behavior of radiation-blocking concrete at high tempera­ prepared by dissolving both sulphates separately in water as specified in
tures. Venkatesan et al. [16] adopted fine aggregate as substitute for ASTM C1012 [21].The solutions were simulated a day prior to its usage
steel slag in varying proportions of 0 to 50%, while coarse aggregate was as curing medium for sulphate resistance test for the samples.
substituted with walnut shell at a fixed rate of 20%. Both results showed
impressive outcome. Ortega-Lopez [17] studied the use of ground 2.6. Production process
granulated blast furnace slag and ladle furnace slag as aggregate and
binder in fiber-reinforced concrete. The significance of aluminate con­ After achieving the material properties outlined in previous section,
tent in slag in retarding the strength growth of concrete and its resis­ the following procedures were conducted: concrete batching, concrete
tance to chemical attack has received little attention in previous workability test, cubes casting, and specimens first in water at 7, 14 and
research. However, the performance of green concrete containing steel 28 days and in sulphate solution (MgSO4 and Na2SO4) at 50 g/L for 7
slag holds influences in sustainable building techniques. Exploring the and 28 days.
potential of integrating steel slag into cementitious materials aligns with The necessary tools are a weighing scale, head pans, a measuring
the objectives of waste reduction and resource conservation in the cylinder, a tamping rod, a cone, mini concrete mixer, and a hand trowel.
concrete industry. The findings of the study are valuable for researchers The batching-by-weight method presented in Table 1 was used to ach­
and engineers as they address a key knowledge gap in the literature by ieve a desired strength of 20 N/mm2 and fixed water-to-cement ratio
examining the characteristics properties of low carbon-concrete mix­ with granite-slag aggregates proportioned as specified within the scope
tures, it can lead to the creation of eco-friendly concrete with enhanced of this research. The replacement percentage of slag for this research was
mechanical properties, especially tensile strength [18] This may restricted to 50% based on the suggestion of Singh et al. [22] and
encourage individuals to support environmentally friendly construction Nadeem and Profale [23] that the inclusion of steel slag above 50%
materials and techniques. In the event of this occurrence, there could be could decline the concrete strength.
an increase in public backing for environmentally friendly building
practices. This study aims at investigating the compressive and tensile 3. Physical properties of aggregates
strength behavior of sustainable concrete in a corrosive environment.
3.1. Grain sieve analysis of fine aggregate

The gradation of particles of fine and coarse aggregates are

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O.J. Olatoyan et al. Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100186

Fig. 1. Sorted traditional aggregate.

Table 1
Quantity of materials used in concrete production.
Steel slag Mass of each constituent (kg)

Content (%) Cement Sand Granite Steel slag W/C

0 8.925 17.85 35.70 0.00 0.50

10 8.925 17.85 32.13 3.57 0.50
20 8.925 17.85 28.56 7.14 0.50
30 8.925 17.85 24.99 10.71 0.50
40 8.925 17.85 21.42 14.28 0.50
50 8.925 17.85 17.85 17.85 0.50

* All data were determined from the laboratory.

determined by carrying out sieve analysis according to BS 812-103.1

[24] The collected sample was sieved and air-dried before being
weighed, while all sieves were cleaned before to use. The test sieves
Fig. 2. - Solidified slag.
were then positioned in order of sieve size, with the largest sieve size on
top of the mechanical sieve shaker. The sieve shaker was worked for
approximately 5 min. After the sieving operation was complete, the
proportion of the sample present in each sieve and material removed
from the mesh were weighed and recorded. The fineness modulus was
then calculated by dividing the total percentage of material retained in
each filter by 100.

3.2. Bulk density of aggregates

Bulk density is a crucial measure for calculating the volume of voids

present in an aggregate sample. This test was performed as specified in
BS 812-2 [25]. The method involves weighing an empty container using
its glass plate (W1). This same container was filled with aggregate and
weighed as follows: (W2). The container was then emptied, refilled with
water, weighed, and its contents were recorded (W3). Equation (1)
presented the expression for calculating bulk density.
W2 − W1
Bulk density = (1)
W3 − W1

Fig. 3. Sorted steel slag aggregates (20 mm down sized).

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O.J. Olatoyan et al. Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100186

3.3. Specific gravity of fine aggregate aggregate to crushing under applied loading was determined. The test
sample contained aggregate that passed through a 12.5 mm sieve but
Specific gravity of fine aggregate was determined in the laboratory was retained by a 10 mm sieve. Prior to testing, the aggregate was
according to BS 1377 [26]. Sample of about 500 g was measured inside oven-dried for 4 h between 100 and 110 ◦ C and then allowed to cool to
the tray and submerged in water within the temperature range of room temperature. The cylinder was filled in three layers of nearly equal
22–32◦ C. Thereafter immersion, observed trapped air was eliminated volume, with 25 tamping strokes applied to each layer. The weight of the
from aggregate surface by shaking the aggregate with rod. The sample sample-containing cylinder was determined to be ‘A,’ and the same
was soaked in water for 24 h. The water present in the sample was amount of material was used for the subsequent test. The apparatus,
eliminated by passing the sample through the filter paper so that any along with the test specimen and a properly positioned plunger, was
sample contained in the filter paper can be returned to the sample. The inserted between the machine’s plates. Ten minutes were used to
testing material was then exposed to warm air thus, eliminating trapped gradually apply load until a total of 400 kN was reached. The load was
moisture present at its surface. The weight of saturated surface dried released while the entire contents of the cylinder were emptied and
sample was determined as WA. sieved through a 2.36 mm mesh. The amount of material that passed
The remaining space was then filled with water. The opening at the through this designated sieve was measured and recorded as “B.” The
top of the pycnometer was then sealed with a finger while its sides were aggregate crushing value (ACV) was calculated by expressing as a per­
rotated to remove trapped air. WB represents the weight of the pyc­ centage the weight ratio of fines to total sample weight in each sieve
nometer containing the sample and water mixture. On a tray, the entire (Equation 6).
contents of the pycnometer were poured. Before filling the pycnometer
B
with only water, it was thoroughly rinsed with water, and the weight of ACV = × 100 (6)
A
the instrument containing only water was determined as WC. Through
the filter paper, water was extracted from the sample while the sample
3.6. Aggregate impact value of coarse aggregate
retained in the filter paper was returned to the sample. The sample was
oven-dried for 24 h at temperatures between 100 and 110 ◦ C before
The aggregate impact value test was conducted in accordance with
being cooled in an airtight container. As WD, the weight of the oven-
BS 812-112 [28] to evaluate the aggregate’s resistance to unforeseen
dried sample was recorded. Consequently, Equations (2) and (3) were
shock using an impact testing machine. The test sample contains
used to assess the specific gravity and water uptake:
aggregate that passes a 13.2 mm IS sieve and retained on a 12.5 mm
WD sieve. The specimen was oven-dried between 100 and 110 ◦ C for 4 h
SG = (2)
WA − (WB − WC ) before being cooled by air. The cylinder was filled with three layers of
nearly equal volume, and each layer was tamped 25 times with a
WA (%) =
WA − WD
× 100 (3) tamping rod to determine the sample’s net weight, which was denoted
WD as “WA.” With a vertical column guiding the rammer, however, the
impact machine was permitted to rest without being wedged to make it
3.4. Specific gravity of coarse aggregate rigid. The metal cylinder containing the sample was properly positioned
at the machine’s base. The base of the rammer was raised to a height of
This test was carried out according to BS 1377 [26]. The test mate­ 38 cm above the highest level of the test sample contained in the cyl­
rials included a wire basket with a maximum aperture size of 6.3 mm, a inder. This rammer was made to strike the sample 15 times per second,
watertight container that allows free suspension of the basket, an oven, for a total of 15 blows. The cylinder containing the compacted aggregate
an airtight container of comparable capacity to the basket, a tamping was emptied into a 2.36 mm sieve. The aggregate was then sieved
rod, etc. The sample of 2000 g was washed, drained, and placed in the thoroughly until no significant particles passed through. The portion
wire basket. Then, the basket was completely submerged in water be­ emerging from the sieve apertures was measured and recorded as ‘WB,’
tween 22 and 320 ◦ C. Instantaneously, the basket was raised 25 mm while the remainder of the aggregate contained within the sieve was
above the base of the tank to expel the trapped air from the sample when measured as ‘WC’ The aggregate crushing value was calculated accord­
it was immersed and then allowed to fall at a rate of approximately 1 ing to Equation (7):
drop per second 25 times. The aggregate-containing basket was WB
completely submerged in water for 24 h before being weighed and AIV = × 100% (7)
WA
recorded as A1 while submerged. The sample was drained for a period of
time before being poured onto one of the dry garments. The basket’s
3.7. Sulphate resistance attack
weight was measured and recorded as A2 while submerged in water. The
aggregate was air-dried on an open surface on the first cloth until the
A compressive machine was used to crush concrete specimens that
first cloth could no longer absorb moisture, at which point it was
had been cured for 7 and 28 days in potable water as well as sulphate
transferred to the second cloth. B represents the mass of surface-dried
solutions (50 g/l of magnesium and sodium) in accordance with ASTM
aggregate that has been saturated. The aggregate was then oven-dried
C1012 [21]. Three samples from each mixed group were tested in order
between 100 and 110 ◦ C for 24 h before being placed in an airtight
to ascertain the average compressive strength of the corresponding
container to cool. C represents the weight of oven-dried aggregate in air
cubes. Average tensile strength of each set of the cubes were calculated.
that was measured and recorded. Utilizing Equations 4 and 5, the spe­
cific gravity (SG) and water absorption (WA) were calculated:
3.8. Compressive and split tensile strengths test
C
SG = (4)
(A − B) At ages 7 and 28 days, cubic concrete specimens of 100 mm x 100
mm x 100 mm for compressive strength test and cylindrical concrete
WA (%) =
(B − C)
× 100 (5) specimens measuring 100 mm in diameter and 200 mm in height for
C split tensile strength test were removed from the curing tank. specimens
were allowed to drain in accordance with BS EN 12390–3 [29] and BS
3.5. Aggregate crushing value test for coarse aggregate EN 12390-6 [30]. The specimen was properly positioned until the
specimen fails; the weight was gradually applied at the rate of 0.5 kN/s
In agreement with the BS 812-110 [27], the resistance of the without any shocks. Three samples from each mix category and

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O.J. Olatoyan et al. Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100186

replacement percentage were analyzed for various aging periods, and Table 2
the findings were averaged. Physical properties of aggregates.
Characteristics property Sand Granite Slag
4. Results and discussion 3
Specific gravity (kg/m ) 2.58 2.73 3.4
Bulk density (kg/m3) 1622 1613 1822
4.1. Particle sizes distribution Fines modulus 2.86 – –
Water absorption (%) 0.8 0.55 0.74
The particle sizes distributions of the aggregates were illustrated on Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) 3.6 – –
Coefficient of curvature (Cv) 0.61 – –
the grading curve shown in Fig. 4. The values of D10, D30 and D60 ob­ Grading zone Medium – –
tained were 0.25, 0.37, and 0.9 for sand particle; that of granite were Aggregate crushing value (%) – 22.81 18.62
1.50, 3.40, and 7.5 respectively while the corresponding values obtained Aggregate impact value (%) – 13.84 9.52
for steel slag were 2.4, 7.5 and 10.2 as well. Based on these quantities, * All data were obtained from the test.
the coefficients of uniformity (Cu) and curvature (Cc) values were 3.6 whereas - = not measured items.
and for sand, 5.0 and 1.02 for granite and 4.27 and 2.28 for steel slag
respectively. Since the values of Cu for sand was lesser than 4, the sand is
resistance to crushing. This could be due to factors such as weaker
uniformly graded in accordance to ASTM D 2478 [31]. More so, both the
mineral composition, higher porosity, or inferior mechanical properties
granite and the steel slag were well graded since their Cu values are
of the aggregate particles. As a result, aggregates with higher ACV values
greater than 4 as well as their Cc values lie between 1.0 and 3.0 as
may not perform well in applications where resistance to crushing or
stipulated by ASTM D 2478 [31].
abrasion, and impact is crucial, such as in road construction or concrete
production.
4.2. Densities and water absorption of aggregates In the present study, the aggregate crushing value for steel slag was
18.62% while the corresponding values of 22.81 % was recorded for
Specific gravities of sand, granite, and steel slag were respectively granite. Hence, these results positioned steel slag as a material with
found to be 2.58, 2.73, and 3.4 kg/m3. These results were in line with better resistance to crushing load than granite. Though, the ACV values
minimum value (2000 kg/m3) of oven dried particle densities stipulated of both the slag and natural coarse aggregates were within the limiting
in BS EN 12620 [32]. In the same vein, the water absorption capacities value of 30% as given by BS EN 12620 [32] for concrete work.
of both coarse aggregates were 0.55 % and 0.74 % for granite and steel Furthermore, the aggregate impact values of coarse aggregates were
slag respectively. Also, the water absorption value recorded for fine 9.52 % and 13.84% for steel slag and granite respectively. This affirm
aggregate (sand) in this study stands at 0.80 % which coincidentally that iron slag offered better resistance to impact shock than granite since
agreed with the water absorption capacity value of 0.8–1 % recom­ the greater toughness of the aggregate is dictated by lower AIV. It was
mended by the standard, BS EN 12620 [32]. However, the water ab­ obvious that both the AIV values of slag and granite were within
sorption value satisfies the water absorption limit of 2–3 % as provided benchmark value of 30% for concrete work. In summary, the charac­
by other similar code of practice. In addition, the values 1.622 g/cm3, teristics properties of fine and coarse aggregates presented in Table 2
1.613 g/cm3, and 1.822 g/cm3 were respectively obtained as bulk indicate that they all satisfied the necessary requirements as given by
density for sand, granite, and steel slag. Equally, steel slag was found to relevant codes of practice. Hence, they were all suitable and promised
be heavier in weight than granite of the same quantity, see Table 2. better results for concrete works.
Hence, all the aggregates used were suitable for concrete production.

4.3. Crushing and impact value of coarse aggregate 4.4. Workability of mix

One of the ways to assess the strength performance of the aggregate The slump test was used to evaluate the workability of each concrete
is to measure its resistance to crushing and sudden impact. The Aggre­ mixture. The variation in deformation of concrete with granite-slag
gate Crushing Value (ACV) is a measure of the resistance of an aggregate aggregates and a constant water-cement ratio of 0.55 is depicted in
to crushing under a gradually applied compressive load. In this context, Fig. 5. It was evident from the graphical behavior of each mixture that
a higher ACV indicates that the aggregate is relatively weaker and more the slump values of concrete decreased as the proportion of steel slag
susceptible to crushing under compressive loads. Therefore, if the ACV increased. In line with BS 1881–102 [33], the slump results met the SI
of an aggregate is higher, it suggests that the aggregate has lower (20–50 mm) specification. However, the decline was attributed to steel

Fig. 4. Particle size distribution curves for the aggregates. Fig. 5. Workability of concrete mix.

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O.J. Olatoyan et al. Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100186

slag’s rougher surface texture than that of granite, which reduced fric­
tion between the surface of the slump cone and the concrete.

4.5. Compressive strength of concrete

The vast majority of structural applications of concrete are designed

to resist compressive deformations. The failure mode of a plain concrete
member subjected to compression takes place in the vertical plane along
the diagonal and the vertical fracture is brought about by the lateral
tensile strain. The application of axial compression load causes a flow in
the concrete in the form of a microcrack along the vertical axis of the
member, which can propagate due to the lateral tensile strain [22]. So,
the samples were drained in line with the specifications provided in BS
EN 12390–3 [29]. They were accurately positioned and a gradual load
was applied to the surface of the sample until it unexpectedly failed, as
depicted in Fig. 6. This testing was conducted using a Digital Pressure
Testing Machine (DYE - 2000) with a self-precision of 1.
In concrete that had been cured for 7, 14, and 28 days, the average
compressive strength at 0 to 50% of the steel slag as replacement for Fig. 7. Compressive strength development in water medium.
crushed granite as well as the percentage of the expected design strength
achieved at 28 days were reported. Figs. 7–9 display samples cured in
both water and sulphate solutions. For the water cured specimens, the
concrete strength increased with increase in steel slag contents across all
ages. For the specimens cured in Na2SO4 solution, there was a notable
enhancement in the compressive strength of the concrete samples as the
amount of slag replacement rose from 0 to 40%. The concrete strength
increased in the range of 3.6 to 26.16% at 7 days, 8.47 to 42.19% at 14
days, and 5.27 to 26.16% with respect o control concrete at 28 days with
10 to 40% steel slag replacement, respectively. However, the strength
declined with slag replacement exceeding 40% in a sulphate solution.
The pattern was seen to be consistent across concrete samples of
different ages, namely 7, 14, and 28 days. At each age group tested, the
blends containing no steel slag showed the weakest compressive
strength in MgSO4 solution. At 28 days, the maximum value of 26.16%
was recorded for concrete exposed to 40% steel slag. This study reveals
that beyond 40% slag content at 28 days of aging, the strength decreases
by a value of 21.43%. Thus, the development of concrete’s strength is
considerably aided by the addition of properly sized steel slag. These Fig. 8. Compressive strength development after the Na2So4 attack.
findings corroborated earlier studies’ findings that concrete needs 40 %
steel slag to become stronger [11,12].

4.6. Split tensile strength results

Fig. 10 shows that the strength grew as the replacement level of steel
slag increased. When compared to the control mix at each age, a rise in
split tensile strength proportional to the percentage increase in slag

Fig. 9. Compressive strength development after the MgSo4 attack.

content was observed. Thus, a rise of 8.59% at 7 days and 9.96% at 28

days for mixes with 10 % steel slag replacement was noticed. At ages 7
and 28 days, the tensile strength rises at increasing percentages of slag
content by 17.17% and 19.92% for 20% steel slag, 25.25% and 26.55%
for 30% steel slag, 30.81% and 31.12% for 30% steel slag. The early
strength gain recorded at day 7 reached peak value of 30.81% for 40%
steel slag, while the tensile strength reaches a maximum of 31.12% with
Fig. 6. Compressive strength of concrete specimen.

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O.J. Olatoyan et al. Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100186

Fig. 10. Split tensile strength development in granite – slag concrete.

the same replacement level at 28 days.

The percentage difference in concrete compressive strength Fig. 12. Percentage variation in compressive strength after MgSO4 attack.
following exposure to Na2SO4 and MgSO4 solutions for various steel slag
contents and immersion ages are presented in Figs. 11 and 12. The negative impact on concrete strength, notably at 50% slag replacement,
changes observed in strengths in the two solutions followed a similar compared to sodium solution at different replacement level exhibited
pattern, but the MgSO4 solution exposure had a more pronounced less negative impact on strength. Minimizing concrete strength loss re­
degrading impact on concrete strength than Na2SO4 solution exposure as quires careful material selection and sulphate exposure.
revealed. Incorporating steel slag into concrete has been found to in­
crease its durability and chemical resistance [18]. After exposure to 5. Summary and conclusions
Na2SO4 and MgSO4 solutions concrete containing different steel slag
proportion developed better strength. At 28 days, 20% steel slag in This investigation focused on the production of green concrete con­
Na2SO4 and MgSO4 solutions gained the most strength, 15.66% and taining steel slag. By altering the aggregates’ composition, the strength
13.14%, respectively. These findings are consistent with earlier studies and resiliency characteristics of concrete have been investigated and
that have demonstrated that slag can improve the strength and dura­ revealed.
bility of concrete [34,35]. Above 20% steel slag, aluminate suppressed The following conclusions are drawn.
silica, delaying strength development under both chemical attacks.
More research is encouraged to discover the optimal amount of slag to 1. The aggregates used met the requirements outlined in the applicable
improve concrete strength and durability. Also, slag content and expo­ codes of practice. As a result, the specimen is deemed suitable and
sure time decreased concrete strength, particularly after 28 days, and encouraged for use in green concrete projects. In addition, the study
this aligns with previous studies that have established the effect of sul­ revealed that the rougher surface texture of steel slag, compared to
phate exposure on concrete strength and the increase of its impact over traditional granite, contributed to the decrease in workability with
time [9,10,16,36]. Furthermore, the present study corroborates existing increasing slag content.
knowledge. For example, Muhammed and Ahmet [8] add waste glass 2. The compressive and tensile strengths tend to increase as the per­
powder (GP), ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), and cole­ centage of ss in a mixture increases. For improved compressive and
manite waste (CW) to concrete. GP, and GGBFS were utilized at 0, 5, 10 tensile performance, 40% steel slag replacement was found to be
and 20% and CW at 0, 1, 3 and 5%. The concretes were exposed to optimal in concrete. Similarly, natural coarse aggregate replacement
Na2SO4 and MgSO4 solutions for 360 days. After sulphate, the with slag in concrete for healthier sulphate attack resistance was
compressive strength exhibited a notable decrease due to the impact of found to be 20% steel slag and dropped beyond 40% steel slag
MgSO4 deterioration. It was evident MgSO4 solution had the most content.
3. In addition, this study established that MgSO4 solution has more
severe effect on concrete than Na2SO4 of similar concentration. It is
known that the early age of concrete with correct proportioning of
granite - slag composition was healthy for improving characteristics
strength of concrete. Various factors, including the type of sulphate
(Na2SO4 and MgSO4), steel slag content, and exposure period, have a
combined impact on concrete strength. Moreover, aluminate con­
centration in concrete delays the strength development process
under chemical exposure. When aluminium ions react with sulphate
ions from compounds like Na2SO4 and MgSO4, they form expansive
compounds that disrupt the concrete matrix and weaken its struc­
tural integrity. This chemical process leads to a reduction in concrete
strength over time, particularly in harsh chemical environments.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Oladele J. Olatoyan: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Inves­

tigation, Funding acquisition. Oriyomi M. Okeyinka: Supervision.
BeBello Oluwafemi: Writing – review & editing, Investigation. Seun T.
Fig. 11. Percentage variation in compressive strength after Na2SO4 attack.

7
O.J. Olatoyan et al. Hybrid Advances 6 (2024) 100186

Oyewo: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Data E-waste as fine and coarse aggregate, Materials 37 (2) (2021) 3534–3537, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.09.419.
curation. Opeyemi K. Olayanju: Writing – original draft, Methodology.
[11] R. Saxena, A. S Kushwaha, S. Pal, Effect on compressive strength of concrete with
Mutiu A. Kareem: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Abiola partial replacement of sand using iron slag, J. Civil Eng. Environ. Technol. 2 (6)
Usman Adebanjo: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, (2015) 510–513.
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[14] C. Peide, S. Wu, Y. Xiao, C. Yang, F. Wang, Enhancement mechanism of skid
resistance in preventive maintenance of asphalt pavement by steel slag based on
The authors affirm no conflict of interest or funding from any agency, micro-surfacing, Construct. Build. Mater. 239 (2020) 117870, https://doi.org/
institution, or collaborators that could potentially influence the outcome 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117870.
of this research. [15] A.L. Beaucour, P. Pliya, F. Faleschini, R. Njinwoua, C. Pellegrino, A. Noumowe,
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In all matters relating to editing, the corresponding author is to be [16] B. Venkatesan, V.J. Lijina, V. Kannan, P.R. Dhevasenaa, Partial replacement of fine
aggregate by steel slag and coarse aggregate by walnut shell in concrete, Materials
contacted directly. He is answerable to co-authors for all correspon­ 37 (2) (2021) 1761–1766, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.07.361.
dence, revision submissions, and final approval of proofs. We verify the [17] V. Ortega-Lopez, A. García-Llona, V. Revilla-Cuesta, A. Santamaría, J.T. San-Jose,
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