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Challenges to the adoption of knowledge management in Civil Engineering

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ANNALS of Faculty Engineering Hunedoara
– International Journal of Engineering
Tome XV [2017] – Fascicule 1 [February]
ISSN: 1584-2665 [print; online]
ISSN: 1584-2673 [CD-Rom; online]
a free-access multidisciplinary publication
of the Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara

1.J.K. HACKMAN, 2. K. AGYEKUM, 3.B. SMITH

CHALLENGES TO THE ADOPTION OF KNOWLEDGE

MANAGEMENT IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
CONSTRUCTION FIRMS IN GHANA
1-3.Department of Building Technology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, GHANA

Abstract: Knowledge Management is very vital to Civil Engineering (CE) construction firms in creating,
identifying, sharing of knowledge on best practices, learning lessons and experiences within the organization.
Therefore, as CE construction projects have specific goals and unique deliverables that are not the same, there
may be difficulties in recording and capturing project knowledge efficiently. This study sought to explore the
critical challenges and key strategies associated with the adoption of knowledge management (KM) in civil
engineering construction firms. A questionnaire was designed based on an extensive literature search, and sent
to 13 CE construction firms comprising 70 professionals. Based on the data collected, a relative importance score
matrix was developed. The findings from this study revealed that key among the challenges associated with the
adoption of knowledge management is lack of available KM systems, lack of leadership support and lack of
awareness of KM practices. Furthermore, innovation, awareness creation and use of knowledge storage were
among the key strategies which the respondents felt should be put in place to improve on the adoption of KM.
The findings from this study should enable top management in the construction sector to adopt proactive
approaches to improve knowledge sharing in order to improve on performance.
Keywords: challenges, techniques, measures, knowledge management, civil engineering firms, Ghana

INTRODUCTION
The construction industries of developing countries face numerous problems that result in poor
performances in the jurisdictions of cost, quality and productivity [1, 2, 3]. Performance in the
construction industry is a major concern among client groups and other stakeholders in Ghana [1]. The
construction industry in Ghana is a key sector that employs large number of employees in various
professionals. Civil Engineering construction plays a key part in the development of the construction
industry in Ghana. Civil engineering construction projects accumulate intellectual knowledge which
can later be used by firms to add value, innovation, competitiveness among others to improve on
future project performances [4]. In civil engineering construction firms, different experts and
professionals are brought together to achieve the dreams of clients, and to find solutions to problems
that arise on construction sites [5]. In most cases these problems and solutions are rarely documented,
and the lessons learned are confined to the minds of those who experienced them [5]. As a result of
this, it is very important that knowledge is captured, stored and shared with other employees on the
construction sites to ensure that projects are delivered effectively [5].
Knowledge Management is very vital to Civil Engineering (CE) construction firms in creating,
identifying, sharing of knowledge on best practices, learning lessons and experiences within the
organization. Therefore, as CE construction projects have specific goals and unique deliverables that
are not the same, there may be difficulties in recording and capturing project knowledge efficiently [5].
Knowledge can be re-used, and shared among engineers and experts that are involved in the
construction works to better the construction process and reduce the time and cost of solving
problems. If skill and knowledge are shared, then synonymous problems in construction projects will
not be repeatedly solved [6]. Ahadzie [7] stated that in many instances in Ghana, contractors were

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blamed for poor performance and were heavily criticized for having limited knowledge in the
application of requisite management techniques. However, the construction industry has a poor
record in the management of its knowledge and results in huge wastage of resources and detrimental
effect to quality.
The structure and working practices in the construction industry makes it difficult to share knowledge
[8].Various initiatives aimed at improving the construction process have necessitated the need for
change and continuous improvement in the construction industry. These initiatives are primarily
targeted at reducing fragmentation, and have included:
a. the development of alternative procurement strategies to clarify and improve the communication
structure among different participants in the construction process [9];
b. the use of computer technology to integrate the construction process through electronic sharing
of data/information in both directions at the design-construction interface [10, 11, 12];
c. the adoption of a wide range of concepts, tools and techniques (example total quality management
and partnering) to enhance collaboration and improved components, materials and construction
methods, including standardization and pre-assembly [13].
According to [14], Knowledge Management System Development (KMSD) can be adopted to improve
the construction industry, but the industry fails to reflect the nature and locus of knowledge in the
management of knowledge. For developed countries such as Hong Kong, UK and the USA, construction
researchers and practitioners have significantly studied and applied the concept of knowledge
management. Nevertheless, this is not the situation in a developing country like Ghana. Despite the
wide range of literature on knowledge management, very little is known about similar studies
conducted on the area in Ghana. Empirical studies have rarely been conducted on the subject in Ghana,
especially its adoption and implementation in the Ghanaian Construction Industry. For this reason, the
researchers were of the view that professionals working in the construction industry in Ghana may
have heard of knowledge management, however, very little is known about its practice. There could be
several issues hindering the implementation of the knowledge management principles. This study
sought to identify the critical challenges which civil engineering professionals face in the
implementation of knowledge management principles, and determined some key strategies which the
professionals thought could assist in its adoption.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Conceptual perceptive of KM
Knowledge can be considered in a variety of ways. The explicit dimension of knowledge is articulated,
codified and communicated in symbolic form and natural language. Knowledge management can be
considered as the effective learning process associated with exploitation and sharing of human
knowledge that use appropriate technology and cultural environments to enhance an organization’s
intellectual capital and performance [15]. However, [16] explained knowledge management as a set of
distinct and well-defined approaches and processes that aims at maximizing an enterprises’
knowledge related effectiveness and returns from its knowledge assets and be able to renew them
constantly. Knowledge management can be used to describe the panoply of procedures and techniques
used to acquire the most from a firm’s knowledge assets and require the development of dynamic
capabilities and the ability to sense and seize opportunities quickly and proficiently [17]. Beijerse [18]
also defined knowledge management as the management of information within an organization by
steering the strategy, structure, culture and systems and the capacities and attitudes of people with
regard to their knowledge. Knowledge management is considered as the achievement of an
organization’s goals by making the factor knowledge productive [18]. Knowledge can be classified into
two distinct dimensions in an organization. Polanyi [19] indicated that knowledge could be considered
as tacit or explicit. Tacit dimension of knowledge is rooted in action, experience and involvement in a
specific context and it comprises of both cognitive and technical elements [20]. The cognitive element
refers to an individual’s mental models consisting of mental maps, beliefs, paradigms and viewpoints.
However, the technical component consists of concrete know-how, crafts and skills that apply to a
specific context.
Knowledge management is regarded as an emerging set of organizational design and operational
principles, processes, organizational structure, applications and technologies that helps knowledge
workers dramatically leverage their creativity and ability to deliver business values [21]. Mclnerney
[22] also identified knowledge management as an effort to increase useful knowledge within an
organization through encouraging communication, offering opportunities to learn and promoting the

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sharing of appropriate knowledge artifacts. Knowledge management provides the tools and services
for end-users to capture, share, reuse, update and create new experiences, problem solutions and best
practices to aid employees in processes such as decision making and innovation without having to
spend extra time, effort and resources on reinventing solutions that have already been invented
elsewhere in organizations [23]. In summary, knowledge management can be concluded as developing
a set of distinct and well-defined processes and techniques that includes procedures based on
technologies and practices that motivate effective creation, capturing, organization, distribution, use
and sharing of knowledge that enable individuals of the organization to be more effective and
productive in their work in order to generate value for the projects and the entire organization.
KM techniques and strategies
The aim of knowledge management is to seek best practices in all business activities to provide better
service to its clients. Knowledge management also improves project or business performance and
indirectly increases profitability. According to [24], about ninety per cent (90%) of the knowledge
captured in two main areas of expertise of a firm will be lost if the people involved leave the
organization. It is therefore prudent to develop knowledge management techniques to address both
tacit and explicit knowledge.
Two strategic philosophies are associated with knowledge management, codified and personalized
strategies [25]. Zack [26] noted that codified knowledge is associated with explicit knowledge which
can be more precisely expressed and formulated even when removed from its context. Codified
approach describes how the system can help to capture the experience and knowledge of experts
within civil engineering construction firms before team members leave [25]. A codified technique
revolves around explicit knowledge captured and leveraged using information technology tools
comprising software such as expert systems, artificial intelligence and data mining tools. However, the
personalized approaches express that the knowledge, experience and skills can be captured via
interviewing, protocol analysis, questionnaire surveys and observation and simulation.
Suman and Psunder[27] noted that, the personalized approach is adopted in civil engineering
construction firms to facilitate the communications between the various personnel in the organization,
so as to easily transfer and share knowledge and information within the arena of projects.
Personalized strategy virtually revolves around tacit knowledge using non-information technology
tools or human interactive systems such as peer tutoring, regular meetings and training, a
supervision/mentoring system, a reward system and lessons that are learned [25]. In a codified
strategy, information technology can be used to make intelligent decisions, whereas in a
personalization strategy, information technology provides communication support. To encourage the
use of knowledge management, civil engineering construction firms should be given clearer concept of
knowledge management and more guidelines for its implementation. The exact knowledge
management approach relies heavily on the type and size of anorganization. Hansen et al.[28] suggest
that a firm should choose to adopt one of the strategies with the other acting as a support mechanism,
otherwise the focus of the approach would be lost. Hansen et al.[28] proceeded further to suggest an
80% -20% approach that indicates that one strategy or the other will be dominant. However, a mixed
approach is not advocated as the focus of the knowledge strategy would be reduced.
Challenges associated with the adoption of KM practices
Several challenges hinder the implementation of knowledge management practices within
organizations. Culture has been a recurrent theme in the knowledge management literature as it can
enable or inhibit an organization’s knowledge management strategy. Coopers and Lybrand [29]
explained that culture concerns the values, beliefs, history and traditions, which reflects the deeper
foundations of an organization. It has also been identified as one of the most crucial factors that
contribute to the success of a knowledge management design and perhaps the most difficult constraint
that knowledge managers must deal with [30]. Culture has been identified as the most significant
challenge in the implementation of knowledge management practices in construction organizations,
especially civil engineering construction firms. This is consistent with the findings from a survey of
431 US and European organizations which identified culture as the biggest impediment to knowledge
transfer [31]. The culture of formal and informal sharing of knowledge is important. However, [32]
highlighted that culture cannot be changed directly but only through indirect means such as
incentives, role models and the likes.
The lack of standard work processes has also been identified as a key challenge. The significant merger
and acquisition activities over the past decade have transformed many construction organizations, and

89 | F a s c i c u l e 1
the implication is that organizations have inherited new processes. Many construction organizations
now suffer from having too many different processes for performing similar activities. The lack of
standard processes and systematic procedures, combined with the lack of awareness of the
importance and future benefits of knowledge management causes the need for a more coherent and
structured approach for managing and utilizing the different types of knowledge within organizations
[33].
Gann [34] argued that construction organizations may have strong capabilities in project management
but are often much weaker in organizing their internal business processes. However, preliminary
evidence from on-going case studies with selected organizations reveals that there is a new
recognition in some organizations for a rationalization or synchronization of some processes to
improve the possibility of re-using knowledge of best practice and sharing experience. Time constraint
is also considered as a challenge in construction organizations given that projects are characterized by
fixed time scales, associated with clients’ need to deliver at particular times. Many construction
organizations consider their organizational structure too lean -to exploit knowledge management to
the fullest, as people want to share knowledge but the pressure to deliver under tight project schedule
does not often permit the recording of experience and sharing of knowledge before, during and after
projects.
Furthermore, poor organization of internal business processes means that project-based construction
organizations often struggle to learn from one project to another [34]. This means that the scope for
reduction in project duration and the subsequent time available to document lessons learnt from
previous projects are often very limited. Sharing knowledge demands additional effort and may be
minimized by work practices and the introduction of better knowledge sharing tools. Construction
projects are always working to tight deadlines. Anything that detracts from the main business is seen
as of diminished importance. Another challenge to the implementation of knowledge management is
employee resistance, which is closely associated with cultural factors. Cultural factors tend to be either
negative or positive in orientation with respect to employees. Positive orientation refers to situations
where individuals have a positive attitude to the creation and sharing of knowledge. Negative
orientation reflects the reverse situation where there are knowledge inhibitors as people who feel
insecure about their job situation, do not trust their employers and are therefore less likely to share
knowledge [34]. Other challenges identified include knowledge acquisition, knowledge modelling,
knowledge retrieval, knowledge re-use, knowledge publishing and maintenance [35]. Despite these
challenges, [8] stated that knowledge management is a concept which is relatively new to the
construction industry and has the fundamental need to manage its knowledge in a formal and
structured way from project to project, given that participants must work with various interested
stakeholders.
Measures to improve KM practices
Knowledge management practices enable organizations to succeed into the future and also maximize
productivity. Measures such as knowledge storage could be adopted to improve knowledge
management practices within an organization. Knowledge storage includes a series of items which try
to cover the way the firm implements mechanisms and tools for gathering knowledge and promotes
their best use in the organization. Based on existing literature [36, 37, 38, 39], knowledge storage can
be adopted to improve knowledge management practices in an organisation.
Knowledge management modelling could also be used to improve knowledge management practices
in an organisation. Models are used to help people to understand the complexity of real systems by
representing the main features and dividing the large systems into its parts, which will simplify
understanding and managing [40]. Models help to provide a more structured approach to understand,
implement, apply and evaluate knowledge management systems within a firm. Many researchers
however, have developed knowledge management models to help organizations in implementing and
applying knowledge management practices successfully. However, in modern contemporary
organizations, knowledge is no more adequately possessed at individual levels. New technologies and
an abundance of competition require that knowledge be shared and utilized at an organizational level
if a company hopes to survive. Hendricks and Vrien [41] suggested that the knowledge assets
possessed by a company create the possibility for sustainable competitive advantage. This being the
case, a learning organization actively adapts individual knowledge into information that can be readily
used to the benefit of the organization as a whole. Aside from extracting and clarifying knowledge from
the individual, learning organizations organize and provide structure to knowledge so that it can be

90 | F a s c i c u l e 1
used consistently to update existing practices. Furthermore, a strategic imperative for establishing a
successful KM program is the need to implement new practices on a regular basis. Collins [42]
indicated that the greatest threat to achieving greatness is an organisation that is content with being
very good at what it does. However, a key element to successfully introducing these new practices is
the development of a change management program that provides a framework for the implementation
process. A central thread in change management is the need to have multiple individuals collaborating
and sharing knowledge to successfully introduce the practice.
Innovation can also be employed to improve knowledge management. The ability to innovate is a
fundamental requirement for long-term performance improvement. This need for innovation has been
overlooked and undervalued within the construction industry. Toole [43] highlighted that there are
significant economic, organizational and industry structural barriers within construction
organizations of all sizes towards innovation improvement. Notwithstanding, innovation occurs when
individuals exchange knowledge and believe that a greater opportunity exists to improve performance
than what is currently being achieved [44].
RESEARCH METHODS
This study sought to determine the critical challenges and key strategies associated with the adoption
of knowledge management in CE construction firms in Ghana. A quantitative approach employing a
structured questionnaire survey was engaged to analyze the identified variables. A quantitative
approach is able to generalize and replicate outcomes [45]. Thus, it was engaged in this research
because it permits for the likelihood of inferring findings that are representative of the entire
population and offers the researcher more control over the research process [46].
The sample frame comprised 13 civil engineering construction firms in the Accra and Kumasi
metropolis. From statistical comparisons, Accra and Kumasi is known to be the hub of most civil
engineering construction firms in Ghana. To settle on the appropriate sample size, a snowball
sampling approach was adopted. Snowball sampling is valuable in research since it is directed at
individuals that are difficult to identify [47]. Accordingly, this research employed the snowball
sampling to reach hard-to-get respondents. Seventy (70) survey questionnaires were administered by
hand to project managers, quantity surveyors, engineers, and managing directors within the 13 firms.
The respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement to the importance of the identified
challenges and measures associated with adoption of KM using a five-point Likert scale of 1=Strongly
disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Neutral, 4=Agree and 5=Strongly agree.
Based on the objectives, the variables identified from literature were used to prepare the content of
the questionnaire. As a means to ensure a good response rate and to guarantee ethical considerations
are attained, introductory letters were sent to the firms to indicate their willingness to partake in the
survey. Interestingly, all the 13 CE construction firms responded positively. Sixty-seven (67) responses
were received after two months and 7 of those were discarded due to missing data, resulting in 60
usable responses and an overall response rate of 85.7%.
Data was analyzed using the Relative Importance Index (RII) for the ranking of the challenges and
measures identified. The five-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was
adopted and transformed to relative importance indices (RII) for each of the challenges and measures.
The higher the value of RII, the more important the challenge or measure and vice versa [48]. The RII
was used to rank (R) the different challenges and measures. These rankings made it possible to cross-
compare the relative importance of the challenges and measures as perceived by the four groups of
respondents. Each individual strategy’s RII perceived by all respondents should be used to assess the
general and overall rankings in order to give an overall picture of the challenges and measures to
improve knowledge management. RII is deemed necessary for the study because it takes into account
the size of the population and the relative disadvantage experienced by the different management
professionals.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Respondents’ demographics
Respondents who participated in this survey represent diverse sets of personalities cutting across top
construction professionals in the 13 construction firms. Quantity surveyors dominated the study with
33.3% of the total respondents. 26.7% were engineers, while 21.7% were managing directors.
Concerning their work experiences, 83% of the respondents indicated they have accumulated more
than 5 years of experience in the construction industry. Meanwhile, 14% of the respondents have 3 to
5 years of experience and 3% indicated 2 to 3 years of experience. Examining respondents’ highest

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level of education, 42% of the respondents indicated they have attained a Bachelor of Science Degrees
(BSc). Thirty-three percent (33%) were Higher National Diploma (HND) holders, while the remaining
25% were Master of Science Degree holders. The respondents belonged to construction firms with
distinct legal status. The legal framework determines the control of the business, acquisition of capital,
extent of risks, the distribution of profits and losses, legal formalities, taxation payment and where
legal liabilities rest. More than three quarter (83.3%) of the respondents belong to public limited
companies with just 10% belonging to private limited companies. Only 6.7% belonged to sole
proprietorship. An intriguing examination was that of the modes of learning adopted by the
respondents in their respective firms. Slightly more than half (53%) of the respondents suggested they
learn on projects via observation and simulation. While 38.3% learn via survey queries. However, only
8.3% of the respondents indicated they learn lessons through interviewing. Regarding knowledge
transfer modes, exactly 50% of the respondents suggested tutoring/mentoring as their mode of
knowledge transfer. Thirty-five (35%) indicated meetings, 12% indicated expert system while 3%
indicated the adoption of a database mode of knowledge transfer.
Challenges associated with adoption of KM
The opinions of respondents were sought on the challenges associated with the adoption of knowledge
management. Table 1 shows the ranking of the challenges in descending order using the method of
relative importance index. Table 1 further show that the index rankings ranged between 61.0% to
79.0%.It can be inferred from Table 1 above that respondents’ identification of the challenges
associated with the adoption of knowledge management was grounded in to lack of available KM
systems, lack of leadership support, lack of awareness of KM practices, lack of understanding KM, and
employee resistance. However, respondents ranked lack of organizational culture and lack of training
and support as quite low (14th and 15th respectively).
Firms which are able to implement adequate knowledge management are better positioned within the
global competitive market [30]. Notwithstanding, there should be knowledge management systems so
as to ensure its implementation. It is however not surprising those respondents in the study named
lack of available KM systems as the most significant challenge associated with the adoption of
knowledge management. This challenge was the highest ranked (0.79, 1st) in Table 1. This finding
confirms that of [30] who stated that firms need Table 1. Challenges associated with adoption of KM
knowledge management systems to implement Challenges RII Rank
profitable knowledge management. Lack of available KM systems 0.79 1
Lack of leadership support 0.72 2
Davenport et al.[30] explained that management
Lack of awareness of KM practices 0.72 3
support is vital in the implementation of knowledge Lack of understanding KM 0.71 4
management initiatives and should be represented in Employee resistance 0.71 5
both word and action. Lack of leadership support Poor organization of internal business 0.70 6
acquired an RII of 0.72 and was ranked 2nd from Lack of adequate technology 0.70 7
Table 1. The study revealed that lack of management Lack of structured procedures 0.69 8
Time constraint 0.69 9
support is a very critical challenge that should be
Lack of standard work processes 0.68 10
considered in order to implement knowledge Diverse individual cultures 0.67 11
management within an organization. Lack of project documentation 0.66 12
Lack of awareness of KM practices (0.72, 3rd as in Nature of projects 0.65 13
Table 1) was ranked as the third most relevant Lack of organizational culture 0.62 14
challenge facing the adoption of knowledge Lack of training and support 0.61 15
management in CE organizations. Simply put, this
infers that firms need to be adequately aware of knowledge management practices so as to implement
them. This buttresses [33] assertion that the lack of awareness of the importance and future benefits
of knowledge management causes the need for a more coherent and structured approach for
managing and utilizing the diverse types of knowledge within an organization.
Measures to improve KM practices among CE firms in Ghana
The opinions of respondents were further sought on the measures to improve knowledge
management in civil engineering construction firms. Figure 1 shows the rankings of the measures in
descending order using their relative importance indices. Figure 1 further shows that the index ratings
ranged between 65.0-81.0%.From Figure 1, the respondents identified that measures for
improvement were anchored on innovation, awareness creation, use of knowledge storage, use of KM
models and adequate financial resources. However, respondents ranked establishing a learning
organization and clear KM strategic goals quite low (9th and 10th respectively).

92 | F a s c i c u l e 1
 Figure 1. Relative importance score matrix for measures needed to improve knowledge management in Ghana
Innovation is essential to the firms so as to help them remain competitive. Innovative firms are able to
develop certain features which give them a competitive edge over their competitors within the job
market. It was not surprising when respondents in this study identified innovation as the most
relevant measure to improve knowledge management in organizations. This measure was top-ranked
(0.81, 1st) in Figure 1. According to Katzenback and Smith [44], innovation occurs when individuals
exchange knowledge and believe that a greater opportunity exists to improve performance than what
is currently being achieved.
Respondents indicated that awareness creation is very relevant to the management of knowledge
within an organisation. If individuals are fully aware of the benefits derived from knowledge
management practices, there is the likelihood for them to fully participate in the knowledge
management processes (Abdullah et al., 2002). Awareness creation (RII=0.78, ranked 2nd) was
revealed in the study as a significant measure for improving knowledge management in organizations.
Use of knowledge storage was emphasized as a key measure. The finding revealed that firms need to
adopt the use of knowledge storage so as to improve knowledge management. According to Alavi and
Leidner[36], knowledge storage includes a series of items used for gathering knowledge and can be
adopted to improve knowledge management practices in an organisation.
CONCLUSION
Knowledge Management is very vital in the growth of every organisation and helps to increase useful
knowledge within the organisation. However, research has shown that knowledge management in
organizations face numerous challenges which adversely affect its incorporation. Notwithstanding
these challenges, various strategic measures could be adopted to improve its incorporation within
organizations. This study sought to determine the critical challenges and key strategies associated
with the adoption of knowledge management in CE construction firms in Ghana. Key among the critical
challenges associated with the adoption of knowledge management among the firms were lack of
available KM systems, lack of leadership support, lack of awareness of KM practices, lack of
understanding KM, and employee resistance.
The professionals were of the view that innovation, awareness creation, use of knowledge storage, use
of KM models and adequate financial resources are some of the measures that can be put in place to
control the challenges encountered. Recommendations encouraged from this study are that
management should ensure adequate platform for exchange of knowledge and also strive to introduce
innovation in the management of knowledge within the organisation. In addition, management should
also employ the use of knowledge management models and develop adequate knowledge storage
systems. Finally, there should be an awareness creation and advocacy on the benefits of knowledge
management to firms so as to remain competitive in the global market.
This study is very significant because most of the literature on knowledge management is based on
literature in developed countries. There is an adequate pool of knowledge on the concept from

93 | F a s c i c u l e 1
America and other European countries. However, there seem to be little work done on the concept in
most developing countries. In Ghana for instance, there is scarcity of research in the area of knowledge
management, more specifically in construction organizations. Identifying the challenges to the
adoption of knowledge management, and determining strategies to improve on the adoption of the
concept will enable top management in the construction sector to adopt proactive approaches to
improve knowledge sharing in order to improve on performance.
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