Materials and Design 104 (2016) 414–427

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Materials and Design

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Mechanical behaviour of ultra-high strength concrete at elevated

temperatures and fire resistance of ultra-high strength concrete filled
steel tubes
Ming-Xiang Xiong a,b,⁎, J.Y. Richard Liew b,c
a
School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, 100 Waihuan Xi Road, GuangZhou, China 510006
b
Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge, Crescent, Singapore 117576
c
School of Civil Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, 30 Puzhu Road(S), Nanjing, China 211800

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper introduces experimental study on mechanical behaviour of an ultra-high strength concrete (UHSC) at
Received 2 February 2016 elevated temperatures and then a simple calculation method to predict the fire resistance of tubular column
Received in revised form 2 May 2016 infilled with the UHSC. The cylinder compressive strength of the UHSC was 166 N/mm2 at room temperature.
Accepted 13 May 2016
The compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of the UHSC were measured up to 800 °C. Then the temper-
Available online 15 May 2016
ature-dependent mechanical properties were compared with those of normal/high strength concretes provided
Keywords:
in Eurocode 2 and ANSI/AISC 360-10, and with those of concretes in literature. The comparisons showed that the
Ultra-high strength concrete compressive strength and elastic modulus of the UHSC were generally reduced less than those of normal/high
Elevated temperatures strength concretes at the elevated temperatures. The temperature-dependent mechanical properties were pro-
Mechanical properties posed for evaluating fire resistance of steel tubular columns infilled with the UHSC. The UHSC investigated in
Concrete filled steel tubular column this project was shown to markedly improve the fire resistance in a number of cases well documented in the
Simple calculation method literature concerning tubular columns filled with the normal- and high-strength concretes.
Fire resistance © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction only up to Class C90/105 for concrete structures and Class C50/C60 for
steel-concrete composite structures [1–4].
High strength concrete (HSC) has been used in high-rise buildings To evaluate the fire resistance of structural members with the UHSC,
and the other structures because of its technical, architectural, and eco- the knowledge of the temperature-dependent mechanical properties,
nomical advantages over normal strength concrete (NSC). However, the such as compressive strength and modulus of elasticity, is required. In
need for sustainable constructions around the world, which aims to fur- literature, the said properties of the NSC and HSC have been extensively
ther reduce the consumption of construction materials, requires higher- studied where the compressive strength was found to be affected by the
strength concretes to be introduced. Nowadays, ultra-high strength type of aggregate [5–7]. Siliceous-aggregate concrete brought in greater
concrete (UHSC) with compressive strength higher than 120 MPa has strength losses than concrete with carbonate aggregate, whereas fire-
been available with the development of concrete technology and the brick aggregate exhibited superior performance. The strength was also
availability of variety of materials such as silica fume and high-range affected by heating rate [8]. Higher heating rate generally yielded
water-reducing admixtures. However, the UHSC is mainly used in off- lower strength and was more likely to induce spalling. Furthermore,
shore and marine structures and for industrial floors, pavements and se- the loss of strength of HSC was larger than that of NSC [2,9–13]. The
curity barriers. It has not been used in building structures especially modulus of elasticity was generally governed by the type of aggregate
high-rise buildings. This may be due to the fact that there are design and the water/cement ratio [14–16]. The loss of modulus increased as
concerns on its brittleness and fire resistance. These concerns lead to the water/cement ratio increased. According to the literature [7,8,17],
the situations that the current standards allow the use of concrete the elastic modulus is less affected by the temperature in HSC compared
with NSC. The addition of fibers is deemed to affect the mechanical
properties of concrete. Steel fibers generally increase both of the
⁎ Corresponding author at: School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Guangdong
compressive strength and elastic modulus [18]; whereas polypropylene
University of Technology, 100 Waihuan Xi Road, GuangZhou, China 510006. fibers decrease the compressive strength but increase the elastic modu-
E-mail address: cvexmx@gdut.edu.cn (M.-X. Xiong). lus [19]. Overall, there is still little information in the available literature

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.05.050
0264-1275/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 M.-X. Xiong, J.Y.R. Liew / Materials and Design 104 (2016) 414–427 415

Table 1 3. Standard compression tests at elevated temperatures

Mixing proportions of plain UHSC.

Water/D4 Water (kg) D4 (kg) UHSC Volume 3.1. Test specimens

(m3)

0.076 202.1 2659.6 1.0 Spalling has been found for the HSC subject to high temperatures
[33]. The spalling is basically caused by thermal stresses due to a tem-
perature gradient in concrete during heating, and by splitting force
due to the release of vapor above 100 °C. It is believed that the present
concerning the mechanical properties of UHSC at high temperatures. UHSC is more likely to spall under high temperatures. With regard to
Research efforts in this domain are, therefore, badly needed indeed. this point, a series of trial tests have been done to investigate the
Due to the brittleness, HSC is generally used in hollow steel tubes to spalling behavior of the UHSC [34]. It was found that the plain UHSC
form composite columns. Concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) column specimens and the UHSC specimens with steel fibers (dosage up to
integrates the respective advantages of steel and concrete materials 1.0% in volume) spalled around 490 °C as shown in Figs. 1 and 2, respec-
thus exhibits many advantages over conventional steel or reinforced tively. The spalling was so severe that the cover plate of the casing was
concrete columns, such as high load bearing capacity, good ductility bent and the ceiling of the furnace was damaged. However, the UHSC
due to confinement effect, and convenience for fabrication and con- specimens with 0.1% polypropylene fibers did not spall at elevated tem-
struction due to permanent formwork from steel tubes [20]. The CFST perature up to 800 °C as shown in Fig. 3. The properties of steel and
columns also have good fire resistance due to heat sink effect of the polypropylene fibers are shown in Table 2. It is worth noting that the
infilled concrete and prevention of spalling of the infilled concrete by workability and flowability of the UHSC were not affected by the addi-
the steel tube. Researches on the fire resistance of CFST columns started tion of polypropylene fibers as the UHSC is most likely pumped into hol-
from 1970s. National Research Council of Canada (NRCC) is the pioneer low tubes for CFST columns. The dosage of polypropylene fibers was
in this area [21–24]. Until now, the researches on the CFST columns with lower than that recommended by Eurocode 2 where N2 kg/m3 (0.25%
HSC have been carried on by Kodur [25], Lu et al. [26–28] and Romero et in terms of volume) of monofilament propylene fiber should be includ-
al. [29]. However, little information is found for studies on CFST columns ed in the HSC mixtures to prevent spalling [2].
with the UHSC of compressive strength higher than 120 MPa. For the standard compression tests, cylinder specimens with a nom-
A concept of CFST column with the UHSC was proposed for load- inal diameter of 100 mm and a height of 200 mm were prepared. The ac-
bearing system of the high-rise building constructions [30,31]. The com- tual diameters and heights were measured before the test started. The
pressive cylinder strength of the UHSC exceeded 160 MPa. This paper specimens were cured in lab air where the relative humidity was ap-
presents a study on the mechanical properties, such as the compressive proximately 85% and the room temperature was around 30 °C at day-
strength and modulus of elasticity, of the UHSC under elevated temper- time and 25 °C at night. Owing to the fact that the moisture content in
atures. The temperature dependent properties were obtained through the UHSC is low, the effect of moisture on the mechanical properties is
standard compression tests. With the tested mechanical properties, deemed to be insignificant [34]. On the other hand, the moisture is
the fire resistance of CFST columns with the UHSC was evaluated evaporated around 100 °C, it may only have minor influence at 100 °C
when they were subject to standard ISO-834 fire, and compared with but insignificant influences at higher temperatures. Considering these,
that of CFST columns with the NSC and HSC. the unsealed specimens were used.

3.2. Test setup

2. Basic materials
The compression tests were conducted by means of a servo-hydrau-
The basic materials to produce the UHSC were Ducorit® D4 and lic testing machine with a maximum 300 mm stroke displacement and
water. Ducorit® D4 is one of the commercial Ducorit® products. It is capacity of 10,000 kN. The heat system was a split-tube furnace with a
made from cementitious mineral powder, superplasticizer and fine two-zone configuration and an optional side entry extensometer port.
bauxite aggregates with maximum sizes b 4.75 mm and 49% b0.6 mm. The furnace is constructed with S304 stainless steel shell and alumina
The mixing proportions for the UHSC are shown in Table 1. Workability insulation material. Heating elements are coils of Fe\\Cr\\Al alloy
of the fresh UHSC was tested using the slump flow test in accordance 0Cr27a17mo2. A type K thermocouple is mounted in the center of
with ASTM C1611/C1611M-09b. The slump flow spread was 735 mm each heating zone. The external dimensions (diameter × height) are
and the density was 2700 kg/m3 [32]. 700 × 600 mm and internal heating dimensions (diameter × height)

Fig. 1. Spalled UHSC specimens without fibers.

416 M.-X. Xiong, J.Y.R. Liew / Materials and Design 104 (2016) 414–427

Fig. 2. Spalled UHSC specimens with steel fibers.

are 350 × 400 mm. The furnace can heat up to a maximum temperature unstressed method is mostly used due to its convenience to obtain
of 900 °C. Model 3548HI high temperature furnace extensometer was stress-strain curves directly. However, it is difficult to obtain the
used to measure the relative deformation in gauge length of the speci- stress-strain curves in the stressed tests as the measured strain includes
men. It is a strain gauged sensor and specified for a gauge length of thermal strain and short-term creep strain [35]. Supplementary tests
50 mm and the maximum measurable strain is thus 20%. The arms of are usually required to measure them independently. The difference be-
the extensometer are alumina rods and the rods were attached to the tween the unstressed and stressed test methods is mainly that the
middle 1/4 height of the specimen which is the gauge length. stressed test could capture transient thermal strain. For a CFST column
The test setup is shown in Fig. 4. Top and bottom cooling blocks were subjected to a fire, ignoring the transient thermal strain could overesti-
used to load the specimen inside the furnace. The cooling blocks were mate the buckling resistance of the CFST column, however the overesti-
made from carbon steel which is not resistant to high temperature. To mation may not be much severe due to the existence of non-uniform
bring down its temperature, channels were drilled inside the cooling temperature distribution through its cross-section [36]. Nevertheless,
blocks to allow for water circulating for the purpose of cooling. The con- the influence of transient thermal strain should be considered for the
crete specimen was protected by a steel casing in case where the fire resistance design of CFST columns. In present study, the unstressed
crushing debris at failure would damage the furnace. Diameter of test method was adopted and the effect of transient thermal strain was
10 mm holes were drilled on surface for heat propagation; and opening implicitly considered by a stiffness reduction factor given in Section 5.1
was cut at side for the pass of rods of the extensometer. The compres- for the CFST columns containing the UHSC. The validity of the said re-
sion force was applied from the bottom of the loading frame by a hy- duction factor has been established by test results.
draulic cylinder. For the unstressed tests conducted, a small compressive stress of ap-
proximately 0.05 MPa was applied prior to testing in the direction of the
3.3. Test method and procedure specimen's central axis in order to maintain the specimen at the center
of loading machine. Then the specimen was heated up to target temper-
In practice, different temperature–stress paths may appear in con- atures with a heating rate of 5 °C/min. In fact, the heating rate varies
crete and it is difficult to test for all of them. Typically, two tempera- when a structural member is subjected to a realistic fire. However, it
ture-stress paths, unstressed and stressed, are considered to form the would be rather difficult to conduct tests for various heating rates.
upper and lower bounds of the mechanical properties of concrete at With regard to this point, the heating rate herein is determined based
elevated temperatures. For the unstressed method, the specimen is on that of standard ISO-834 fire against which the structural members
loaded to fail with a constant temperature; whereas the specimen is are generally designed. The heating rate of the ISO-834 fire is shown
heated to fail under a constant load level for the stressed method. The in Fig. 5. At early 5 min, the heating rate drops to 25 °C/min, after
25 min, the heating rate is approximately 5 °C/min. Hence the heating
rate of 5 °C/min would be representative for most fire scenarios. Espe-
cially when the UHSC is infilled in steel tubes, the heating rate would
be further lower due to the heat sink effects of the steel tubes and the
fire protection (if any). Thus if the heating rate of 5 °C/min is used, the
measured mechanical properties would be lower than they are in real-
ity, which will turn out a more conservative but safer design.
In addition to ambient temperature which was approximately 30 °C,
the target temperature ranged from 100 °C to 800 °C at an increment of

Table 2
Properties of steel fiber and polypropylene fiber.

Fiber Code/Type Diameter Length Density Tensile

(mm) (mm) (kg/m3) strength
(MPa)

Steel SF13/80 0.16 13 7850 2300

Polypropylene Monofilament 0.03 ± 0.005 13 910 ± 0.01% ≥450
Fig. 3. Comparison between heated and unheated UHSC specimens.
 M.-X. Xiong, J.Y.R. Liew / Materials and Design 104 (2016) 414–427 417

Fig. 6. Temperatures in furnace and UHSC specimen.

achieved in 4 h. Hence, the holding time at target temperatures were

taken as 4 h for all specimens.
After holding, the specimen was subjected to three load cycles be-
tween 0.05 MPa and 15% or between 5% and 15% of the reference
strength as shown in Fig. 7 [37]. The holding time at 5% and 15% load
levels was 60s. Then the specimen was loaded to fail. Displacement con-
trol was adopted during loading where the displacement rate was
0.4 mm/min. It should be mentioned that the full stress-strain curves
were not recorded by the extensometer since the sudden crush of the
UHSC specimen would damage the extensometer. The extensometer
was removed when at least 40% of the compressive strength at target
temperature was reached. The 40% compressive strength was measured
to calculate the modulus of elasticity. The compression continued after
the extensometer was removed until the specimen was crushed. The
peak compression force was recorded by the loading machine. In gener-
al, the peak compressive strength and the modulus of elasticity of the
Fig. 4. Test setup. UHSC were obtained from the tests. They are sufficient for the fire resis-
tance design of CFST columns with the UHSC according to EN 1994-1-2
[4].

100 °C. As the UHSC is denser and more impermeable than the NSC, a 4. Test results
trial test was conducted to investigate the holding time of target tem-
perature during which uniform temperature distributions can be 4.1. Compressive strength
achieved inside both the furnace and the UHSC specimens. Fig. 6
shows the recorded temperatures for a 100x200mm cylinder specimen Spalling was not observed during heating of all the UHSC specimens
heated up to 800 °C in an electrical oven with a heating rate of 5 °C /min. owing to the addition of 0.1% polypropylene fibers. The compressive
It can be seen that the uniform temperature distribution can be strength of UHSC at room temperature was 166 MPa which was aver-
aged from 6 specimens. 3 specimens were used for the other target tem-
peratures. The compressive strength was taken as the peak stress on the

Fig. 5. Time-temperature curve of ISO-834 fire and heating rates. Fig. 7. Load cycles applied on the test specimens.
418 M.-X. Xiong, J.Y.R. Liew / Materials and Design 104 (2016) 414–427

Fig. 8. Determination of compressive strength and modulus of elasticity.

curve of loading head movement versus compressive stress as shown in it can be seen that, beyond 300 °C, the reduction factors of UHSC were
Fig. 8(a). The test values are shown in Table 3. The reduction factor in similar with those of NSC with calcareous aggregates, but higher than
this paper is defined as the ratio of strength or elastic modulus at target those of NSC with siliceous aggregates. The reason was due to the effect
temperature divided by their counterpart at room temperature. The re- of aggregate type as discussed in Section 1. Generally, the aggregates oc-
duction factors of strength are shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen that the cupy 65% to 75% of the concrete volume. The effect of aggregate mainly
strength was sharply reduced at 100 °C, and then it was partly recov- depends on the thermal stability or integrity of aggregate at high tem-
ered up to 300 °C. It is believed that the chemical composition of the ce- peratures [14]. Conventional calcareous or siliceous aggregates are ther-
ment paste were not noticeably changed around 100 °C. Hence, the mally stable up to 300 °C–350 °C. Bauxite aggregates in UHSC are more
sharp reduction of strength at 100 °C could be either due to the built- stable due to high melting point, and thus produced significant im-
up internal pressure by the evaporation of free water, or the expansion provements in heat resistance of the UHSC. The bauxite aggregates
of water between the C-S-H layers causing a decrease in the surface have been used for refractory concretes to achieve super fire perfor-
forces. For the recovery of strength up to 300 °C, it might be attributed mance [42,43]. The comparison between the strength reduction factors
to the general stiffening of the cement gel by shrinkage, in other of UHSC and HSC in EN 1992-1-2 are shown in Fig. 10. The reduction fac-
words, the increase of surface forces (Van der Walls forces) between tors are not provided for HSC in AISC 360-10. It is clear that the strength
the gel particles due to the removal of water [38,39]. The temperature of UHSC was reduced less than that of HSC due to the effect of aggregate
at which water is removed and the strength begins to recover depends type. The comparisons indicated that, for stub CFST columns with the
on the porosity of the concrete [40]. Beyond 300 °C, the strength de- UHSC governed by compressive resistance, they would withstand lon-
creased as the temperature increased. The decrease of strength was at- ger time when exposed to fire than the CFST columns with the NSC
tributed to the decomposition of hydration products such as C-S-H and and HSC.
Ca(OH)2, the deterioration of aggregates, and the cracks due to thermal The strength reduction factors of UHSC are compared with those of
incompatibility between the aggregate and the cement paste which led HSC in the literature as shown in Fig. 11 [7,8,19,40,44]. It can be seen
to stress concentration. At 800 °C, the strength was about 30% of that at that the sharp deterioration at 100 °C and the recovery of strength be-
room temperature. tween 100 °C–300 °C were also captured in previous researches. In gen-
The comparisons between the strength reduction factors of UHSC eral, the strength of UHSC at elevated temperatures were reduced less
and NSC given in EN 1992-1-2 [2] and AISC 360-10 [41] are also than those of HSCs in the literature.
shown in Fig. 9. The NSC is implicitly defined as compressive cylinder The mechanical properties (compressive strength and modulus of
strength b55 MPa in EN 1992-1-2, and not N 55 MPa in AISC 360-10. elasticity) at elevated temperatures and their counterparts measured
The reduction factors are applicable to both NSCs with siliceous aggre- after heating and cooling are also compared in this paper. In tests for re-
gates and calcareous aggregates in AISC 360-10. It was supposed that sidual properties, the heating rate was 5 °C/min, the dosage of polypro-
the strength of UHSC would reduce greater than that of NSC. However, pylene fibers was 0.1% by volume, and the specimens were naturally

Table 3
Test values of compressive strength and modulus of elasticity.

Temp. Compressive Strength (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)

(°C)
Test values Avg. Ratio Test values Avg. Ratio

30 165.7, 168, 166.1, 169.1, 168.5, 162.2 166.6 1.000 59.9, 63.4, 59.8, 62.8, 62, 58.2 61.0 1.000
100 133.1, 133.6, 119.9 128.9 0.773 47.9, 54.9, 50 50.9 0.835
200 161.9, 139.8, 145.1 149.0 0.894 59.5, 54.8, 50.3 54.9 0.900
300 155.5, 160.4 158.0 0.948 46.5, 45.2 45.8 0.751
400 138.5, 137.2, 143.4 139.7 0.839 36, 32.2, 33.3 33.8 0.554
500 97.2, 131.8, 127.1 118.7 0.712 26.6, 29.8, 27.8 28.0 0.460
600 112.8, 95, 99.6 102.4 0.615 15.9, 20.4, 20.9 19.1 0.313
700 82.3, 86.2 84.2 0.505 13.5, 17.8 15.6 0.257
800 48.4, 49.9, 50.8 49.7 0.298 13.5, 15.3, 16.4 15.1 0.247
 M.-X. Xiong, J.Y.R. Liew / Materials and Design 104 (2016) 414–427 419

Fig. 9. Comparison between strength reduction factors of UHSC and NSC as given in EN Fig. 12. Comparison between reduction factors of strength and residual strength.
1992-1-2 and AISC 360-10.

of hydration products Ca(OH)2 absorbed water after cooling down

from high temperatures. Then, it expanded and induced more cracks
inside the concrete. As a result, the residual strength was lower [15].

4.2. Modulus of elasticity

The elastic modulus was generally defined as the secant modulus

between the stress equal to 40% of peak stress and the stress corre-
sponding to strain of 5 × 10−5 in accordance with ASTM C469-02 [45].
For some stress-strain curves with the existence of turbulence, the
slope of the regressed linear equation for a straight portion was taken
as the modulus of elasticity as shown in Fig. 8(b). The elastic modulus
of UHSC at room temperature was 61 GPa as shown in Table 3. The re-
Fig. 10. Comparison between strength reduction factors of UHSC and HSC as given in EN duction factors of elastic modulus at elevated temperatures are shown
1992-1-2. in Fig. 13. Similar to the compressive strength, the sharp reduction
and the recovery were also observed for the elastic modulus due to
the built-up internal pressure by the evaporation of free water. Fig. 13
also gives the comparisons between the modulus reduction factors of
UHSC and NSC as given in EN 1992-1-2 and AISC 360-10. The modulus
cooled down in lab air. The reduction factors of strength and residual of elasticity of UHSC was less affected than that of NSC.
strength are shown in Fig. 12 [34]. It can be seen that the residual The reduced elastic modulus of UHSC are also compared with those
strength was reduced more than the strength when the temperature of HSC in the literature as shown in Fig. 14 [7,8,19,40,44]. The sharp re-
was higher than 300 °C. This might be attributed to two facts. One fact duction and recovery were also observed in some researches. Overall,
is that the residual strength was affected by further internal micro- the elastic modulus of UHSC was reduced less than most of the HSCs
cracking induced by differential thermal strain during cooling down. in the literature due to the effect of aggregate. The practical implication
Another fact is that the calcium oxide (CaO) from the decomposition is that, for slender CFST columns with the UHSC governed by buckling
resistance, they would withstand longer time when exposed to fire
than the CFST columns with the NSC and HSC.

Fig. 11. Comparison between strength reduction factors of UHSC and HSC with results Fig. 13. Comparison between elastic modulus reduction factors of UHSC and NSC as given
from previous researches. in EN 1992-1-2 and AISC 360-10.
420 M.-X. Xiong, J.Y.R. Liew / Materials and Design 104 (2016) 414–427

that the modulus of elasticity at and after elevated temperatures are

comparable.

5. Simple calculation method for predicting fire resistance of

ultra-high strength concrete filled steel tubes

5.1. Fire resistance calculation

Similar to the calculation of buckling resistance of a CFST column

under axial load at room temperature [3], the buckling resistance of
CFST columns with the UHSC exposed to fire can be determined in ac-
cordance with the following simple calculation method (SCM):

Fig. 14. Comparison between reduction factors of elastic modulus of UHSC and HSC as 0 1
given in previous researches. X Aa; j f a;θ X Ac;k f c;θ
Nfi;Rd ¼ χ fi @ þ A ð1Þ
j
γM;fi;a k
γM;fi;c

The fire resistance time is determined when the buckling resistance

is reduced to be equal to the external fire load as the fire exposure time
goes. To determine the buckling resistance, cross section of the CFST col-
umn should be discretized into elements where Aa,j and Ac,k are the
areas of steel and concrete elements, and fa,θ and fc,θ are the yield
strength of steel element and the compressive strength of concrete ele-
ment at temperature θ. The χfi is the buckling reduction coefficient
which depends on the buckling curve “c” according to EN 1994-1-2
[4]. γM,fi,a and γM,fi,c are partial safety factors for steel and concrete
which are taken as 1.0 at fire situation [4]. The determination of χfi in-
volves the buckling length of the column in fire lθ, the effective flexural
stiffness (EI)fi,eff, the Euler buckling resistance Nfi,cr under fire, and the
Fig. 15. Comparison between reduction factors of elastic modulus and residual elastic dimensionless slenderness ratio λθ as given in Eqs. (2)–(6). They are
modulus. temperature dependent parameters which should be determined for
each time step.

X  X 
ðEIÞfi;eff ¼ φa;θ Ea;θ Ia; j þ φc;θ Ec;θ Ic;k ð2Þ
A comparison of the reduction factors for the elastic modulus and j k
the residual elastic modulus are shown in Fig. 15 [34]. For the residual
elastic modulus, there was no unusual deterioration and recovery at
the temperature range of 100 °C–200 °C. The elastic modulus was re-
duced slightly less than the residual elastic modulus at temperatures be- π2 ðEIÞfi;eff
Nfi;cr ¼ ð3Þ
tween 200 °C–500 °C, but more beyond 500 °C. It could be concluded lθ

Fig. 16. Discretization on cross-section.

 M.-X. Xiong, J.Y.R. Liew / Materials and Design 104 (2016) 414–427 421

Fig. 17. Typical test setup for the standard fire test on CFST column.

vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
u0 1
1
u XA f X χ fi ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð6Þ
u Ac;k f c;θ
λθ ¼ t@ A=Nfi;cr
a; j a;θ
þ ð4Þ 2
γ M;fi;a γ M;fi;c Φ þ Φ2 −λθ
j k

h   i
2
Φ ¼ 0:5 1 þ 0:49 λθ −0:2 þ λθ ð5Þ As mentioned in Section 3.3, the transient thermal strains of the
UHSC were not measured in the unstressed tests, which would

Fig. 18. Diagram for calculation of buckling length of pinned-fixed column.

422 M.-X. Xiong, J.Y.R. Liew / Materials and Design 104 (2016) 414–427

Table 4
Details of CFST columns in standard fire tests for validations and comparisons.

Fire resistance time (minutes)

Predictions with Predictions with

Test original concrete replacement

CFST Columns Sizes D × t (mm) fy (MPa) fck (MPa) BC Test load (kN) Load level tt tp tp/tt tu tu/tp

Ref. [23] C-04 141.3 × 6.55 350 31 F-F 131 0.117 57 67 1.175 87 1.299
C-08 168.3 × 4.78 350 35.5 F-F 218 0.167 56 61 1.089 91 1.492
C-09 168.3 × 6.35 350 35.4 F-F 150 0.097 81 88 1.086 120 1.364
C-11 219.1 × 4.78 350 31 F-F 492 0.249 80 71 0.888 118 1.662
C-13 219.1 × 4.78 350 32.3 F-F 384 0.19 102 98 0.961 141 1.439
C-17 219.1 × 8.18 350 31.7 F-F 525 0.196 82 77 0.939 129 1.675
C-20 273.1 × 5.56 350 28.6 F-F 574 0.196 112 118 1.054 206 1.746
C-21 273.1 × 5.56 350 29 F-F 525 0.178 133 132 0.992 215 1.629
C-22 273.1 × 5.56 350 27.2 F-F 1000 0.341 70 54 0.771 134 2.481
C-23 273.1 × 12.7 350 27.4 F-F 525 0.111 143 141 0.986 222 1.574
C-26 323.9 × 6.35 350 24.3 F-F 1050 0.275 93 95 1.022 254 2.674
C-28 355.6 × 6.35 350 23.8 F-F 1050 0.233 111 131 1.180 324 2.473
C-29 355.6 × 12.7 350 25.4 F-F 1050 0.154 170 155 0.912 331 2.135
C-32 141.3 × 6.55 350 34.8 F-F 143 0.135 64 68 1.063 77 1.132
C-34 219.1 × 4.78 350 35.4 F-F 500 0.251 111 107 0.964 134 1.252
C-35 219.1 × 4.78 350 42.7 F-F 560 0.254 108 91 0.843 125 1.374
C-40 273.1 × 6.35 350 46.5 F-F 1050 0.259 106 110 1.038 160 1.455
C-41 273.1 × 6.35 350 50.7 F-F 1050 0.253 76 96 1.263 158 1.646
C-42 273.1 × 6.35 350 55.4 F-F 1050 0.240 90 109 1.211 164 1.505
C-44 273.1 × 6.35 350 38.7 F-F 715 0.193 178 163 0.916 199 1.221
C-45 273.1 × 6.35 350 38.2 F-F 712 0.194 144 145 1.007 189 1.303
C-50 323.9 × 6.35 300 42.4 F-F 820 0.166 234 239 1.021 265 1.109
C-53 355.6 × 6.35 300 42.4 F-F 1335 0.235 149 178 1.195 288 1.618
C-55 355.6 × 12.7 300 40.7 F-F 965 0.129 274 281 1.026 325 1.157
C-57 406.4 × 6.35 300 44 F-F 1400 0.189 294 281 0.956 388 1.381
SQ-01 152.4 × 6.35 350 58.3 F-F 376 0.181 66 48 0.727 70 1.458
SQ-02 152.4 × 6.35 350 46.5 F-F 286 0.150 86 84 0.977 91 1.083
SQ-07 177.8 × 6.35 350 57 F-F 549 0.203 80 69 0.863 89 1.290
SQ-20 254 × 6.35 350 46.5 F-F 931 0.204 97 120 1.237 173 1.442
Ref. [29] C30–0-40 159 × 6 337.8 30.1 P-P 338 0.369 18 20 1.111 25 1.250
C30–0-20 159 × 6 337.8 35.75 F-P 198 0.171 42 40 0.952 60 1.500
C30–0-40 159 × 6 337.8 28.55 F-P 396 0.366 25 24 0.960 28 1.167
C30–0-60 159 × 6 337.8 34.05 F-P 594 0.522 14 19 1.357 21 1.105
C80–0-20 159 × 6 341.4 71.14 F-P 335 0.213 38 32 0.842 54 1.688
Mean 1.017 1.523
Ref. [57] LC-2-1 219.1 × 16 432 163 F-F 2900 0.353 96 90 0.938 70 0.778
LDC-2-1 219.1 × 16/ 114.3 × 6.3 432/468 165 F-F 2428 0.331 59 53 0.898 45 0.849
LSH-2-1 200 × 12 785 163 F-F 3735 0.344 42 33 0.786 25 0.758
LDSH-2-1 200 × 12/ 100 × 8 785/825 170 F-F 3715 0.335 47 44 0.936 30 0.682
Mean 0.889 0.767

Notes: “C″ and “LC” circular column; “SQ” and “LSH” square column; “LDC” double-tube circular column; “LDSH” double-tube square column. “fy” steel yield strength; “fck” concrete cyl-
inder compressive strength; “BC” Boundary condition; “F-F″ fixed-fixed; “F-P″ fixed-pinned; “tt” tested fire resistance time; “tp” predicted fire resistance time; “tu” predicted fire resistance
time with the original concrete replaced by NSC (40 MPa) or UHSC (166 MPa).

overestimate the flexural stiffness of column. The overestimation expansion is larger than that of concrete, there is actually no contact
should be less for CFST columns with the UHSC as the transient thermal between the steel tube and the concrete, thus no confinement occurs.
strain of the UHSC is generally smaller than that of NSC [46]. To deter- At higher temperatures, there may be contact but the steel has been
mine the effective flexural stiffness properly, reduction factors φa,θ and softened. Thirdly, the magnitude of confinement is related to the ratio
φc,θ are taken into account respectively for the steel and concrete as fy/fck according to Eurocode 4 [3]. For the CFST column directly exposed
shown in Eq. (2). φc,θ is recommended as 0.8 for concrete [4], and φa,θ to fire, the steel temperature arises faster than that of concrete, as a re-
can be taken as 1.0 for steel [47]. Ia,j and Ic,k are th e second moment of sult, the steel loses its yield strength fy much faster than the concrete
areas of the steel and concrete elements about neutral axis; whereas losing its compressive strength fck. The ratio fy/fck decreases rapidly,
the Ea,θ and Ec,θ are the elastic modulus of the steel and concrete and the steel is not capable to provide sufficient confinement to the
elements at temperature θ. Basically for NSC/HSC and carbon steel, the concrete.
temperature dependent mechanical properties can be referred to EN
1992-1-2 [2] and EN 1993-1-2 [48], respectively. For high tensile 5.2. Heat transfer analysis
strength steel and the present UHSC, they can be taken respectively
from Ref. [49] and Section 4 of this paper. Temperature distribution on the cross section of the CFST column
It is worth noting that the increase in strength of concrete caused by should be determined for each time step for the determination of fire re-
confinement is not taken into account in Eq. (1) for the present fire re- sistance. To the authors' best knowledge, there is no method available
sistance design. This has been found in researches by Ibanez et al. [50], for calculating temperatures of a CFST column in worldwide design
and Wang and Young [51]. The ignorance of confinement is mainly codes. Herein the modified finite difference method (FDM) is adopted.
due to three facts. Firstly, the CFST column with the UHSC fails at The modifications are based on the FDM used by Lie et al. [52] and
small deformation and has not developed significant confinement Kodur et al. [53] to determine temperature profiles of the circular and
[30]. Secondly for temperature lower than 250 °C, the steel's thermal square CFST columns under fire. The main modifications are inclusion
 M.-X. Xiong, J.Y.R. Liew / Materials and Design 104 (2016) 414–427 423

of heat convection, development of thermal resistance between steel this, its moisture content is assumed to be 0%, which is validated by
and concrete interface, and introduction of square mesh network for test results in Fig. 19.
square columns. To determine the temperature distribution, the cross In Eq. (7), the h is the sum of coefficients of the heat convection he
sections should be discretized as shown in Fig. 16. Then the elemental and the thermal radiation hr. The convection coefficient he can be
temperature, represented by the nodal temperature at center of an ele- taken as 25 W/mK for exposure to standard fire of ISO-834 [54]. The
ment, can be solved on the basis of energy conservation where the heat thermal radiation coefficient hr. should be calculated as follow:
flowing into one element from adjacent elements should be equal to the
h 2 i 
energy consumed by the temperature increase of the element consid-
hr ¼ Φ  ε m  ε f  σ T f þ 273 þ ðT þ 273Þ2 T f þ T þ 546 ð8Þ
ered. For instance at node (1.1) in Fig. 16(b), the temperature is calculat-
ed by solving Eq. (7).
Φ is the configuration factor which can be taken as 1.0 by ignoring
the position and shadow effects [55]. εm is the steel surface emissivity
T i2;1 −T i1;1 Δx T i1;2 −T i1;1 Δy   Δx þ Δy
where it may be taken as 0.7 for unprotected columns [48]. εf is the
λ þλ þ h T if −T i1;1 ð7Þ
Δy 2 Δx 2 2 emissivity of the fire and taken as 1.0 [55]. σ is the Stephan Boltzmann
iþ1 i
Δx Δy T 1;1 −T 1;1 constant equal to 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 K4. The finite difference equations
¼ ρc for nodal temperatures at the steel-concrete interface can be derived
2 2 Δt
similar to Eq. (7), except that the thermal contact resistance at the inter-
face should be used to replace the coefficient h. The thermal contact re-
The left-hand size of Eq. (7) represents the heat flowing into node sistance is considered due to the air gap existing at the steel-concrete
(1.1) at ith time step, the right-hand side of Eq. (7) stands for the energy interface. Basically, it can be taken as 100 W/mK according to Ref. [56].
consumed by the increase of nodal temperature. The Tf is the fire tem-
perature and t is the fire exposure time. The Δx, Δy are element sizes. 5.3. Buckling length of CFST column in standard fire test
Δt is the time step. The λ, ρ, c are the temperature-dependent thermal
conductivity, density and specific heat, respectively. The thermal prop- As mentioned in Section 5.1, the column buckling length is needed to
erties of NSC and HSC at elevated temperatures can be referred to EN determine the buckling reduction coefficient χfi. For the CFST columns
1992-1-2 [2], whereas their counterparts in EN 1993-1-2 [48] can be in frames subject to a realistic fire, it can be easily determined according
used for steel. For the UHSC, little information on its thermal properties to EN 1994-1-2 [4]. However it is difficult for the CFST columns in stan-
is available in the literature. As the UHSC is less porous than the NSC and dard fire tests. This is because only the mid-height of the column is ex-
HSC, it should have higher thermal conductivity and less moisture con- posed to fire and the other parts are unexposed. A typical setup of the
tent. Considering this, the thermal properties of HSC can be used for the standard fire test on a CFST column with a pinned-pinned boundary
UHSC, except that the upper limit of the thermal conductivity and the condition and subject to axial compression is shown in Fig. 17. The col-
specific heat with a moisture content of 0% in EN 1992-1-2 may be umn is partly exposed to fire with two ends outside the furnace. The
used. For NSC exposed to fire, the time-temperature curve usually non-uniform temperature distribution yields differences in flexural
shows a plateau at 100 °C due to the evaporation of water. However stiffness along the column length, thus the buckling length would be
for the UHSC shown in Fig. 6, there is no such plateau. With regard to different from that of column exposed to a uniform temperature. In

Fig. 19. Comparison between calculated and measured temperatures of UHSC.

424 M.-X. Xiong, J.Y.R. Liew / Materials and Design 104 (2016) 414–427

Fig. 20. Comparison between calculated and measured fire resistance time.

general, the buckling length of a CFST column in standard fire test can be 5.4. Validations for simple calculation method
calculated by solving a fourth-order differential equation of its lateral
displacement. For instance for a pinned-fixed column shown in Standard fire test data on CFST columns subject to axial compression
Fig. 18, it is divided into three segments according to the exposed/ from Lie and Chabot [23] Romero et al. [29], and the authors of this
unexposed parts, the fourth-order differential equation of lateral dis- paper [57] were used to establish validity of the proposed simple calcu-
placement for each segment is then given as: lation method. There were totally 29 tests carried out by Lie and Chabot
[23]. All columns were fixed at both ends. The concrete strength varied
from 23.8 MPa to 58.3 MPa. All column length was 3810 mm with the
w″1 þ k1 w01 ¼ 0
2 2
k1 ¼ P=ðEIÞ1 x ¼ ½0; L1  ð9Þ
length exposed to fire being 3200 mm. For the tests by Romero et al.
[29], there were 5 columns used for the validations. The concrete
w″2 þ k2 w02 ¼ 0
2 2
k2 ¼ P=ðEIÞ2 x ¼ ½L1 ; L1 þ L2  ð10Þ strength varied from 28.55 MPa to 71.14 MPa. The column length was
3180 mm and the exposed length to fire was 3000 mm. All columns
were fixed at one end and pinned at the other end except for one col-
w″3 þ k3 w03 ¼ 0
2 2
k3 ¼ P=ðEIÞ3 x ¼ ½L1 þ L2 ; L1 þ L2 þ L3  ð11Þ
umn with both ends pinned. 4 unprotected CFST columns infilled with
the UHSC by Xiong et al. [57] were used for the validation. The column
Substituting the boundary and compatibility conditions shown in length was 3810 mm with 3000 mm exposed to fire. For all the CFST col-
Fig. 18 into the general solutions of w1, w2, and w3, and their derivatives umns used for validations hereinafter, the fire resistance time was pre-
will yield the solution of buckling length. dicted based on the actual furnace temperatures which were designed

Table 5
Sensitivity study on section factor.

Circular Sizes Section fy (MPa) fck (MPa) Buckling Load Fire resistance time (minutes)
Column D × t (mm) factor (m−1) length (m) level
NSC UHSC NSC, tp UHSC, tu tu/tp

SF01 139.7 × 8 28.6 355 35 166 3.5 0.35 22 24 1.091

SF02 219.1 × 8 18.3 26 38 1.462
SF03 273 × 8 14.7 30 76 2.533
SF04 355.6 × 8 11.2 42 111 2.643
SF05 406.4 × 8 9.8 55 150 2.727
SF06 508 × 8 7.9 99 255 2.576
SF07 610 × 8 6.6 167 401 2.401
 M.-X. Xiong, J.Y.R. Liew / Materials and Design 104 (2016) 414–427 425

Fig. 21. Effect of section factor on improvement of fire resistance time. Fig. 22. Effect of load level on improvement of fire resistance time.

to follow the time-temperature curve of standard ISO-834 fire. Details of reduction coefficient, it decreases as the fire exposure time continues.
the CFST columns are summarized in Table 4. The reduction factor is b 1.0 at the column failure, indicating a global
The heat transfer analysis in Section 5.2, the determination of buck- buckling failure.
ling length in Section 5.3, and the calculation of buckling resistance The predictions for the CFST columns with the replaced concrete are
under fire in Section 5.1 were conducted by using MATLAB. The modi- shown in Table 4. The replacement was based on the same load level
fied FDM is deemed to be qualified for the heat transfer analysis on which is defined as the ratio between the applied axial load over the
CFST columns under fire as the predicted temperatures for the CFST col- buckling resistance at room temperature calculated according to EN
umns with the UHSC, given in Fig. 19, show reasonable agreements with 1994-1-1 [3]. For Case 1 with the NSC/HSC replaced by the UHSC, the
the test temperatures. The moisture content could be taken as 0% as ratio between the two predictions tu/tp varies from 1.083 to 2.674
there was no clear plateau on the time-temperature curves of the with a mean value of 1.523. For Case 2 with the UHSC replaced by the
UHSC infilled in steel tubes. NSC, the said ratio is in the range of 0.682–0.849 with an average of
Table 4 gives the tested and predicted fire resistance time. Two cases 0.767. The comparisons show significant improvements on fire resis-
were considered where the NSC/HSC in Refs. [23,29] was replaced by tance when the NSC/HSC with conventional siliceous or calcareous
the UHSC having fck = 166 MPa in Case 1; and the UHSC in Ref. [57] aggregates are replaced by the novel UHSC with the bauxite aggregates.
was replaced by a NSC with fck = 40 MPa in Case 2. The mean predic- It is well known that the fire resistance time of a CFST column
tion/test ratio is 1.017 and 0.889, respectively for Case 1 and Case 2. increases with the decrease of section factor and load level, and the in-
The mean value for CFSTs with NSC/HSC is much close to unity, whereas crease of concrete contribution ratio. It is also worthy to know if the im-
the mean value for CFSTs with UHSC shows conservative predictions. provement, represented by the ratio tu/tp, follows the same trend. The
The conservativeness is approximately 11%, mainly due to the over-con- section factor is defined as the ratio between the exposed area and the
servativeness from column LSH-2-1. Overall, reasonable predictions by volume of the CFST column. It is generally used to measure the rate of
the proposed simple calculation method are generally observed. temperature increase in a column. The higher the section factor, the
faster the section heats up. For a CFST column with a uniform cross-sec-
5.5. Discussions tional profile within its length, the section factor can be calculated as the
ratio between the perimeter and the area of the cross-section. The CFST
The proposed simple calculation method is powerful as it can pro- columns for sensitivity study on the section factor is shown in Table 5.
vide the buckling reduction coefficient χfi and the bucking resistance British hot finished steel tubes are used. Fig. 21 shows the relationship
Nfi,Rd., changing with the fire exposure time. This is difficult for conven- between the improvement and the section factor. It can be seen that
tional finite element software, such as ABAQUS, ANSYS, etc., as a full the improvement is slightly more at early increase of the section factor,
package of heat transfer analysis and coupled thermal-mechanical anal- but sharply less for the further increase. Nevertheless, there is an im-
ysis is needed for each time step. This is tedious for many time steps in- provement (i.e. tu/tp N 1.0) as long as the NSC is replaced by the UHSC.
volved for a rather long fire exposure time. The buckling reduction The effect of load level is shown in Table 6 and Fig. 22. High load
coefficient and the buckling resistance for the CFST columns with the levels are not used as the maximum value of the load level is 0.74 ac-
UHSC are shown in Fig. 20. It shows that the buckling resistance is rap- cording to EN 1994-1-2 [4]. The improvement is generally getting
idly reduced at early stage of fire exposure, then decreases smoothly at more with the increase of load level, this is contrary to the trend of
later stage. The fire resistance time is determined when the buckling re- fire resistance time. After its maximum is achieved, the improvement
sistance approaches the applied test load. Regarding the buckling is getting less with the increase of load level.

Table 6
Sensitivity study on load level.

Circular Sizes fy (MPa) fck (MPa) Buckling Load level Fire resistance time (minutes)
column D × t (mm) length (m)
NSC UHSC NSC, tp UHSC, tu tu/tp

LL01 508 × 8 355 35 166 3.5 0.15 221 492 2.226

LL02 0.25 170 356 2.094
LL03 0.35 99 255 2.576
LL04 0.45 53 170 3.208
LL05 0.55 33 94 2.848
LL06 0.65 26 56 2.154
426 M.-X. Xiong, J.Y.R. Liew / Materials and Design 104 (2016) 414–427

Table 7
Sensitivity study on concrete contribution ratio.

Circular Sizes fy (MPa) fck (MPa) Concrete contribution Buckling Load Fire resistance time (minutes)
column D × t (mm) ratio length (m) level

NSC UHSC NSC UHSC NSC, tp UHSC, tu tu/tp

CCR01 508 × 8 355 35 166 0.602 0.853 3.5 0.35 99 255 2.576
CCR02 508 × 12 0.496 0.802 72 218 3.028
CCR03 508 × 16 0.418 0.754 67 193 2.881
CCR04 508 × 20 0.359 0.710 55 182 3.309
CCR05 508 × 25 0.303 0.659 51 146 2.863
CCR06 508 × 32 0.244 0.594 49 117 2.388

Table 7 and Fig. 23 shows the effect of concrete contribution ratio around 100 °C and recovery of strength up to 300 °C were also
which is defined as: observed for HSC from previous researches.
(3) Strengths of the UHSC at elevated temperatures were reduced
Ac f ck less than those of NSC and HSC as introduced in Eurocode 2
δc ¼ ð19Þ and AISC 360, and the HSC reported in the literature. This can
Npl;Rd
be explained through the types of aggregates.
(4) Deterioration and recovery of the elastic modulus of the UHSC
where Ac is the cross-sectional area of concrete, Npl,Rd. is the plastic were observed at the temperature range of 100 °C–200 °C, simi-
resistance to compression according to EN 1994-1-1 [3]. The concrete lar to HSC from previous researches. The elastic modulus of the
contribution ratio stands for the contribution of concrete to the resis- UHSC were reduced less than that of NSC in Eurocode 2 and
tance of section. The higher the ratio is, the larger the influence should AISC 360.
be due to the replacement of concrete. Herein the variation of concrete (5) Compressive strength at elevated temperature was generally
contribution ratio is made by the change of steel tube thickness. Fig. 23 greater than the residual strength at the same target tempera-
shows that the improvement is more with the increase of concrete con- ture; whereas the elastic modulus was comparable with the
tribution ratio, but generally less for the further increase. residual elastic modulus.
Overall, the improvement is not monotonically changed with the in- (6) Fire resistance of CFST columns with the UHSC were improved
crease of section factor, load level, and the concrete contribution ratio. compared with the NSC/HSC infilled in hollow steel tubes. By
This reflects a counterbalance between the benefit from the use of studying on 38 CFST columns from previous researches subject
UHSC and the said parameters to affect the fire resistance time. to standard fire tests, the fire resistance time was averagely
prolonged by 30%–50% when the NSC/HSC was replaced by the
6. Conclusions present UHSC.

An experimental investigation on the mechanical properties of UHSC

at elevated temperatures is presented in this article. The mechanical
properties included cylinder compressive strength and modulus of elas-
ticity. The experimental results were compared with those of concretes Acknowledgement
given in design codes and in the literature. The fire resistance of CFST
composite columns with the UHSC was evaluated based on a proposed The authors would like to acknowledge the funding support by
simple calculation method. The following conclusions can be drawn. Singapore A*STAR for research project “Steel-concrete composite sys-
tems employing ultra-high strength steel and concrete for sustainable
(1) Spalling of the UHSC was prevented during heating to 800 °C due high-rise construction” under SERC Grant No.: 092 142 0045.
to the addition of 0.1% polypropylene fibers.
(2) Sharp deterioration of strength of the UHSC was observed at
100 °C and then it was partly recovered up to 300 °C. The deteri- References
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