Geoinformatics: An

UNIT 2 RECENT TRENDS IN Introduction

GEOINFORMATICS

Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Trends in Remote Sensing
Optical Remote Sensing
Microwave Remote Sensing
Thermal Remote Sensing
2.3 Trends in Photogrammetry
2.4 Trends in GIS
3D GIS
Web GIS
Location Based Services (LBS)
Mobile GIS
Enterprise GIS
GIS Customisation and Software Automation
2.5 Trends in GPS
2.6 Trends in Geoinformatics Education
2.7 Future Trends and Challenges
2.8 Activity
2.9 Summary
2.10 Unit End Questions
2.11 References
2.12 Further/Suggested Reading
2.13 Answers

2.1 INTRODUCTION
You have been introduced to the concepts of geoinformatics and its
components in Unit 1. Now, you have got an idea of its diverse applications
and potential. Though geoinformatics has been in use since long in the areas
of forestry, agriculture, utilities, urban planning, mining, etc., it was restricted
to selected government departments, space research centres and universities.
Geoinformatics technology is now beginning to pervade all aspects of our
daily life, and there is a perceptible change in the way we look at the
technology as we are beginning to come to terms with it and understand its
vast potential. Its value and potential is now being appreciated even by every
person. Technology is gaining ground because of the huge benefits it offers,
particularly, in terms of time and cost effectiveness. However, with the spread
of the technology in a variety of application areas, the related technologies are
constantly evolving and a variety of developments are taking place.
In this unit, you will study about recent trends and developments taking place
in various fields of geoinformatics at the global level. 27
Overview of Geoinformatics
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• discuss about developments in the fields of remote sensing;
• list out the advancements in the field of photogrammetry;
• point out recent developments and trends in the field of GIS;
• list out the recent developments and trends in the field of GPS; and
• elaborate upon the recent trends in geoinformatics education.

2.2 TRENDS IN REMOTE SENSING

In this section, you will be introduced to the developments and recent trends in
the field of remote sensing. Remote sensing methods had been in use in some
form or other since long but with the launch of Sputnik in 1957 by Russia,
research and development activities in the field got a boost. Since then, there
have been a number of significant developments in this field.

Remote sensing data are the main source of geospatial data and input to
Geographic Information System. Recent developments in remote sensing
technology have enhanced our data acquisition capability in several aspects.
Some of the notable developments are as following:
• enhanced capability to acquire information of smaller objects (i.e. spatial
resolution)
• enhanced capability to acquire information in different wavelengths and
in many number of bands (spectral resolution)
• increased capability to acquire data for a variety of parameters and
spheres of the Earth system such as atmosphere, hydrosphere and
lithosphere
• enhanced capability to extract information more accurately from variety
of remote sensing data using automated or semi-automated methods.
• increased capability to apply the derived information for a variety of
applications for the biosphere
• from multipurpose satellite mission to application specific sensors and
satellites.

Developments in remote sensing can broadly be categorised into technology

and application domains. The technological developments can again be
classified into the areas of data acquisition and data interpretation techniques.
One good example is the acquisition of remote sensing data from space
shuttles. USA based Johnson Space Centre maintains a database of large
amount of data acquired during the manned space shuttle flights. Because of
the developments in data acquisition technologies, remote sensing data are
now available in volumes larger than what is actually being analyzed by data
analysts.

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Developments in computing technologies have enabled data accessibility and Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
availability to a large number of researchers and users. This has also resulted
in development of algorithms which are able to derive information from a
variety of remote sensing data acquired from different data acquisition
platforms without much human interaction and intervention. This information
is also becoming more accurate. Increased number of parameters, which we
can derive from remote sensing data has also enabled us to apply it in a variety
of application areas.

In the initial years, there were satellites, the data from which were used for
land, coastal areas and ocean. In the recent times, application specific missions
are being launched. One of the examples is the GRACE (Gravity Recovery
and Climate Experiment) gravity gradient sensor mission that measures
minute changes in Earth’s gravity field to pinpoint localised variations in the
planet’s density. The GRACE mission is being executed by NASA (National
Aeronautics and Space Agency) of USA in collaboration with Germany.
Another example is the Jason mission by NASA in partnership with France,
which employs a radar altimeter to measure sea surface height to a global
average of within 5 cm of its actual value.

You have read in Unit 1 (subsection 1.3.5) that remote sensors are classified as LIDAR is an optical
optical microwave sensors because their detection mechanisms are quite remote sensing technology
different. These are further subdivided into passive or active types. These are that can measure a
distance to or other
further subdivided into optical and microwave sensors. The active or passive
properties of a target by
sensors could be categorised as either imaging, like the camera, or non- illuminating the target with
imaging, like the radiometer. Examples of optical sensors are photographic light often uses pulses
cameras, Multi-Spectral Scanners (MSS), Linear Imaging Self Scanning from a laser.
(LISS) sensors, etc., in passive category and LIDAR (Light Detecting and
Ranging) in active category. Active microwave sensors are Synthetic Aperture Infrared (IR) light
Radar (SAR), Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR), Radar Altimeter, etc., is electromagnetic
radiation with
and the passive instruments are called Microwave Radiometers.
a wavelength longer than
that of visible light,
Developments in remote sensing technologies have resulted in different kinds measured from 0.74 μm,
of data acquisition methodologies which are known as panchromatic remote and extending upto to
sensing, multispectral remote sensing, hyperspectral remote sensing, etc. In the 300 μm.
following sub-sections, we will discuss about the kinds of remote sensing and Shortwave refers to
their related developments. upper medium frequency
and the entire high
2.2.1 Optical Remote Sensing frequency portion of
the radio spectrum,
Let us now look at the different types of remote sensing in more detail! between 1,800–
30,000 kHz.
Optical remote sensing makes use of visible, near infrared and short-wave Spectral band is the finite
infrared sensors to form images of the Earth’s surface by detecting the solar segment of wavelengths in
radiation reflected from targets on the ground. Optical remote sensing systems electromagnetic spectrum.
are classified into the following types, depending on the number of spectral You will study about many
bands used in the imaging process. of the satellites and
sensors mentioned in the
Panchromatic imaging systems: This sensor is a single channel detector text in Unit 6 Major Space
sensitive to radiation within a broad wavelength range resulting into a black Programmes of MGY-002
and white image (Fig. 2.1). The physical quantity being measured is the Remote Sensing and
Image Interpretation.
apparent brightness of the targets. The spectral information of the target is lost.

29
Overview of Geoinformatics

Fig. 2.1: A panchromatic image of a part of Allahabad acquired by Cartosat 2B PAN

sensor (source: www.nrsc.gov.in/imagegallery.html)
Examples of satellites carrying panchromatic imaging systems are as follows:
• Cartosat
• QuickBird
• WorldView
• GeoEye
Multi-spectral imaging systems: This kind of sensor is a multi-channel
detector with a more than one spectral band and generally 3 to 7 bands. The
resulting image is a multi-layer image which contains both the brightness and
spectral information of the targets observed (Fig. 2.2). Examples of multi-
spectral systems are:
• QuickBird MSS
• GeoEye MSS
• IKONOS MSS

Fig. 2.2: A multispectral image of part of Riyadh as acquired by Quick bird satellite
30 (source: www.satimageingcorp.com)
Superspectral imaging systems: Superspectral imaging sensor has many Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
more spectral channels (typically >10) than a multi-spectral sensor. The bands
have narrower bandwidths, enabling the finer spectral characteristics of the
targets to be captured by the sensor (Fig. 2.3). Examples of superspectral
systems are:
• MODIS
• MERIS

Fig. 2.3: Image of hurricane from a super-spectral imaging system (source: http://
disc.sci. gsfc.nasa.gov/hurricane/additional/image-gallery/archive/2008/
Hurr_Gustav_ 2008-08-31-MODIS.gif)

Hyperspectral imaging systems: A hyperspectral imaging system is also

known as an “imaging spectrometer”. It acquires images in about a hundred
or more contiguous spectral bands (Fig. 2.4). The precise spectral information
contained in a hyperspectral image enables better characterisation and
identification of targets. Hyperspectral images have potential applications in
fields such as precision agriculture (e.g. monitoring the types, health, moisture
status and maturity of crops), coastal management (e.g. monitoring of
phytoplanktons, pollution, bathymetry changes).

Fig. 2.4: Concept of hyperspectral remote sensing 31

Overview of Geoinformatics Hyperspectral remote sensing, also known as imaging spectroscopy, is
relatively a new technology that is currently being investigated by researchers
and scientists with regard to the detection and identification of minerals,
terrestrial vegetation, and man-made materials and backgrounds.
Imaging spectroscopy has been used in the laboratory by physicists and
chemists for over 100 years for identification of materials and their
composition. Recently, with advancing technology, imaging spectroscopy has
begun to focus on the Earth. The concept of hyperspectral remote sensing
began in mid eighties and since then it has been used most widely by
geologists for the mapping of minerals. Hyperspectral remote sensing
combines imaging and spectroscopy in a single system which often includes
large data sets and requires new processing methods (Fig. 2.5).
There are many applications which can take advantage of increased spectral
information provided by hyperspectral remote sensing.
• Atmosphere: water vapor, cloud properties, aerosols
• Ecology: chlorophyll, leaf water, cellulose, pigments, lignin
• Geology: mineral and soil types
• Coastal Waters: chlorophyll, phytoplankton, dissolved organic materials,
suspended sediments
• Snow/Ice: snow cover fraction, grain size, melting
• Biomass Burning: sub pixel temperatures, smoke
• Commercial: mineral exploration, agriculture and forest production.

Fig. 2.5: Image data cube and spectral response pattern of different materials as
obtained from a hyperspectral remote sensing image (source:
www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~small/Urban/UrbanHyperspectral.htm)

Microwave radiometer is 2.2.2 Microwave Remote Sensing

such a device, which
responds to the extremely You have already read that microwave portion of the spectrum i.e. 1cm to 1 m
low levels of microwave in wavelength is used to acquire the remote sensing information. Longer
energy emitted and/or
wavelength microwave radiation can penetrate through cloud cover, haze,
reflected from ambient
sources (such as the sun) dust, etc. This property allows detection of microwave energy under almost all
by terrain features. weather and environmental conditions so that data can be collected at any
time.
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Passive microwave sensing is similar in concept to thermal remote sensing. A Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
passive microwave sensor detects the naturally emitted microwave energy
within its field of view. Applications of passive microwave remote sensing are
used in the fields of meteorology, hydrology, and oceanography.

Active microwave sensors provide their own source of microwave radiation to You will study about many
illuminate the target. Active microwave sensors are generally divided into two of the satellites and
distinct categories: imaging and non-imaging. The most common form of sensors mentioned in the
imaging active microwave sensors is RADAR. RADAR is an acronym for text in Unit 6 Major Space
Programmes of MGY-002
Radio Detection And Ranging, which essentially characterizes the function Remote Sensing and
and operation of a radar sensor (Fig. 2.6). This image shows RADARSAT’s Image Interpretation.
ability to distinguish different types of bedrock. The light shades on this image
(C) represent areas of limestone, while the darker regions (B) are composed of
sedimentary siltstone. The very dark area marked A is Bracebridge Inlet which
joins the Arctic Ocean.

Fig. 2.6: Radarsat image acquired on March 21, 1996, over Bathurst Island in Nunavut,
Canada (source: www.racurs.ru/?page=151)

Non-imaging microwave sensors include altimeters and scatterometers. Nadir is the direction
Generally, altimeters look straight down at nadir below the platform, and thus pointing directly below a
measure height or elevation. Scatterometers are used to make precise particular location
quantitative measurements of the amount of energy backscattered from targets.
Seasat-1, ERS-1, ERS-2, ENVISAT-1, JERS-1, RADARSAT-1, etc. are the
examples of satellites carrying microwave sensors.

Another development is the Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imaging, in

which microwave pulses are transmitted by an antenna towards the Earth
surface. The microwave energy scattered back to the spacecraft is measured
(Fig. 2.7). The SAR makes use of the radar principle to form an image by
utilising the time delay of the backscattered signals.

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Overview of Geoinformatics

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.7: Illustration showing the concept of SAR imaging; a) A radar pulse is
transmitted from the antenna to the ground, b) The radar pulse is scattered by
the ground targets back to the antenna

2.2.3 Thermal Remote Sensing

Thermal remote sensing is the branch of remote sensing that deals with the
acquisition, processing and interpretation of data acquired primarily in the
thermal infrared (TIR) region of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. In
thermal remote sensing, we measure the radiations ‘emitted’ from the surface
of the target, as opposed to optical remote sensing where we measure the
radiations ‘reflected’ by the target under consideration. Thermal remote
sensing, in principle, is different from remote sensing in the optical and
microwave region. In practice, thermal data prove to be complementary to
other remote sensing data. It is unique in helping to identify surface materials
and features, such as rock types, soil moisture, geothermal anomalies‚ etc. The
ability to record variations in infrared radiation has advantage in extending our
observation of many types of phenomena in which minor temperature
variations may be significant in understanding our environment.
There are limitations of thermal imagery. It can be very expensive to acquire
and process thermal data as most thermal imaging systems have strict
operational/technical parameters, such as detector materials. Thermal infrared
imaging systems are difficult to calibrate because temperature differences can
be very subtle and interactions with atmospheric moisture are unpredictable.
Thermal images of water measure only the very top layer of the water surface
because those wavelengths are attenuated/absorbed very rapidly, especially in
water.

Spend Check Your Progress I

5 mins
1) Optical remote sensing systems are classified on the basis of the number
of .................................................................. used in the imaging process.
2) What are the different types of optical remote sensing systems?
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
3) Microwave remote sensing has been divided into .............................. and
....................................................... remote sensing.
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 Recent Trends in
2.3 TRENDS IN PHOTOGRAMMETRY Geoinformatics

We introduced the term photogrammetry in Unit 1, which is a technique of

making measurements, such as coordinates, distance, area or volume, etc. with
the help of photographs. In some cases, photogrammetric techniques are the
only possible way of such measurements. Photogrammetry has proved to be a You will read about
cost-effective and better method for mapping a large area than surveying on orthophotos in detail in
the ground. It enables the users to capture elevation information from stereo- Unit 6 Remote Sensing
pairs of aerial photographs/ satellite images and generate orthophotos/images Data and Formats of
(vertical photographs/ images) and thematic maps. MGY-001

Photogrammetry is connected with photography, aviation and computers.

Advancements in high precision optics and mechanics, usage of large film
format, to receive a good ground resolution in the photos, availability of high
end computer systems, etc. have resulted in the development of
photogrammetry.
We can summarise some of the notable developments in the field of
photogrammetry as given below:
• development from analogue technique to digital techniques
• recording, acquisition and analysis of data digitally as a result of transition
from glass or film to digital cameras due to change from opto-mechanical
equipments to digital systems
• availability of high-end computers with peripherals including storage
devices, monitors, faster data transfer, and compression/decompression
techniques
• coming up of new fields of applications, such as stereo photogrammetry
using high resolution satellite images
• digital cameras have now become available at lower prices than earlier
enabling wider use in close-range applications
• ease in handling as it has now became easier to handle and use for non-
photogrammetrists
• integration of digital photogrammetry applications into GIS databases has
now become offered new possibilities for the end-users
• development and availability of digital photogrammetry workstations has
made the work flow fully digital having the capability to provide
stereoscopic viewing and enabling precise 3D measurements and editing
of 3D data.
One of the examples of 3D data is the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission SRTM refers to Shuttle
Radar Topography
(SRTM), a joint project of National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) Mission. You can get more
and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of USA, which information about it from
has produced topographic maps for 80 per cent of the Earth’s land surface the website
through the development of DEM from the stereo-pairs of satellite images. www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/
mission.htm and also in
Unit 5 Data Types and
2.4 TRENDS IN GIS Sources of MGY-001
Introduction to
In the 1960s, computer based GIS concepts began to be explored in North Geoinformatics.
America and today numerous and considerable technological and
35
Overview of Geoinformatics methodological developments have taken place in the field of GIS. The main
advancements are a result of the use of computing techniques and this would
continue to affect the future advancements also.
Some of the important developments in GIS methodology are listed below:
• GIS has evolved from the earlier use in mainframe computers to personal
computers to now in mobile devices, facilitating the growth of GIS usage
and research
• application of computer based technology to handle numerical census data
for deriving useful information
• introduction of topological data structures to store and analyse map data
DBMS, which refers to • relational database technology becoming standard and integral part of GIS
Database Management for handling spatial/aspatial data with the development of spatial database
Systems, is a software
management systems (SDBMS)
package which is capable
of creating, maintaining • standardisation of data quality norms and accuracy standards
and use of a database i.e.
records of data. DBMS • developments in the field of object orientation in system and database
allows concurrent access design
to data and can perform
queries on large datasets • advent of internet and subsequent developments of GIS tools in World
such as listing out the Wide Web leading to development of new internet protocols, easy to use
names of all schools. GIS interfaces (browsers), tools and programming languages, Web GIS,
uses SDBMS to store, OPEN GIS, etc
search, query and share
large spatial data sets. • evolution of GIS from a mere powerful spatial technological tool to a
SDBMS is capable of spatial science
performing spatial queries
such as listing out the • it was earlier required to have all the parts at one place for any GIS
names of all schools implementation; whereas its now possible to access data and software
within 5 kms of IGNOU remotely and implement
campus.
• its applications have expanded from mapping and resource management
to utilities, market analysis, location based service and data browsing
• use of GIS has now opened up for general public from the earlier
restricted use in only government sectors
• focus has changed from earlier system centric approach to service
oriented approach
As you have studied in the previous section about recent trends in the field of
remote sensing, there are many developments taking place in the field of GIS.
We will now study about recent trends and developments in GIS in the
following subsections.

2.4.1 3D GIS
The land surface has been the object of mapping for hundreds of years and the
terrain with its undulating, continuous land surface is a familiar phenomenon
to GIS users. Mapmakers have introduced various techniques for displaying 3-
dimensional Earth into 2-dimensional maps and GIS outputs which has made
it easier to incorporate terrain mapping and analysis into applications ranging
from wildlife habitat analysis to hydrologic modelling. Use of 3D in GIS
began around a decade back. Now most of the GIS software has the capability
to create 3D visualisation complete with landscape objects such as buildings,
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trees, etc. Fig. 2.8 displays the capability of 3D GIS in visualisation of Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
features. At present, the 3D research area is concerned with issues of 3D
structuring and 3D topology.

Fig. 2.8: 3D GIS showing realistic landscape objects (source: www.esri.com/

mapmuseum/mapbook_gallery/volume24/engineering1.html)

2.4.2 Web GIS

You have been introduced to Web GIS in Unit 1. The advent of web mapping
can be regarded as a major new trend. Earlier, cartography was restricted as it
required expensive and complex hardware and software, as well as skilled
cartographers and geoinformatics engineers. With web mapping, freely
available mapping technologies and geodata potentially allow every skilled
person to produce web maps.

Web mapping is the process of designing, implementing, generating and

delivering maps on the World Wide Web and its products. While web mapping
primarily deals with technological issues, web cartography additionally
includes theoretic aspects: the use of web maps, the evaluation and
optimisation of techniques and workflows, the usability of web maps, social
aspects, and more. Web GIS is similar to web mapping but with an emphasis
on analysis, processing of project specific geodata and exploratory aspects
(Fig. 2.9).

Often the terms web GIS and web mapping are used synonymously, even if
they don’t mean exactly the same. In fact, the border between web maps and
web GIS is blurry. Web maps are often a presentation media in web GIS and
web maps are increasingly gaining analytical capabilities. A special case of
web maps are mobile maps, displayed on mobile computing devices, such as
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Overview of Geoinformatics mobile phones, smart phones, PDAs, GPS and other devices. If the maps on
these devices are displayed by a mobile web browser or web user agent, they
PDA refers to Personal
Digital Assistant which can be regarded as mobile web maps.
came into existence in
1968. It is an electronic
devise which assist us in
information management.
It is also known as
palmtop computer
or personal data assistant.
Some of the PDAs can be
used as mobile phone,
media player and can also
connect to Internet.

Fig. 2.9: Concept of WebGIS (source: www.esri.com/news/arcnews/winter0809 articles/

gis-geography-in-action.html)

There are various types of web maps, such as analytic, animated,

collaborative, customised, distributed, hyper maps, interactive maps, etc. Out
of which collaborative web map projects appear to be more popular, such as
Google Map Maker, OpenStreetMap, WikiMapia, etc.
There are several advantages of web maps. We will mention here about some
of them:
• easy delivery of up to date information- when the maps are generated
automatically from databases, they can display information in almost real-
time for example, a map displaying the traffic situation near real-time by
using traffic data collected by sensor networks or a map showing
locations of vehicles
• availability of software and hardware infrastructure at low cost
The first consumer LBS- • easy distribution of product updates
capable mobile web
device was the Palm VII, • webmaps work across browsers and operating systems
released in 1999. Two of • capability to combine distributed data sources
the in-the-box applications
made use of the ZIP code-
• web maps allow for personalisation
level positioning • web maps enable collaborative mapping
information and share the
• web maps support hyperlinking to other information on the web
title for first consumer
LBS application: the • easy to integrate multimedia with web maps.
Weather.com app from
The Weather Channel, and 2.4.3 Location Based Services (LBS)
the TrafficTouch app from
Convergence of different technologies, such as wireless networks, internet,
Sony-Etak / Metro Traffic.
GIS and GPS have introduced a new type of information technology, called
38 Location Based Services (LBS). It is developing rapidly in the mobile and IT
fields. Advancement of LBS is governed by increased demand and interest in Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
utilising geospatial information through wireless networks. LBS is an
information or entertainment service, accessible with mobile devices through
the mobile network utilising the ability to make use of the geographical
position of the mobile device (Fig. 2.10). LBS can be used in a variety of
contexts, such as health, indoor object search, entertainment, work, personal
life, etc.
LBS include services to identify a location of a person or object, such as
discovering the nearest banking cash machine or the whereabouts of a friend
or employee. LBS include parcel tracking and vehicle tracking services. LBS
can include mobile commerce when taking the form of coupons or advertising
directed at customers based on their current location. They include
personalised weather services and even location-based games. They are an
example of telecommunication convergence. LBS applications are useful for
the following tasks:
• recommending social events in a city
• requesting the nearest business or service, such as an ATM or restaurant
• turn by turn navigation to any address
• locating people on a map displayed on the mobile phone
• receiving alerts, such as notification of a sale on gas or warning of a
traffic jam
• location-based mobile advertising
• games where your location is part of the game play, for example your
movements during your day make your avatar move in the game or your
position unlocks content.
• real-time questions and answers revolving around restaurants, services,
and other venues.

Fig. 2.10: An illustration of the concept of LBS (source:www.bsmart-solutions.com/

services-inV-whatis.asp)
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Overview of Geoinformatics Mobile messaging plays an essential role in LBS. Messaging, especially SMS,
has been used in combination with various LBS applications, such as location-
based mobile advertising. SMS is still the main technology carrying mobile
advertising/marketing campaigns to mobile phones. A classic example of LBS
applications using SMS is the delivery of mobile coupons or discounts to
mobile subscribers who are near advertising restaurants, cafes, movie theatres.
The Singaporean mobile operator MobileOne carried out such an initiative in
2007 that involved many local marketers, which was reported to be a huge
success in terms of subscriber acceptance.

2.4.4 Mobile GIS

GIS is rapidly extending into the mobile environment also which is now
known as Mobile GIS. Mobile GIS is the use of geographic data in the field
on mobile devices. It integrates three essential components; Global Navigation
Satellite Systems (GNSS), rugged handheld computers, and GIS software.
Bringing these three technologies together make the enterprise database
directly accessible to field personnel whenever and wherever it is required.
Mobile GIS has an advantage over LBS. Location based systems require either
you or at least your phone to be there to get location but it is difficult in some
cases. Mobile GIS is useful in such cases.
Mobile GIS is a mapping technology for resource managers and other field
workers to visualise and improve their field-based management and research
tasks. With mobile GIS, field workers may capture spatial data directly in the
field and, with access to a wireless communication network; the data can then
be remotely transferred in real time to the central database back at the
company office. Mobile GIS is especially important in emergency situations
and natural disasters when emergency workers, such as fire-fighters (Fig.
2.11), need to have access to the most current and accurate information in
order to make decisions about people’s lives and the health of the
environment.

Fig. 2.11: Illustration of the concept of Mobile GIS (source: www.map.sdsu.edu/

fireweb/mobileGIS.htm)

2.4.5 Enterprise GIS

Enterprise GIS is a geographic information system that is integrated through
an entire organisation so that a large number of users can manage, share, and
use spatial data and related information to address a variety of needs,
including data creation, modification, visualisation, analysis, and
dissemination. Concept and capabilities of Enterprise GIS is shown in
Fig. 2.12.
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 Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics

Fig. 2.12: Capabilities of Enterprise Geodatabase

Enterprise GIS has evolved over a period of time and especially during last
five-six years. Most of the leading GIS vendors have had components that
constitute an Enterprise GIS for long time but the efforts to have them all
packaged together and provide an end-to-end solution picked up fast pace in
the recent times. To put it in simpler terms, an Enterprise GIS should be
capable of:
• supporting huge number of simultaneous transactions
• integrating with other Enterprise Systems (such as SAP, Billing Systems)
• comply with Open Geospatial Consortiums (OGC) Standards to enable
easier integration with other systems
• displaying data in the same way (styles/symbols) for Desktop, Web and
Mobile users
• preferred reusable functionality across Desktop, Web and Mobile
platforms.
Some of the applications of Enterprise GIS are the following as shown in Fig.
2.13:
• increased communication and encouragement of collaboration among
various organisational departments in support of better decision making
• lower cost of software ownership and increased return on investments
through single, focused GIS applications (such as Web applications) that
scale to support many users
• integration of GIS functionality with other enterprise systems in an effort
to better manage resources and assets.

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Overview of Geoinformatics

Fig. 2.13: Applications of Enterprise GIS (source: www.proceedings.esri.com/library/

userconf/proc98/proceed/TO400/PAP363/P363.HTM)

2.4.6 GIS Customisation and Software Automation

With the advent of web applications/client server concept, several organisation
are opting for software customisation to make it more user friendly for their
clients/customers. Client/customer would be more happy to get the results or
output at the click of the button rather than bother about the long and tedious
back end process. In the current scenario, GIS customisation has got numerous
benefits as mentioned below:
• it reduces the cycle time of certain project processes
• manual intervention could be greatly minimised
• human induced errors are significantly reduced as the process is
automated
• with little modification of the custom built application, the same tool or
scripts could be reused in other applications as well.
Most of the customisation is being carried out to create Spatial Decision
Support Systems (SDSS), which use inherent capabilities of GIS and provides
better analytic capabilities and visualisation in the form of tailor-made maps.
This facilitates decision making to a great extent (Fig. 2.14). In a typical SDSS
for forest management, the vision/need comes from the forestry experts, which
ultimately gets transformed into a database. The efficient use of this dataset
through GIS and IT can be extremely helpful in deriving the most meaningful
information necessary for better governance. Another important benefit of
SDSS is that it can even be used by the people who do not have any specific
background related to GIS and IT. SDSS named ‘Aranya’ has been developed
by Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) for forest
department, ‘Bodoland Territorial Areas District’ (BTAD), Assam, under the
Government of India initiative for promoting IT-based services in Northeast
42
India. Aranya has been developed using open source tools including Quantum Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
GIS (QGIS), Python, PyQt, C and C++ to ensure its wider dissemination.

Fig. 2.14: Illustration showing function of SDSS (source: http://isferea.jrc.ec.europa.eu /

Activities/Technologies/Pages/Spatial DecisionSupportSystems.aspx)

QGIS is a GIS package having compatibility with GRASS (a comprehensive

open source image processing and GIS software) and can be customised using
Python language. Python is an easy to use and robust scripting language, and
can be integrated with C, C++, Fortran and Java. Further, QGIS works in plug-
in mode which provides the flexibility to invoke or revoke a particular
module. Plug-ins are programs (dynamically linked libraries) responsible to
carry out specific tasks, and can be called in QGIS in runtime environment;
even different modules of GRASS can be called as plug-ins. Further, Python
can effectively be used with both grid (raster) and vector formats. PyQT is a
Python binding for Nokia’s QT application framework and runs on the
windows.
Aranya is aimed at providing the flexibility to forest managers and planners to
do various analyses in GIS. It has different modules relevant to forest
departments in India. These include territorial forestry, joint forest
management, and wildlife, working plan and research and development.
Check Your Progress II
Spend
1) What is digital photogrammetry? 5 mins
......................................................................................................................
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Overview of Geoinformatics 2) List some of the latest developments of GIS tools in World Wide Web.,
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3) Define LBS.
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2.5 TRENDS IN GPS

Cellular telephony enables You have learnt in the first unit that Global Positioning System provides
time transfer, which is
critical for synchronising
reliable positioning and navigation services on a worldwide basis at any point
its spreading codes with of time. GPS, which was earlier used exclusively by military, has made
other base stations to impacts into the lives of common man. It is a revolutionary tool, which
facilitate inter-cell handoff provides unequalled accuracy and flexibility of positioning for navigation,
and support hybrid GPS/ surveying and Geographic Information System data capture. Growing use in
cellular position detection
for mobile emergency
automotive and consumer applications is propelling the market for mobile
calls and other location technologies. Although standalone products are quite popular, the
applications. most common applications are built around Portable Navigation Devices
(PNDs), mobile phones, or car navigation systems. As per World GPS Market
Forecast, the technology is fast gaining acceptance worldwide, as it is
Geofencing refers to penetrating into previously untapped areas.
locating vehicles, person
or pet, when GPS devices Some of the notable trends and advancements in the field of GPS are listed
are attached to them. The below:
application provides
continuous tracking and
• introduction of GPS in civilian domain
mobile or internet updates • developments of methods and techniques to improve accuracy for civil
if the target leaves a
applications, which has widened GPS applications in various land, water,
designated area.
air and space applications, including cellular telephony, geofencing,
Geotagging refers to geotagging, etc.
applying location
coordinates to digital • the first handsets with integrated GPS were launched in the late 1990s.
objects such as Disaster relief/emergency services depend upon GPS for location and
photographs and other timing capabilities
documents for purposes
such as creating map • in military, the GPS technology is utilised from reconnaissance to target
overlays. tracking to missile and projectile guidance purposes. GPS satellites which
carry a set of nuclear detonation detectors form a major portion of the
United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System
• enhancement in global coverage for GPS signals
44
• possibility of precise measurements with introduction of differential GPS Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
• availability of wide range of GPS receivers with varying capabilities and
processing speeds
• availability of range of GPS receivers at reduced size and cost
• greater real time applications
• development and availability of improved user friendly software for GPS
receivers.

2.6 TRENDS IN GEOINFORMATICS EDUCATION

You have studied in the previous sections of this unit about the recent trends
and developments taking place in various components of the geoinformatics.
The recent trends and developments have brought markable changes in
structure and format of University curricula and also in delivery mechanisms
of geoinformatics related educational programs. This revolution is necessary
to keep pace with the latest technologies and to develop knowledgeable and
skilled manpower in different employment sectors.
Some of the developments and trends observed currently at Indian and global
levels are listed below:
• training and education in geoinformatics were earlier restricted to few
selected disciplines and were later included in many other disciplines. It
has now been realised that multidisciplinary education in information
technologies, management, and space technology can increase
employment opportunities
• earlier, there were only few institutes and universities, which were
offering educational and training programmes related to geoinformatics.
Now many universities and institutes are offering such programmes
• the range of programmes being offered vary from appreciation level (from
few days to few weeks duration) to certificate levels (from few weeks to
few months duration) to diploma (of few months) to masters (from ~one
year to ~three years) to doctoral levels
• in comparison to the past, there are many choices one can make with
regards to the level of programmes, depending upon the preference of
learners with regard to location of institute, cost of programme, level and
mode of programme, etc.
• focus has shifted from just developing professional and technical skills of
learners to expose learners to modern tools and technologies and also to
update their knowledge in specific application areas and domains
• education and training is now also being imparted by adopting other
modes, such as open and distance learning including e-Learning with
interactive lecture/education materials and hands on exercises along with
the use of internet medium to conduct online test and examinations. The
use of e-Learning enables enrollment of working professionals as their
time and possibility of attending courses are limited
• due to the above efforts, geoinformatics technicians and professionals are
comparatively more readily available in the market in comparison to the
past. 45
Overview of Geoinformatics
2.7 FUTURE TRENDS AND CHALLENGES
You have studied in previous sections, about the trends and advancement in
different components of geoinformatics viz. remote sensing, GIS,
photogrammetry, GPS and geoinformatics education. The technologies utilised
in geoinformatics are advancing at an extraordinary rate due to changes in user
needs and advances in computing technologies, which is continuously
increasing its potential to utilise it in different sectors. The advancement in
technology and applications is further expected to grow and have a major
impact on our daily lives.
Some of the important points related to future trends and developments in the
field of geoinformatics are given below:
• launch of more sophisticated and specialised application specific sensors
with reduced size, weight and cost
• improved methodologies and techniques for faster and more accurate
geoinformation retrieval
• GIS is expected to be interoperable, fully web based and become more
dynamic and maps to become interactive
• further improvement in availability, reliability, usability, accuracy and
interoperability of GNSS
• development of receiver independent GPS software
• methods to improve usability of GNSS in situations such as indoor,
underwater, inside tunnel, etc.
• improved new methodologies and techniques for faster and reliable
geospatial data acquisition, storage, processing, transfer and retrieval, and
also for remote sensing, GIS and GPS data integration
• development of innovative data fusion approaches to synthesise and
analyse extensive and diverse data sets and to create new information
products
• developments of new methods and approaches for much wider
applications of geoinformatics to make it become part of daily life
• Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) is expected to grow faster and richer,
and with it the use of open source geoinformatics software
• newer or improved educational models for geoinformatics education to
fulfill the demands of changing education, industry and market scenario
• greater role of geoinformatics to facilitate multidisciplinary research to
enhance our understanding of the Earth system processes for its
sustainable management.
However, the growth and trends may be affected by the many issues. Some of
the issues are mentioned here:
• geospatial data, which were earlier either absent or lacking, are now
available from numerous sources at larger volumes and faster rates
however, at times the quality data is absent and if available, it is either in
46
 incompatible formats or there is ownership issue. It also requires regular Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
updation and maintenance. Further, the available data is liable to be
misused.
• many mainstream IT companies have now entered in the GIS related
business bringing along with them overwhelming and excessive
information about their products and capabilities resulting into creating
confusion among the ordinary users.
• newer and improved methods for improving interoperability at different
levels are required.

2.8 ACTIVITY
1) If you are living in a metro city then you know that traffic congestion is
the biggest transportation issues facing cities. If you have won a project to
use the high resolution satellite imagery and GIS to identify the
bottleneck areas and come out with a comprehensive traffic management
plan. Here, you have a task to prepare entire road network, bridges,
median, traffic island, signals, pedestrian crossing, accident spots, bus
terminal, bus stops, etc. How do you plan to do this?

2) Government is on a massive drive against encroachment of settlements

on lakes and rivers. In this connection, they are planning a demolition
drive based on the individual house level details overlaid on high
resolution satellite imagery. Here, how would you differentiate the
buildings which are legal and illegal? Apply your real world knowledge
and demonstrate.

2.9 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied about the recent trends in different components
of geoinformatics. Let us now summarise what we have studied:
Remote sensing sensors broadly cover optical, hyperspectral, microwave and
thermal sensors. The data collected using the above mentioned sensors
become an input for various GIS mapping and customisation. Every sensor is
unique in its application where they are put in to best use to most of the Earth
resource applications.
On the other hand, GIS in its advanced stage, and day-to-day utility, like 3D
GIS, Web GIS, Mobile GIS, LBS, Enterprise GIS, and GIS customisation have
been briefly elaborated to give the learner a flavour for the subject with some
practical applications to try out as part of their on-going project.
Global Positioning System (GPS) provides reliable positioning and navigation
services on a worldwide basis at any point of time. GPS has undergone many
notable developments in this field. There are many issues and challenges in
the field of geoinformatics.
It is high time that mankind should make use of sustainable space technologies
to the very survival and to take it forward to our future generations. You have
also learnt about potential applications of space technologies through
integrated approach, such as GIS & RS in combination with GPS.
47
Overview of Geoinformatics

Spend
2.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS
30 mins
1) Discuss in brief some of the notable developments in remote sensing
satellites.
2) What are the applications which can take advantage of hyperspectral
remote sensing?
3) How Web Mapping is useful during natural disaster?
4) Discuss some of the notable trends and advancements in the field of GPS.

2.11 REFERENCES
• www.racurs.ru/?page=151.
• http://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/hurricane/additional/image-gallery/archive/
2008/Hurr_ Gustav_ 2008-08-31-MODIS.gif.
• http://isferea.jrc.ec.europa.eu /Activities/Technologies/Pages/Spatial
DecisionSupportSystems.aspx.
• www.bsmart-solutions.com/services-inV-whatis.asp.
• www.esri.com/mapmuseum/mapbook_gallery/volume24/
engineering1.htm.
• www.esri.com/news/arcnews/winter0809 articles/gis-geography-in-
action.html.
• www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~small/ Urban/UrbanHyperspectral.htm.
• www.map.sdsu.edu/fireweb/mobileGIS.htm.
• www.nrsc.gov.in/imagegallery.html.
• www.proceedings.esri.com/library/userconf/proc98/proceed/TO400/
PAP363/P363.HTM
• www.satimageingcorp.com.
Data from above links was retrieved between 1st to 15th May 2011.

2.12 FURTHER / SUGGESTED READING

• Gomarasca, M. A. (2009), Basics of Geomatics, Springer, 656 p.
• Yang, C., Wong, D., Miao, Q. and Yang. R. (2011), Advanced
Geoinformation Science, CRC Press, 485 p.

2.13 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress I
1) Spectral bands
2) Panchromatic imaging systems, Multi-spectral imaging systems
Superspectral Imaging Systems, Hyperspectral Imaging Systems.
3) Passive and active sensors.

48
Check Your Progress II Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
1) Digital photogrammetry is characterised with the use of digital images or
scanned photographs as input data, correlation techniques, and
availability of digital cameras, satellite imagery, and automation of some
processes performed by operators.

2) Web GIS, Open GIS, 3D GIS.

3) Location Based Services (LBS) is an information or entertainment

service, accessible with mobile devices through the mobile network
utilising the ability to make use of the geographical position of the mobile
device

Unit End Questions

1) Refer to section 2.2 for trends in remote sensing.
2) Elaborate on Atmosphere, Ecology, Geology, Coastal Waters, Snow/Ice,
Biomass Burning and Commercial.
3) Refer to subsection 2.4.2 on Web GIS.
4) Refer to section 2.5 on GPS.

49
Overview of Geoinformatics

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