Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration - Course Notes 1

Lecture 2
TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS AND
SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM

Main Concepts

Following study of this material you should:

 Be able to calculate the torsional natural frequency of a one-degree-of-freedom torsional

pendulum.
 Be able to calculate the torsional stiffness of shafts, including prismatic, stepped, tapered
and fixed-fixed.
 By analogy, be able to apply the calculations accounting for the mass of the spring
(lecture 1) to the torsional pendulum.
 Be able to identify a ‘node’ in a freely vibrating system and define it.
 Be able to define and sketch the ‘mode shape’ for a simple freely vibrating system.
 Know the meaning and definition of an ‘unrestrained’ system and its consequences for
one of the natural frequencies.
 Be able to derive the expression for the natural frequency of an unrestrained two-degree-
of-freedom lumped parameter system.

2.1 TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS WITH ONE DEGREE OF FREEDOM

Rotating or torsional one degree-of-freedom (1dof) systems can

be modelled in a fashion very similar to the 1dof translational
system in Figure 1.10. We shall undertake the analysis using the
d
lumped parameter approach where, in Figure 2.1, the disk shaped
object is taken to be massive and rigid while the prismatic
circular shaft is taken to be 'light' but retains its resistance to l
being twisted. That is, it has a torsional stiffness.

Let kθ be the torsional stiffness of the shaft. The units will be

torque per unit twist, Nm/rad (or just Nm). The appropriate
inertia property will be the moment of inertia about the rotation
I θ
axis, I, kgm2. We will assume that the moment of inertia of the
shaft is negligible in comparison to that of the rotor. This
assumption will be checked for validity later.
Figure 2.1

If the rotor is displaced by angle θ from its equilibrium position, then the restoring torque will
be:

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration - Course Notes 2

T = −kθ θ …(2.1)

By Newton's second law:

− kθ θ = Iθ

kθ
i.e. θ + θ =0 …(2.2)
I

Clearly this describes simple harmonic motion so that:

 kθ 
θ (t ) = A sin  t + φ 
 I 

1 kθ
and the natural frequency is: fN = …(2.3)
2π I

We note that the differential equation and hence the natural frequency is of the same form as it
was for the translational case, equations (1.15) and (1.16). The analogy between the two is
direct.

2.2 TORSIONAL STIFFNESS OF A UNIFORM CIRCULAR SHAFT

From strength of materials theory, recall that the relationship between applied torque, T, and the
resulting angle of twist, θ, for a prismatic circular cross section bar of length l and Modulus of
Rigidity, G, is 1:

T Gθ
=
J l

T GJ
Therefore the torsional stiffness, kθ = = …(2.4)
θ l

πd 4
where J, the polar second moment of area, for a circle about its centre is J = .
32

2.3 TORSIONAL STIFFNESS OF A STEPPED CIRCULAR SHAFT

Most shafts necessarily have changes in diameter at different locations along the shaft for
functional reasons. For example, a bearing is often located against a shoulder.

Consider a shaft that has a number of steps, say n.

1
Any text on Mechanics of Materials. For example: Gere, J.M. and Timoshenko, S.P. Mechanics of Materials, 4th
Ed. 1999, Pub. Stanley Thornes.

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration - Course Notes 3

T
d3
d2
d1

l1 l2 l3

Figure 2.2

The criteria applicable to the component are:

• Every cross section along the shaft must transmit torque T.
• The total angle of twist is the sum of the angles of twist of the individual sections.

liT 32liT
θ = θ 1 + θ 2 + θ 3 +  + θ n where θ i = =
J i G πd i4 G
n
32T li
=
πG
∑d
i =1
4
i

T πG
∴ kθ = = …(2.5)
θ n
l
32∑ i4
i =1 d i

Note that in reality, there is no such thing as a perfectly rigid 'built-in end' or 'encastré'. The
support, which also supports the torque, will rotate a little and hence lower the torsional stiffness
compared to that calculated in (2.5).

2.4 TORSIONAL STIFFNESS OF A UNIFORMLY TAPERED SHAFT

OF CIRCULAR CROSS SECTION
The method uses the fact that every elemental slice dx (Figure 2.3) is subject to the same torque
T applied to the right hand side. Hence the total angle of twist in the bar is the sum (integral) of
the twist angles in each element dx. Recall that for a uniform shaft, the angle of twist is

TL πd 4
θ= where J = .
GJ 32

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration - Course Notes 4

The angle of twist of the element dx is

α

T dx 32T dx
dθ = = .
G J x πG d x 4
d1 d
d0
Now d x = d 0 + 2 x tan α

L
32T dx
∴θ =
πG ∫ (d
0 + 2 x tan α )
4
0
dx x
L

Figure 2.3

This can be tackled by the substitution

du du
u = d 0 + 2 x tan α ⇒ = 2 tan α ⇒ dx =
dx 2 tan α
1 du −1 1
∴ ∫
2 tan α u 4
=
6 tan α u 3

L
− 1 32T  1 
∴θ =  
6 tan α πG  (d 0 + 2 x tan α )3  0

d1 − d 0
Putting tan α = ,
2L

− 2l 32T  1 1
θ=  − 3  where d 0 + 2 L tan α = d1
6(d1 − d 0 ) πG  (d 0 + 2 L tan α ) d 0 
3

32TL  1 1  32TL d13 − d 03 32TL d12 + d1d 0 + d 02

=  3 − 3  = =
3πG (d1 − d 0 )  d 0 d1  3πG (d1 − d 0 ) d 03 d13 3πG d 03 d13

T 3πG d 03 d 13
Hence the torsional stiffness is: kθ = = …(2.6)
θ (
32 L d 12 + d 1 d 0 + d 02 )

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration - Course Notes 5

2.5 TORSIONAL STIFFNESS OF SHAFT FIXED AT BOTH ENDS

Some torsional systems consist of a shaft fixed at both ends, carrying an inertia. What is the
stiffness of the shaft in this case? We will also require this result later on for another analysis.

θ - graph of angle of twist

x y
l

Figure 2.4

The criteria applicable to the component are:

• The torque, T, is balanced by the torque supplied by the left hand support, Tx, and the
torque supplied by the right hand support, Ty, which in general are not equal.
• The total angle of twist, θ, is common to both sections.

GJθ GJθ 1 1
T = Tx + Ty = kθxθ + kθyθ = + = GJθ  + 
x y x y
T 1 1
∴ kθ = = GJ  +  …(2.7)
θ x y

In order to plot the stiffness as a function of the location x of the applied torque, it is better to
change the form a little:

1 1 1 1 l
y = l − x and hence + = + = . Dividing numerator and denominator by l2:
x y x l − x xl − x 2

1 1 1 1
+ = ⋅
x y l  x   x 2
 − 
l l

GJ 1 GJ  x 
∴ kθ = ⋅ = Ψ  …(2.8)
l
2
l  x  x l
 − 
l l

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration - Course Notes 6

25

20
Relative torsional stiffness

15

10

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x/L

Figure 2.5 Torsional stiffness of a shaft built in at both ends.

We note that the minimum stiffness occurs when the torque is applied at the centre of the span
4GJ
where kθ = .
l

2.6 IMPROVED MODEL THAT INCLUDES THE INERTIA

OF THE SHAFT IN TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS

In situations where the inertia of the shaft is significant, an improved model can be developed
that takes into account the shaft's inertia.

The approach is identical to that of section 1.11 where the translational system was considered.
It is recommended that you attempt the analysis by analogy with section 1.11 before reading the
following.

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration - Course Notes 7

ω
Mode shape
ω Ω

x dx
Figure 2.6
l
I

IS

Note that I'll use ω here for rotational velocity rather than frequency. For frequency I'll use
2πf N .

We want to derive an 'equivalent' one degree-of-freedom model using an equivalent lumped

inertia, I eq (maybe different magnitude than I) and a massless shaft (same stiffness kθ). Here we
make use of Rayleigh's Energy method that assumes:
i) the motion is a natural vibration mode and simple harmonic (valid for free vibration of a
undamped linear system),
ii) the maximum kinetic energy equals the maximum strain energy and
iii) the 'mode shape' is can be assumed.

The system is shown in Figure 2.6 at the instant it passes through its static equilibrium position.
This ensures that there is no strain energy stored in the shaft. Consideration of the kinetic energy
will then reflect the total system energy. Assign Is to the inertia of the 'heavy' shaft. Also,
assume that the distribution of angular velocity along the shaft is linear as shown in the diagram.
This is equivalent to assuming the 'mode shape'.

1 2
Kinetic energy of the disk only = IΩ
2
1  dx 
Kinetic energy of the element dx of the shaft =  I s ω 2
2 l 
ω Ω  xΩ 
2

From similar triangles = ⇒ω2 =  

x l  l 
1 I s Ω2 2
l
1 Is 2
2 ∫
Therefore, the kinetic energy of the whole shaft = x dx = Ω
2 l l 0 2 3
Adding the kinetic energy of the disk gives the kinetic energy of the whole system:

1 I  2
Total maximum kinetic energy =  I + s Ω …(2.9)
2 3 

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration - Course Notes 8

Now consider the instant when the mass is stationary at the point of maximum deflection, Θ.
The kinetic energy will be zero and the strain energy will then reflect the total system energy.
Assuming simple harmonic motion, θ = Θ sin( 2πf N t ) , the maximum amplitude will be Θ and the
maximum velocity will be Ω = θ = 2πf Θ . N

1
Maximum strain energy = kθ Θ 2 …(2.10)
2

Equating the maximum strain and kinetic energies,

1 1 I 
kθ Θ 2 =  I + s (2πf N Θ) 2 …(2.11)
2 2 3

giving

1 kθ 1 kθ
fN = = …(2.12)
2π I 2π I eq
I+ s
3

Is
or I eq = I +
3

Hence, the natural frequency can be estimated by adding one third of the shaft inertia to the
disk's inertia and then proceeding as for the massless shaft case.

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration - Course Notes 9

2.7 NATURAL FREQUENCY OF A FREE TWO-ROTOR SHAFT

ASSEMBLY (LUMPED)

Many rotating machines consist of a shaft with inertias at each end. For example, an electric
motor driven pump has the motor rotor at one end and the pump impellor at the other. A
turbocharger has a shaft connecting a turbine rotor and a compressor impellor. Such machines
have inherent natural vibration modes that must be known at the design stage so that the
operating torques do not excite them during operation. We can build on the knowledge gained
for a single degree of freedom system to model such a two-rotor system.

Consider two rotors, with moments of

l inertia I A and I B , connected by a
uniform shaft. The shaft is supported in
IB frictionless bearings (not shown) that
support its weight. The shaft is
Node torsionally flexible and hence the two
IA rotors can rotate angularly about the
centre line relative to each other.
During free oscillations the amplitude of
the rotation verses position can be
plotted. Such a plot is superimposed on
the diagram and is termed the 'mode
Mode Shape shape'. A 'node' is a point where the
(for uniform amplitude is always zero. (Note that the
shaft) shaft may also rotate as a whole in its
bearings. In this case the vibratory
motion is simply superimposed on the
Equivalent to 'bulk' rotation.)
Two single-rotor
systems Since the node does not move, the shaft
can be considered as being fixed at the
IA IB node resulting in two single-rotor
systems. The problem of describing the
free motion of this system then reduces
to:
i) finding the location of the node and
ii) finding the natural frequency.

Clearly, to have the mode shape exist as

indicated, the two rotors must oscillate
at the same frequency, albeit out of
a b phase by 180°. Hence:

Figure 2.7

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration - Course Notes 10

f N A = f NB
1 GJ 1 GJ
=
2π I A a 2π I Bb

That is I A a = I B b . But, b = l − a and therefore I A a = I b (l − a ) . Solving for a will locate the

node.

IB
a= l …(2.13)
IA + IB

1 GJ
Now since f N = f N A = f N B = , substituting (2.13) we obtain:
2π I Aa

1 GJ I A + I B
fN = …(2.14)
2π l I AIB

GJ
or, alternatively, as = kθ ,
l

1 I +I 1  1 1 
=fN =
kθ A B kθ  +  …(2.15)
2π I AIB 2π  I A IB 

Note that kθ is the torsional stiffness of the entire shaft between rotors A and B. Consequently,
(2.15) is valid regardless whether or not the connecting shaft is uniform.

If the shaft is uniform and I A = I B , it is evident from (2.13) that the node occurs in the centre of
the shaft. When the rotors have unequal moments of inertia, the node occurs nearer the larger
inertia. When the shaft is not uniform, but I A = I B still applies, the node divides the shaft into
two portions of equal stiffness. This follows from:

1 kθ A 1 kθ B
fN = = , ∴ kθ A = kθ B …(2.16)
2π IA 2π IB

The analogous development for a translational system is identical, generating the following
expression.

k
1 m A + mB
mA mB fN = k
2π m A mB

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration - Course Notes 11

2.8 NATRUAL FREQUENCY OF A FREE TWO-ROTOR SHAFT

ALLOWING FOR THE INERTIA OF THE SHAFT

This section will not be examined but shows how to account for the inertia of the shaft. Follow
the analysis and understand the principles involved.

Again considering the shaft to consist of two 1dof systems vibrating at the same frequency;

ka
ωN = l
A
Ia
IA +
3 a b

GJ Gπd 4 d
where ka = = Node
a 32a Mode

Ia =
πd 2 ( )
d
aρ 2 =
2
πad 4 ρ IA Shape

4 2 32 IB

Figure 2.8

Gπd 4
so that ωN = …(2.17)
A
 πad 4 ρ 

32a I A + 
 96 

Gπd 4
Similarly ωN = …(2.18)
B
 πbd 4 ρ 
32b I B + 
 96 

Equating (2.17) and (2.18) gives:

 πad 4 ρ   πbd 4 ρ 
a I A +  = b I B +  …(2.19)
 96   96 

Also b = l − a , which when substituted into (2.19) and solving for a gives:

πd 4 l 2 ρ
I Bl +
a= 96 …(2.20)
πd 4 lρ
IA + IB +
48

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration - Course Notes 12

πd 4 l 2 ρ
I Al +
Similarly b= 96 …(2.21)
πd 4 lρ
IA + IB +
48

Hence the natural frequency can be calculated from (2.17) where a is given by (2.20) or from
(2.18) where b is given by (2.21). The results will be identical.

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration - Course Notes 13

Review Questions

1. Does the “torsion formula” predict that the torsional stiffness of a

circular prismatic shaft is linear (straight line load-deflection
relationship)?

2. What is the polar second moment of area of a circle?

3. Are the torsional stiffnesses of the three sections of shaft in Figure 2.2
in series or parallel?

4. Compare the mass of a shaft (φ25 x 700 long) with a solid disk (φ250
x 70 long). Now compare their moments of inertia about their axes.
Can you see why the moment of inertia of a shaft rarely needs to be
included when calculating natural frequencies of shaft/rotor systems?

5. What is a node?

6. What is a ‘mode shape’?

7. What is meant by “two degrees of freedom”? How many degrees-of-

freedom does the system shown in Figure 2.7 have (i) when
considered as a lumped-parameter system (ii) when considered as a
real distributed parameter system?

8. How many natural frequencies does a two-degree-of-freedom system

have?

9. If IB in Figure 2.7a was very large compared to IA , where would the

node lie? Without knowing the actual magnitude of IB , are you able
to estimate the system natural frequency?

10. Make a list of machines or machine elements that could reasonably be

modelled as a lumped parameter 2 d.o.f. torsional system as in Figure
2.7.

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