Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-020-00972-0

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Experimental study on residual properties of thermally damaged steel

fiber‑reinforced concrete containing copper slag as fine aggregate
Binaya Patnaik1 · Chandrasekhar Bhojaraju2 · Seyed Sina Mousavi2

Received: 7 May 2019 / Accepted: 6 January 2020

© Springer Japan KK, part of Springer Nature 2020

Abstract
This study intends to investigate the effect of copper slag (CS) on the hardened properties of thermally damaged steel fiber-
reinforced concrete. Two water-to-cement ratios of 0.5 and 0.55 are considered for the concrete mixture. Different volume
fractions of 0, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 are considered for steel fiber. Thermal cycles of 28 and 56 are considered in the experimental
program. Ultrasonic pulse velocity technique is used to monitor internal damages due to the thermal cycles. Overall results
show that concrete mixtures containing copper slag have considerable thermal resistance compared to the reference mix-
tures. However, results recommend the optimum content of 1% for steel fiber, while further addition causes lower thermal
resistance of CS-modified concrete. Also, regression equations are proposed for residual compressive and tensile strengths
of thermally damaged CS-modified concrete. Results show good agreement between the experimental database and the
proposed regression equations.

Keywords  Copper slag · Thermal cycle · Steel fiber · UPV · Compressive strength

Abbreviations FRt Fire resistance factor for splitting tensile strength

CS Copper slag HPC Slip of steel bar in cracked concrete
COV Coefficient of variation HSC High-strength concrete
(CSRC  Copper slag-reinforced concrete IAE Integral absolute error
fc 0 Compressive strength of concrete at normal n Number of thermal cycles
)

temperature OPC Ordinary Portland cement

fc n Compressive strength of concrete after n thermal SCC Self-compacting concrete
( )

cycles SRc Strength reduction of compressive strength after n

ft 0 Splitting tensile strength of concrete at normal thermal cycles
( )

temperature SRt Strength reduction of splitting tensile strength

ft n Splitting tensile strength of concrete after n ther- after n thermal cycles
( )

mal cycles UPV Ultrasonic pulse velocity

FRc Fire resistance factor for compressive strength UPV0 Ultrasonic pulse velocities after 0 thermal cycle
UPVn Ultrasonic pulse velocities after n thermal cycle

* Chandrasekhar Bhojaraju
chandra.sekhar@etsmtl.ca
Introduction
Binaya Patnaik
binaya7708@wsu.edu.et
Recently, due to technological progress, industrial develop-
Seyed Sina Mousavi ment, and population growth, the consumption of natural
seyed‑sina.mousavi‑ojarestaghi.1@ens.etsmtl.ca
resources is increasing so more sustainable construction
1
Civil Engineering Department, Wolaita Sodo University, materials need to be produced [1, 2]. Hence, there is a grow-
Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia ing tendency in using waste materials and by-products, as
2
Department of Construction Engineering, École de partial substitution of natural aggregate, fiber, and filler in
Technologie supérieure (ETS Montréal), Université du conventional concrete [2-5]. The high consumption of river
Québec, 1100 Notre‑Dame West, Montréal, QC H3C 1K3, aggregates results in exhaustion of the natural resources
Canada

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 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

affecting the lack of sustainability in the environment. For attempted to understand better using CS as a fine aggre-
suitable alternative materials, either artificial sources of gate. They have reported that as the substitutional amounts
aggregates or the by-products generated from industrial exceeded 80%, lower strengths were obtained, possibly due
activities can be utilized to conserve primeval resources and to the formation of ettringite [11]. Hence, before using CS
ecological balance. Copper slag (CS) is one such material, in reinforced concrete structures, additional experimental
which is a by-product obtained during the matte smelting tests are necessary to confirm the optimum dosage of CS.
and refining of copper [6]. A considerable amount of CS is Although several studies have been performed on hard-
produced in India, China, Russia, and Iran, respectively [7- ened properties and durability of concrete containing cop-
12]. Approximately 68.7 × 106 t of CS was generated in the per slag, there is no specific investigation to determine the
year 2015 from the world’s copper industry [13]. CS is rich performance of CS-modified concrete exposed to thermal
in iron and contains various other oxides in a small amount cycling. Despite the normal condition in which concrete
such as CaO, ­Al2O3 and MgO [1, 14]. is exposed to temperatures below 40 °C, many concrete
Even though several studies have been performed on structures may be subjected to higher temperatures due to
characteristics of CS-modified concrete as a replacement an aggressive environment. This could cause a significant
of fine aggregate, more studies are necessary to determine volume change in concrete that will result in large inter-
the optimum dosage of CS. Several works reported that nal stresses [30]. Previous studies regarding the effect of
the compressive and tensile strengths of concrete speci- thermal cycling on plain concrete have shown a significant
mens made with copper slag fine and coarse aggregates reduction in compressive and tensile strength due to chemi-
are almost the same as that of normal concrete or even cal and physical changes [31-35]. Also, the spalling of con-
significantly more than control mixtures [15-18]. Simi- crete exposed to fire causes a rapid layer-by-layer loss of
larly, Li [19] and Li [20] have reported that concrete concrete cover which leads to the exposure of the reinforcing
containing copper slag as a fine aggregate has almost the bar (rebar) to fire [36].
same mechanical properties as that containing conven- Over the last decades, many studies have been carried out
tional sand and coarse aggregates. Previous studies have on thermally damaged steel fiber-reinforced concrete. Many
reported a different range of optimum dosage of CS. Al- promising results were obtained for the effect of fibers on the
Jabri et al. [21] have reported that using up to 50% of CS thermal resistance of normal concrete [37-43]. Chen and Liu
in high-performance concrete (HPC), as a sand replace- [44] experimentally studied the residual strength of hybrid
ment, results in a comparable strength to the control mix fiber-reinforced high-strength concrete (HFRHSC) expo-
while adding further causes strength reduction due to an sure to peak temperatures of 20–800 ºC. Carbon, steel, and
increase of the free water content in the mix. In this field, polypropylene were considered in their investigation. Their
Wu et al. [22] have investigated the mechanical proper- observations showed that adding fibers in high-strength
ties of high-strength concrete (HSC) incorporating CS concrete can relieve some thermal damages of mechani-
as a fine aggregate. They have shown that less than 40% cal properties. Similarly, Lau and Anson [45] reported that
CS can achieve an HSC that is comparable or better to 1% of steel fiber improved the thermal resistance of normal
the control mix. Al-Jabri et al. [23] have performed an concrete exposed to elevated heating temperatures, rang-
experimental investigation to study the effect of using cop- ing from 105 to 1200 °C. In this field, experimental results
per slag as a fine aggregate on the properties of cement performed by Zheng et al. [46] showed that 2% of steel fib-
mortars and concrete. They have reported that substitu- ers, volume content, can impede explosive spalling of reac-
tion of up to 40–50% copper slag, as a sand replacement, tive powder concrete (RPC), and considerably improve the
results in a comparable strength to that of the control mix- compressive and tensile strengths of concrete exposed to
ture, while the addition of more copper slag resulted in 20–800 °C. However, some studies reported that fiber has
strength reduction. Several studies have confirmed 40% as comparable and also lower impact on thermal properties of
an optimum content of CS in concrete [24-26]. However, concrete, exposed to high and cyclic temperatures [47-50].
Al-Jabri et al. [27] have shown that compressive, tensile In this field, Lie and Kodur [51] conducted an experimental
and flexural strengths of concrete were comparable to the investigation to study the effect of steel fiber reinforcement
control mixture up to 50% copper slag substitution. Wu on the thermal behavior of normal concrete. They reported
et al. [28] have reported 20% for the optimum value of CS that steel fiber has no considerable impact on the thermal
in copper slag-reinforced concrete (CSRC). In the case of properties of the concretes. Reis et al. [52] reported that
using CS as a fine aggregate in self-compacting concrete the compressive strength of the high-strength steel fiber-
(SCC), Sharma and Khan [29] have reported that the maxi- reinforced concrete is more affected by high temperatures
mum improvements in compressive and splitting tensile (200–700 °C) than normal-strength concrete without fib-
strength concerning control were obtained as 20% and 60% ers. They attributed this observation to the concrete type, as
CS substitution. In this field, Hwang and Laiw [18] have compared with the presence of steel fibers.

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Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

Fig. 1  Materials used in the experiments: a copper slag (CS); b crimped steel fiber

Despite the extensive efforts that have been made to find an surface (fineness) and normal consistency of cement are
alternative concrete mixture for providing better fire resistance 3.09, 350 (­ m2/kg) and 32%, respectively. The coarse aggre-
concrete [53-55], there is no specific investigation to study gate consists of locally available crushed granite with a
the residual mechanical properties of concrete containing CS maximum size of 20 mm, a specific gravity of 2.64, and
exposed to a thermal cycle. Additionally, most of the previ- fineness modulus of 7.1. The bulk densities of coarse aggre-
ous studies have concentrated on elevated temperatures, while gate are 1414 and 1550 kg/m3 in the loose and compacted
the thermal cycle is more crucial for service life of reinforced state, respectively. The fine aggregate was natural river sand
concrete members [56, 57]. Furthermore, there is no specific with water absorption capacity of 1.14%, specific gravity
study on the effect of steel fiber on hardened properties of CS- of 2.6, bulk density of 1597 and 1700 kg/m3 in both loose
modified concrete at intact and thermally damaged concrete. and compacted states, respectively, and fineness modulus
Hence, this investigation precisely reports about the following of 2.45. The CS (Fig. 1a) used in this investigation had a
general questions: specific gravity of 3.47. The particle size of the CS was well
distributed and is presented in Fig. 2, along with the sand.
1. How do the mechanical properties of steel fiber-rein- The water absorption capacity of CS is 0.44%. The bulk
forced CS-modified concrete (compressive and tensile) densities of CS are 1898 and 2024 kg/m3 in the loose and
compare to that of normal concrete for different thermal
cycles?
2. How much is copper slag (CS) efficient in improving
the thermal resistance of concrete mixtures exposed to
thermal cycles?

To answer these questions, this paper presents an experi-

mental program to determine the mechanical properties of
steel fiber-reinforced CS-modified concrete. Different thermal
cycles are considered. In addition, statistical equations are pro-
posed to predict the residual strength of thermally damaged
CS-modified concrete as a function of the thermal cycle. Also,
ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) method, as a non-destructive
method, is used to visualize the internal damages of concrete
mixtures subjected to different thermal cycles.

Experimental program

Materials, test setup, and specimens

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) conforming to EN 42.5 Fig. 2  Particle size distributions of river sand and copper slag (mass
was used in the present investigation. The density, specific % passing)

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 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

compacted states, respectively. The chemical composition length (undulated) with an average length of 30 mm and the
of copper slag is shown in Table 1 along with the cement. equivalent aspect ratio of 60.
Regarding such specific chemical compounds of cement, a
brief description was conducted by Scrivener et al. [58]. This Laboratory testing program
book comprehensively explains that this type of cement can
be used for research, while XRD analysis needs to be done In this study, sixteen concrete mixtures of two different
along with XRF to modify the results. However, due to the series M1 and M2 were considered. Series of M1 includes
limitations, only XRF result was shown in the present study, concrete mixtures with a w/c ratio of 0.55 and cement con-
which was similarly reported by literature [59, 60]. The steel tent of 320 kg/m3 conforming to grade M25. Series M2
fibers (Fig. 1b) used in this study were crimped along the includes the concrete mixtures with w/c ratio of 0.50 and
cement content of 350 kg/m3 conforming to grade M35. No
admixture (chemical and mineral) was used in the mixtures.
Table 1  Chemical composition of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) The mix proportions are presented in Table 2. The concrete
and copper slag (CS) was made and cured following BS EN 12390-2 [61]. As
Component Ordinary Portland cement Copper slag (%) illustrated in Fig. 3, specimen identification includes con-
(%) crete series (M1 or M2), percentage of copper slag (CS0 or
CS40), and volume fraction of steel fiber (F0, F0.5, F1.0,
SiO2 18.99 33.52
and F1.5). The specimens were cast in layers in 100-mm
Al2O3 4.53 3.8
cube molds for compression, and cylindrical molds with a
Fe2O3 4.96 55.80
diameter of 100 mm and height of 200 mm for splitting ten-
CaO 66.74 3.14
sile test. Each concrete layer was compacted using a vibrat-
MgO 0.89 0.72
ing table to achieve full compaction.
SO3 2.28 –
The specimens were de-molded after 24 h, and then moist
K 2O 0.43 0.76
cured in a water tank at a temperature of 25 ± 2 °C. After
Na2O 0.12 0.4
curing for 28 days, the specimens are subjected to the ther-
TiO2 – 0.5
mal cycles (Fig. 4). A total number of 144 specimens were
Cu – 0.99
made to study the effect of thermal cycles in CS-modified
LOI 1.06 0.37
concrete. Regarding the effect of thermal cycling on com-
Total 100.0 100.0
pressive strength of normal concrete, some studies have

Table 2  Concrete design mix proportions

Mixtures Cement (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) Fine aggregate Coarse aggre- Steel fiber (kg/m3) Slump (mm)
3 gate (kg/m3)
Sand (kg/m ) Copper slag
(kg/m3)

M1 320 176 712 0 1178 0 74

M1-CS40F0 320 176 427.2 284.8 1178 0 81
M2 350 175 703.6 0 1164 0 80
M2-CS40F0 350 175 422.16 281.44 1164 0 86
M1-CS0F0.5 320 176 712 0 1178 39.25 62
M1-CS0F1.0 320 176 712 0 1178 78.50 46
M1-CS0F1.5 320 176 712 0 1178 117.75 38
M1-CS40F0.5 320 176 427.2 284.8 1178 39.25 66
M1-CS40F1.0 320 176 427.2 284.8 1178 78.50 45
M1-CS40F1.5 320 176 427.2 284.8 1178 117.75 40
M2-CS0F0.5 350 175 703.6 0 1164 39.25 66
M2-CS0F1.0 350 175 703.6 0 1164 78.50 48
M2-CS0F1.5 350 175 703.6 0 1164 117.75 42
M2-CS40F0.5 350 175 422.16 281.44 1164 39.25 68
M2-CS40F1.0 350 175 422.16 281.44 1164 78.50 52
M2-CS40F1.5 350 175 422.16 281.44 1164 117.75 44

Maximum particle size of coarse aggregate is 20 mm

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Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

considered thermal cycling up to 300 °C [62-64], while

extensive investigations have subjected the specimens to
heating–cooling cycles of a maximum temperature of 200 °C
[30, 65-68]. Hence, as also recommended by ACI 349-01
[69], 200 °C was considered for thermal cycling in the pre-
sent study. One thermal cycle represents 12 h inside a muf-
fle furnace at a temperature of 200 °C, followed by 12 h
Fig. 3  Specimen identification description
in laboratory condition (25 °C). Consequently, 28 and 56
cycles took 28 and 56 days of thermal cycling, respectively
(a) 250
One thermal cycle
(Fig. 4). Also, to precisely measure the internal damages
due to thermal cycles, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) was
200
implemented for the current study. Different thermal cycles
Temperature (°C)

150 of 1, 3, 7, 14, 28, and 56 were considered on thermally dam-

Cooling aged cubic specimens.
100

50
Heating
Experimental results
0
0 12 24 36 48 60
(b) Time (hours) Overall results of intact and thermally damaged specimens
are summarized in Table 3, which includes compressive
strength, splitting tensile strength, and UPV. The follow-
ing subsections present the effect of different parameters
separately.

Optimum dosage of copper slag (CS)

Fig. 4  Thermal cycle procedure: a thermal cyclic loading; b speci- As mentioned in the introduction, previous studies have
mens inside the furnace reported conflicting values for the optimum content of CS.
This can be attributed to the different material properties
used in the experimental pogroms, along with the specific
experimental tests considered for their studies, including

Table 3  Overall results for different thermal cycles (data inside parenthesis denotes standard deviation)
Mixtures fc (MPa) ft (MPa) UPV (km/s)
0 28 56 0 28 56 0 28 56

M1 36.8 (0.74) 29.5 (0.91) 27.5 (0.66) 2.17 (0.18) 1.68 (0.13) 1.58 (0.18) 4.36 (0.17) 3.21 (0.07) 3.12 (0.12)
M1-CS40F0 41.05 (0.83) 33.95 (1.54) 31.2 (1.47) 2.20 (0.16) 1.78 (0.12) 1.68 (0.07) 4.46 (0.24) 3.40 (0.21) 3.33 (0.18)
M2 41.16 (0.67) 33.45 (0.57) 31.24 (0.75) 2.92 (0.11) 2.30 (0.08) 2.18 (0.07) 4.43 (0.17) 3.42 (0.19) 3.21 (0.18)
M2-CS40F0 47.41 (1.51) 39.24 (0.69) 37.8 (1.12) 2.98 (0.12) 2.44 (0.08) 2.32 (0.10) 4.48 (0.14) 3.52 (0.20) 3.39 (0.16)
M1-CS0F0.5 43.3 (0.85) 35.3 (1.05) 33.25 (0.90) 3.14 (0.10) 2.50 (0.10) 2.38 (0.11) 4.58 (0.18) 3.60 (0.10) 3.49 (0.26)
M1-CS0F1.0 47.6 (1.21) 39.2 (0.68) 37.24 (0.79) 3.31 (0.11) 2.62 (0.11) 2.56 (0.12) 4.65 (0.23) 3.75 (0.20) 3.62 (0.27)
M1-CS0F1.5 50.73 (0.90) 41.98 (1.33) 40.12 (0.94) 4.77 (0.30) 3.90 (0.11) 3.78 (0.22) 4.71 (0.15) 3.84 (0.26) 3.70 (0.31)
M1-CS40F0.5 53.8 (1.20) 45.2 (0.93) 42.54 (1.03) 3.41 (0.20) 2.78 (0.23) 2.66 (0.24) 4.71 (0.13) 3.71 (0.18) 3.65 (0.22)
M1-CS40F1.0 57.53 (1.62) 49.34 (1.57) 46.7 (1.82) 3.63 (0.16) 2.98 (0.17) 2.90 (0.13) 4.76 (0.27) 3.85 (0.09) 3.72 (0.13)
M1-CS40F1.5 55.36 (0.88) 46.88 (1.18) 44.65 (1.24) 4.87 (0.11) 4.05 (0.14) 3.92 (0.12) 4.68 (0.20) 3.66 (0.10) 3.60 (0.13)
M2-CS0F0.5 55.8 (1.52) 45.9 (0.96) 43.25 (0.57) 3.42 (0.06) 2.74 (0.06) 2.62 (0.03) 4.56 (0.17) 3.61 (0.19) 3.55 (0.18)
M2-CS0F1.0 59.53 (0.83) 49.62 (1.23) 47.32 (0.78) 4.13 (0.11) 3.34 (0.16) 3.28 (0.07) 4.64 (0.22) 3.78 (0.24) 3.64 (0.28)
M2-CS0F1.5 61.5 (0.98) 52.22 (1.34) 49.88 (1.41) 5.23 (0.09) 4.32 (0.14) 4.22 (0.13) 4.72 (0.19) 3.92 (0.19) 3.75 (0.24)
M2-CS40F0.5 65.77 (1.21) 56.32 (0.85) 53.88 (1.33) 3.83 (0.15) 3.15 (0.15) 3.04 (0.15) 4.68 (0.27) 3.74 (0.16) 3.68 (0.18)
M2-CS40F1.0 67.16 (0.95) 57.78 (1.36) 55.23 (0.88) 3.93 (0.11) 3.26 (0.14) 3.15 (0.12) 4.79 (0.23) 3.91 (0.10) 3.84 (0.12)
M2-CS40F1.5 60.26 (0.70) 51.18 (1.20) 49.14 (1.07) 5.38 (0.12) 4.48 (0.19) 4.38 (0.20) 4.74 (0.21) 3.82 (0.19) 3.76 (0.16)

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 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

compressive, tensile, and flexural test. However, most of Influence of copper slag
this literature confirms optimum dosage 40–50% copper
slag substitution in CS-modified concrete [22-26]. Hence, To determine the effect of copper slag on fire resistance of
in the first step, experimental tests were considered in the mixtures, mixtures with the same volume fraction of steel
present study for both mix series of M1 and M2 to deter- fiber are compared in this section. Fire resistance factor, FRc ,
mine the best dosage of CS for considered mix propor- is defined by Eq. (2) as a key parameter to compare the per-
tions. The compressive strength of concrete mixes for formance of mixtures with and without CS:
various curing days concerning different CS percentages ( ) ( )
is shown in Fig. 5. Results indicate that adding up to 40% SRc without CS − SRc with CS
FRc = × 100, (2)
of CS causes higher compressive strength to the control
( )
SRc without CS
mix (M1 and M2) while adding further causes significant
strength reduction especially for concrete series of M1. where SRc without CS and SRc with CS should be extracted
( ) ( )

from Fig.  5 for every volume fraction of steel fiber. As

shown in Fig. 6b, mixes M1 (without CS) and M1-CS40F0
Compressive strength (with 40% CS) have strength reductions of 19.8 and 17.3%
after 28 thermal cycles, respectively. This clearly shows that
Overall results of compressive strength are illustrated in CS can increase the fire resistance of mixture with w/c = 0.55
Fig. 6. To precisely determine the effect of copper slag, and 0% steel fiber (12.6%). Results of fire resistance for all
a strength reduction factor of compressive strength is mixtures containing CS are shown in Fig. 7. Results confirm
defined as follows: the fact that CS significantly increases the fire resistance of
( ) ( ) mixtures. Although steel fiber has a considerable effect on
fc 0 − fc n fire resistance of CS-modified concrete (Fig. 7), the high vol-
SRc = × 100, (1)
ume fraction of steel fiber (1.5%) has the lowest fire resist-
( )
fc 0
ance among all mixtures.
) SRc is a reduction factor of compressive strength,
(where
( c )0 is the compressive strength at normal temperature, and
f Proposed regression equation for compressive strength
fc n is the compressive strength of mixtures after n ther-
mal cycles. Higher strength reduction corresponds to the To propose an efficient formulation for considering the effect
higher internal damages due to the thermal cycles. General of thermal cycles, normalized residual compressive strength
results show that thermal cycles for 200 °C have significant is presented as follows:
impacts on the compressive strength of all mixtures (Fig. 6). ( )
Also, results clearly show that mixes M1-CS40F1.0 and fc n
( ) = 0.96e−0.0039n , (3)
M2-CS40F1.0 have the lowest strength reduction among all fc 0
mixtures (Fig. 6b, d). To accurately determine the effects of
copper slag and steel fiber on fire resistance after thermal where residual compressive strength is related to the ther-
cycles, the following subsections are considered. mal cycles ( n ) by e−0.0039n in the proposed regression equa-
tions. The correlation coefficient of 0.96, used in Eq. (3),

Fig. 5  Optimum content of CS (a) (b)

in mixtures: a M1; b M2
59 64
fc (MPa)
fc (MPa)

47 52

35 40
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Age (days) Age (days)
M1 M1-CS10F0 M2 M2-CS10F0
M1-CS20F0 M1-CS30F0 M2-CS20F0 M2-CS30F0
M1-CS40F0 M1-CS50F0 M2-CS40F0 M2-CS50F0

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Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

Fig. 6  Compressive strength
of mixtures exposed to thermal
cycle (200 °C): a compres-
sive strength of M1; b strength
reduction of M1; c compres-
sive strength of M2; d strength
reduction of M2

Fig. 7  Fire resistance ( FRc ) of (a) (b)

mixtures with CS for compres-
sive strength after different 22
28 cycles 28 cycles
thermal cycles with respect to 19.3 19.6
FRc (%) of M2 series

56 cycles 21
FRc (%) of M1 series

18.6 56 cycles
volume fraction of steel fiber: a
M1; b M2 15.8 15.7
16
13.5 13.8 13.2
12.6 14
11.0
9.9 8.0
10
7.7 7
5.1 0.0 2.1

4 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Volume fraction of fiber (%) Volume fraction of fiber (%)

was obtained by an empirical equation presented by Hertz results is shown in Fig. 8. Integral absolute error (IAE) and
[70]. This equation relates the residual compressive strength the coefficient of variation (COV) are the two deviation fac-
of concrete to the combination of the aggregate types stud- tors, which are used to check the efficiency of equations. The
ied in Hertz [70]. Performance of Eq. (3) with experimental

13
 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

COV is the ratio of experimental to estimated values, and the is defined by Eq. (6) as a critical parameter to compare the
IAE is given by Eq. (4) [71, 72]: performance of mixtures with and without CS:
� ( ) ( )
2 SRt without CS − SRt with CS
� (Experimental − Estimated) (6)
IAE = (4) FRt = ( ) × 100,
∑
Experimental SRt without CS

where SRt without CS and SRt with CS should be extracted

( ) ( )

from Fig. 9 for every volume fraction of steel fiber. Results

Splitting tensile strength of fire resistance for all mixtures containing CS are shown
in Fig. 10. Similar to compressive strength (Fig. 8), results
Overall results of tensile strength are illustrated in Fig. 9. To show that CS significantly increases the fire resistance of
explain the effect of copper slag, a strength reduction factor mixtures subjected to splitting tensile test. Although steel
of tensile strength is defined as follows: fiber has a considerable effect on fire resistance of CS-mod-
ified concrete (Fig. 7), a high volume fraction of steel fiber
(1.5%) has the lowest fire resistance among all mixtures.
( ) ( )
f t 0 − ft n
SRt = ( ) × 100, (5)
ft 0
Proposed regression equation for tensile strength
where SRt is a reduction factor of tensile strength, ( ) ft 0 is
( )

the tensile strength at normal temperature, and ft n is ten- To propose an effective formulation for considering the
sile strength of mixtures after n thermal cycles. A higher effect of thermal cycles on splitting tensile strength, normal-
reduction factor corresponds to the higher internal damages ized residual tensile strength is proposed as follows:
due to the thermal cycles. General results show that ther- ( )
mal cycles for 200 °C have a significant effect on tensile ft n
( ) = 0.99e−0.0046n , (7)
strength of all mixtures (Fig. 9) so that ranges of 16.8–27.2 ft 0
and 16.7–25.3% strength reduction ( SRt ) were obtained for
mix series of M1 and M2, respectively (Fig. 9). Also, results where residual tensile strength is related to the thermal
clearly show that mix M1-CS40F1.5 has the lowest strength cycles ( n ) by exponential in the proposed regression equa-
reduction among all mixtures (Fig. 9b, d). Results presented tion. Performance of Eq. (7) with experimental results is
in Figs. 6 and 7 show that thermal cycles have a more dev- shown in Fig. 11 with IAE and COV of 3.17% and 0.98,
astating effect on tensile strength compared to compressive respectively.
strength in both cases of with and without steel fiber. Also, Eq. (8) is proposed to relate the residual splitting
tensile strength to residual compressive strength after ther-
Influence of copper slag mal cycles (R2 = 0.99, Fig. 12):
( ) [ ]
ft n (f )
1.2 fc n
To determine the effect of copper slag on fire resistance of ( ) = 0.3e ( c )0
. (8)
mixtures, mixtures with the same volume fraction of steel ft 0
fiber are compared in this section. Fire resistance factor, FRt ,

80 Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)

Estimated value of (fc)n (MPa)

65 The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) method is one of the

most common non-destructive techniques to determine
50
concrete properties [73]. In the UPV technique, internal
damages due to different conditions affect the velocity of
compression waves. The velocity is sensitive to degradation
35
conditions including internal cracking and other deteriora-
tion due to a thermal treatment [56, 74]. Hence, the UPV
20
was used in this study as an additional damage indicator
20 35 50 65 80
Experimental value of (fc)n (MPa) for measuring the quality of concrete subjected to thermal
cycles [75] (Fig. 13).
Fig. 8  Comparisons of experimental and predicted residual compres- Lower UPV corresponds to the higher induced thermal
sive strength after thermal cycles damages due to the thermal cycles. Figure 14 shows the

13
Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

Fig. 9  Tensile strength of mix-

tures exposed to thermal cycle
(200 °C): a tensile strength of
M1; b strength reduction of
M1; c tensile strength of M2; d
strength reduction of M2

Fig. 10  Fire resistance ( FRt ) (a) (b)

of mixtures with CS for tensile 18 56 cycles
FRt (%) of M2 series
FRt (%) of M1 series

strength after different thermal 56 cycles 15 14.6

28 cycles
15.5 28 cycles
cycles with respect to volume 12.6
12.0
fraction of steel fiber: a M1; 14 13.2
13.9
10.6 11.0
b M2
11.5
9
9.1 9.3
10
7.7
3.9 4.0
6.3 3.6
6 3
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Volume fraction of fiber (%) Volume fraction of fiber (%)

determination of concrete deterioration through UPV meas- until the first seven cycles, which is accompanying by a
urements. Similar to the results of compressive (Fig. 6) and drastic drop in UPV. Results also indicate that mixes of M1
splitting tensile strength (Fig. 9), general results of the UPV and M2 (without CS and steel fiber) are more sensitive to
value show that thermal cycles have a significant impact on thermal cycles compared to other mixtures.
internal damages until seven cycles, while further cycles Also, UPV is used to confirm the results reported for com-
cause lower strength reduction. Stress-releasing phenomena pressive and splitting tensile strength. Results of UPV with
inside the concrete due to the internal damages can occur respect to thermal cycles for different steel fibers are illustrated

13
 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

6 emphasize the temperature dependency of strength (and/or

UPV) [77], especially for specimens exposed to the thermal
Estimated value of (ft)n (MPa) cycle. In this field, Yang et al. [78] used UPV method to deter-
5

4
mine the residual compressive strength of concrete subjected
to elevated temperatures. They reported that the strength loss
3 of thermally damaged concrete is less than 10% for T ≤ 200 °C.
Negligible strength reduction was also observed by some stud-
2 ies for T ≤ 200 °C [79-81]. However, UPV results confirm the
1
considerable strength reduction (> 10%) for mixtures. This
1 3 5 can be attributed to the effect of thermal cycles, which can
Experimental value of (ft)n (MPa) increase the internal damages. It can be deduced from results
that CS-modified concrete has higher UPV compared to refer-
ence concrete for steel fiber less than 1.5% (Fig. 15a–c), while
Fig. 11  Comparisons of experimental and predicted residual tensile
strength after thermal cycles Fig. 15d shows that a further volume fraction of steel fiber has
a negative impact on the thermal performance of CS-modi-
fied concrete. Similar results were observed for compressive
1.0 strength (Fig. 6) and tensile strength (Fig. 9). Hence, it is rec-
R² = 0.99
ommended to use CS in concrete containing steel fiber with
a volume fraction of less than 1% to prevent adverse impact
(ft)n/(ft)0

0.9
on thermal performance. Also, more experimental studies are
necessary to determine optimum mix design for higher volume
0.8
fraction, so that reduces the negative effect of 1.5% steel fiber.

0.7 Proposed regression equation for UPV

0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
(fc)n/(fc)0
This section intends to present an efficient relationship between
the residual strength of concrete and the results obtained by
Fig. 12  Relationship between normalized residual tensile strength
and compressive strength (Eq. (8))
UPV. Normalized ultrasonic pulse velocity, (UPV)n/(UPV)0,
is related to the normalized residual compressive and splitting
tensile strength by Eqs. (9) and (10), respectively:
( )
fc n UPVn 2
( )
UPVn
( ) = 1.18 − 0.18 , (9)
fc UPV0 UPV0
0

( )
ft n UPVn 2
( )
UPVn
( ) = 1.09 − 0.09 , (10)
ft 0 UPV0 UPV0

where UPVn and UPV0 are ultrasonic pulse velocities after

thermal cycles of n and 0 , respectively. Performance of Eqs.
(9) and (10) is illustrated in Fig. 16. Results show that the
proposed regression equations has an IAE value less than 2%
and also COV close to unity. Hence, the proposed regression
Fig. 13  Test setup of UPV method equation can accurately predict residual normalized strength
of thermally damaged concrete by the UPV technique.
in Fig. 15. Results show that a reduction in velocities, between
two direct UPV points, depends on the thermal cycles. It may
be caused by the drying of the sample. As reported by Cruz Discussion
Hernández, Zapata Orduz [76], ettringite and gypsum will dis-
appear during exposure at 200 °C, causing water evaporation. General results of compressive and splitting tensile tests
This causes higher porosity and deteriorated microstructure, show that adding steel fiber has a considerable effect on fire
which can clearly explain the strength reduction detected by resistance of concrete mixture, both with and without copper
the lower UPV. Additionally, results of the present study can slag, exposed to thermal cycle up to 200 °C. A similar trend

13
Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

Fig. 14  Ultrasonic pulse veloc-

ity of mixtures exposed to
thermal cycle (200 °C): a M1
series; b M2 series

Fig. 15  Effect of copper slag (a) (b) 4.9

on concrete exposed to thermal 4.5 M1 M1-CS0F0.5
M1CS40F0
cycles: a without fiber; b 0.5% M2
M1-CS40F0.5
M2-CS0F0.5
fiber; c 1.0% fiber; d 1.5% fiber M2-CS40F0 M2-CS40F0.5
UPV (km/s)

UPV (km/s)
4.0 4.4

3.5 3.9

3.0 3.4
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
Thermal cycles Thermal cycles
(c) (d)
M1-CS0F1.0 M1-CS0F1.5
4.7 M1-CS40F1.0 M1-CS40F1.5
M2-CS0F1.0 4.7
UPV (km/s)

M2-CS0F1.5
UPV (km/s)

M2-CS40F1.0
M2-CS40F1.5
4.3 4.3

3.9 3.9

3.5 3.5
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
Thermal cycles Thermal cycles

was observed by previous studies [37-43, 82] for elevated of cement paste, caused by the local bond failure between
temperature. The optimum dosage of 1.0% of steel fiber the cement and the aggregate, for thermal exposure less than
was obtained by the present study. Due to the high elastic 300 °C [45]. Effect of this phenomenon is dominant, as com-
modulus of steel fibers, they can control the volume change pared with the drying shrinkage due to the free water evap-
of concrete by providing bridges between micro-cracks, oration at exposure temperature higher than 600 °C [83].
and restricting their expansion and coalescence. This can Additionally, no explosive spalling was observed during all
improve the residual strengths of concretes after exposure to thermal cycles for all mixtures. The temperature of 800 °C
the thermal cycles. This may control the thermal expansion was recorded for the first explosive spalling that occurred for

13
 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

Fig. 16  Residual strengths of (a) (b)

thermally damaged properties
of concrete versus UPV: a com- 1.0 1.0
pressive strength; b splitting R² = 0.97 R² = 0.98
tensile strength

(ft)n/(ft)0
0.9

(fc)n/(fc)0
0.9

0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7
0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
(UPV)n/(UPV)0 (UPV)n/(UPV)0

steel fiber-reinforced concrete, which is so far from the expo- coefficient of thermal expansion as compared with limestone
sure range considered in the present study. Although Chen or gravel, which can be attributed to the fact that lightweight
and Liu [44] reported that steel fiber has no influence on fire aggregates are exposed to a pre-heating process during their
resistance of concrete up to 200 °C exposure, approximate production [96]. However, the effect of this phenomenon
strength reduction range of 14.0–25.3% was observed in the on thermal resistance of concrete mixtures exposed to the
present study. This can clearly confirm the significance of thermal cycles at T ≤ 200 °C is still unclear. Regarding using
thermal cycle effect, as compared to elevated temperature, copper slag as fine aggregate replacement, overall results of
so that even a thermal cycle at 200 °C exposure can cause the present study show that mixtures containing copper slag
considerable internal damages. show considerably relief thermal damages, especially for
Thermal incompatibility between cement paste and aggre- steel fiber content less than 1.5%. This may be attributed to
gates, caused by the thermal expansion of the aggregates the low thermal expansion of copper slag. However, there is
and the contraction of the cement paste, is the main reason no specific experimental fact regarding the thermal expan-
of the strength reduction of concrete mixtures exposed to sion of copper slag for thermal exposure below 200 °C [97].
high temperature [57, 84, 85]. This mismatching in ther- Hence, more experimental research is necessary for future
mal expansion of paste and aggregates leads to formation of works to clarify thermal expansion of copper slag (espe-
micro-cracks in the interface transition zone (ITZ) [86, 87]. cially T ≤ 200 °C), as compared with normal fine aggregate.
Previous studies have demonstrated that the type of aggre- Additionally, homogeneity/fluctuation of copper slag quality
gate (including type, origin, and geographic source) has a related to reactivity, such as the chemical composition and
key role in the thermal expansion of concrete [88-91]. For glass content, may affect the test results. However, there is
instance, Kodur and Sultan [92] reported that the increased no available data in the present study, and this is a remaining
thermal expansion of the siliceous aggregate-based high- concern that needs to be studied by future works.
strength concrete HSC, exposed to high temperature, can
be attributed to the transformation of quartz, that is different
for the thermal expansion of the carbonate aggregate-based Summary and concluding remarks
high-strength concrete caused by the dissociation of dolo-
mite after high temperature. Additionally, Schneider [93] This study presents an experimental program to determine
showed that reduction in compressive strength of calcare- the effect of copper slag (CS) on the strength of thermally
ous aggregate concretes occurs at higher temperatures, as damaged steel fiber-reinforced concrete. Compressive and
compared with the siliceous aggregate concretes. This is splitting tensile strength of mixtures were considered for
due to the higher thermal expansion of siliceous aggregates. concrete mixtures subjected to 200  °C. Also, the UPV
Similarly, experimental results of Kong and Sanjayan [94] method was used to confirm the results by monitoring inter-
confirmed the hypothesis that the main reason of the strength nal damages after different thermal cycles. Finally, the fol-
reduction of geopolymer concrete at elevated temperatures lowing remarks have been obtained:
is the thermal incompatibility between geopolymer matrix
and aggregate. In this field, Uygunoğlu and Topçu [95] – Concrete mixtures containing 40% of CS have higher
showed that the aggregate type has a considerable impact compressive strength compared to the reference mixtures
on the thermal expansion of self-consolidating concrete. at normal temperatures. Further addition of CS leads to
Based on their results, lightweight aggregates have a lower the reduction in compressive strength of concrete.

13
Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

– The addition of copper slag improves the thermal resist- 10. Al-Jabri K, Taha R, Al-Ghassani M (2002) Use of copper slag
ance of both normal and steel fiber-reinforced concrete and cement by-pass dust as cementitious materials. Cement
Concr Aggreg 24(1):7–12
after different thermal cycles. 11. Murari K, Siddique R, Jain K (2015) Use of waste copper slag, a
– Results show that thermal cycles have a more devastat- sustainable material. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 17(1):13–26
ing effect on tensile strength compared to compressive 12. Esmaeili J, Aslani H (2019) Use of copper mine tailing in con-
strength in both cases of with and without steel fiber. crete: strength characteristics and durability performance. J
Mater Cycles Waste Manag 21(3):729–741
– In the case of steel fiber-reinforced mixtures, results rec- 13. Icsg I (2010) The World Copper Factbook 2010. International
ommend the value of 1.0% volume fraction of steel fiber Copper Study Group, Lisbon
as an optimum content for water–cement ratios of 0.55 14. Gorai B, Jana R (2003) Characteristics and utilisation of copper
and 0.5, while further content causes less thermal resist- slag—a review. Resour Conserv Recycl 39(4):299–313
15. Caliskan S, Behnood A (2004) Recycling copper slag as coarse
ance of mixtures containing copper slag. aggregate: hardened properties of concrete. In: Proceedings
– Proposed regression equations are in good agreement of seventh international conference on concrete technology in
with experimental results to accurately estimate the developing countries
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crete with excessive bleeding and its improvement. Spec Publ
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Acknowledgements  The authors would like to thank the technical staff 31(7):483–488
of GITAM University for support provided during the experiments. 22. Wu W, Zhang W, Ma G (2010) Optimum content of copper
slag as a fine aggregate in high strength concrete. Mater Des
Compliance with ethical standards  31(6):2878–2883
23. Al-Jabri KS, Al-Saidy AH, Taha R (2011) Effect of copper slag as
a fine aggregate on the properties of cement mortars and concrete.
Conflict of interest  There is no conflict of interest. Constr Build Mater 25(2):933–938
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