CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS IN
PSYCHOLOGY
The Introductory Part of Psychology Emphasizes on two Aspects:

1. Psychology as a science
A Science is defined not by what it studies but by how it studies. Psychologists like any
other scientists systematically observe facts about human beings and organize these facts to
arrive at generalizations. Psychology shares with other sciences certain aims, assumptions,
ways of carrying out research and ways of building and modifying theories.
2. Psychology as an Art
Psychology is a body of knowledge that can be applied to help solve a variety of human
problems. In addition to the contribution in the area of research (developmental, social
experimental, physiological psychology), there are many other areas of professional
applications.
a) Clinical psychologists: work with psychiatrists in a hospital context or with other
health professionals in the community.
b) Educational psychologists: work with children and adolescents in
schools, colleges, and nurseries and in the home. They collaborate with
parents and teachers to assess a child's progress at school and provide
help and advice.
c) Counseling psychologists: work with individuals, families, couples or
groups to improve people's well-being, alleviate distress and help them
solve their own problems and take their own decisions.
3. Definition of Psychology
o The word psychology is derived from two Greek words "psyche" and "logos."
o Psyche means soul and logos means the study.
o Thus, originally psychology was defined as the study of "soul" or "spirit."
o But later on philosophers defined psyche as mind. Because of this, psychology
began to be regarded as the study of an individual's mind or mental process.
o Through time, this later definition of psychology was given up because the mind
as an object does not exist: and cannot be observed and measured objectively. The
most widely and accepted definition of psychology is: THE SCIENCE OF
BEHAVIOR AND MENTAL PROCESSES OF BOTH HUMANS AND
ANIMALS.
4. Goals of Psychology
Psychology as a science deal systematically with human behavior, motives, feelings,
emotions, thoughts and actions of men and women. Like other sciences, Psychology
discovers and explains the underlying laws and principles of behavior. Its goals are
describing, explaining, predicting and finally modifying human behavior.

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 5. Major perspectives in the historical development of psychology
Psychology broke away from philosophy and physiology and emerged as a separate
discipline over 100 years ago. And it went through a series of changes and expansions in
both subject matter and research methods.
5.1. Early perspectives of psychology
5.1.1. Structuralism
 Formal research in psychology began at the university of Leipzig Germany
where Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychological laboratory in 1879.
 Wundt is considered as the first psychologist and father of
experimental psychology.
 He limited the subject matter of psychology to the study of conscious
experience. The elements of conscious experience were considered to be of two
kinds. These are:
o Sensations: sights, sounds, tastes, smells and touch, which arise from
stimulation of the sense organs;
o Feelings: love, fear, joy, and so on

He believed that all conscious experiences are merely intricate combinations of elemental
sensations i.e. sensory knowledge is the building block of our intellect. Sensations
combine to become conscious experiences as basic elements are composed to form
complex substances in chemistry.
5.1.2. Functionalism
 The American psychologist William James pioneered functionalism.

 It focused on what the mind does on the functions of mental activity and the
role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environment.
 Functionalism was strongly influenced by biology. The work and ideas of
Charles Darwin had a great impact on the emergence of functional
psychology. According to Darwin's theory of evolution, living organisms
change and develop over time through a process of natural selection.
 Organisms whose characteristics were best suited to their environment
survived and reproduced. While organisms whose characteristics were less
adaptable died out. Survivors would transmit to the next generation those
characteristics that enabled them to survive.
 William James was greatly influenced by Darwin. James held that the
function of consciousness was to enable humans to behave in ways that would
act survival through adaptation to the environment.
 Where these adaptive behaviors were repeated frequently, they became habits.
Habits provide stability and predictability in society.

5.1.3. Gestalt psychology

 Gestalt means shape, form or configuration.

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  The leading proponents of this school were the German psychologists Max
Wertheimer, Kurt Kafka and Wolfgang Kohler.
 Instead of considering separate parts that make up thinking, Gestalt psychologists
concentrated on the 'whole'.
 Their slogan is 'the whole is greater than the sum of its parts'.
 Their belief was that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. In order to
understand our environment, we have to perceive it in its totality not in its
individuality. Max Wertheimer said that 'it is a mistake to analyze psychological
events into pieces, or elements, as the structuralists did.'

5.1.4. Psychoanalysis
 The Viennese neurologist and psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) pioneered
the psychoanalytic perspective.
 Beneath the conscious experience is Primitive biological urges that seek
expression but which are in conflict with the norms and morality of the society.
 These unconscious motivations and conflicts have powerful influences on our
conscious thoughts and actions. Therefore, they are responsible for much of
human behavior including physiological problems. According to Freud, all
behavior whether normal or abnormal is influenced by the unconscious mind.
 This belief is called psychic determinism.
 They cannot be directly studied through introspection.
According to Freud the methods of studying the unconscious mind are:
a. Free association
 In this method the psychoanalyst gives the client a word and asks to reply with
the first word that comes to mind be it nonsense or irrelevant. The psychoanalyst
makes associations and meanings between ideas, words, and thought.
 It is a projective technique to explore the client's unconscious thoughts.
b. Dream analysis based on case studies
 The contents of dreams are analyzed for underlying or hidden motivations.
 Dreams are viewed as indication of what a person is truly feeling within the
conscious mind. Freud said dreams are 'the royal road to the
understanding of the unconscious.'
5.1.5. Behaviorism
 John Watson (1878-1958) revolutionized psychology by changing the subject
matter of psychology from the study of conscious experience to the study of
behavior.
 Watson believed that the study of psychology should be about observable
behavior and its aim should be to describe, predict, understand and control
behavior.
 He contended that psychologists should never use the terms consciousness,
mental states, introspection, imagery and the like.
 Followers of behaviorism did not reject the existence of mind and
consciousness. Rather, they viewed these concepts as impossible to observe and
contributing little to a scientific approach to psychology.

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  the study of observable behavior enables the researcher to formulate clear
hypotheses, which could be tested by experimentation.
 Much of the behaviorists' research into learning was carried out on animals,
rather than humans; partly because animals were easy to obtain and greater
control could be exercised over their environment, and partly because they
accepted the idea that humans and animals are related both physiologically and
behaviorally.
5.2. Recent perspectives
5.2.1. The biological perspective
 It states that behavior has a biological basis. The behavior of both people and
animals should be considered in terms of biological functioning. Topics that are
discussed in this perspective include:
(a) How the individual nerve cells are joined together?
(b) How heredity influences behavior?
(c) What are the physiological responses when a baby confronts a
stranger?
5.2.2. The cognitive perspective
It focuses on the process that helps people to know, understand, and think
about the world.
This perspective explains how information in the memory is processed at different
stages and how our thinking about the world influences our behavior.
5.2.3. The behavioral perspective
 The 1904 Nobel Prize winner, the Russian physiologist and psychologist,
Ivan Pavlov opened a new way of thinking for psychological
investigations.
 His experiment on dogs enabled psychologists to explain certain behavior and
certain differences among individuals as the result of learning.
o The American psychologist B. F. Skinner refined and popularized
behaviorism. He showed that the consequences of behavior provide the
basic mechanism for predicting and shaping future behavior.
5.2.4. The humanistic perspective
o It is a psychological approach that suggests that people are in control of
their lives.
o This perspective assumes that people are naturally endowed with the capacity to
make decisions about their lives and to control their behavior.
o Humanistic psychologists claim that everyone has the capacity to develop
to higher levels of maturity and realize his/her full potential if given the
opportunity.
o The human being has free will to make decisions about his/her own life,
rather than depending on societal standards.

5.3. Branches of Psychology (fields of specialization)

Experimental psychology

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Generally, they use controlled laboratory experiments to pursue their study Basic
topics studied include:
o Sensation
o Perception
o Learning
o Memory
o Problem solving
o Communication
o Emotion
o Motivation
Experimental psychologists attempt to answer the following questions.
1) What is the basis for love between a mother and her baby?
2) Can animals think?
3) What is the role of the brain in memory?
Experiments are made not only on human beings; but als o on animals. This is because
that animal research leads to human research that can give us insight into the behavior of
our own species.
5.3.2. Physiological psychology
 This branch of psychology looks for explanations of behavior in the physiological
structures of humans and animals. Some of the questions raised by
physiological psychologists include:
a) What physiological changes occur in people during sleep and
dreaming?
b) What is the relationship between the incidence of motorway accidents
and changes in the physiological functions of the body at different
times of the day?

5.3.3. Developmental Psychology

o Its concern is about behavioral development over the entire life span. It is also
concerned with psychological concepts, such as: learning, memory, motivation
and thinking.
o The following are questions raised by developmental psychologists
1) How soon can babies perceive depth?
2) How do children develop the concept of the self?
3) Is language acquisition only a question of biological maturation, learning or
it has any relation to social interaction?
5.3.4. Personality Psychology
 Some people are highly competitive and hostile (Type-A behavior)
 Some people tend to be relaxed and don't feel the pressure of time (Type-B
Behavior)

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  The study of the relation between personality and behavior is an example of
research in personality psychology.
 It studies individual differences in behavior and why people not react in a
similar way to the same situation.

5.3.5. Social Psychology

 Social psychology is a wide-ranging field of study. Among the topics that can be
studied are:
1) Friendship formation
2) Conflict
3) Perception of other people
4) Aggressiveness
Example: Research findings in social psychology showed that delinquent boys who
watched aggressive or violent movies are engaged in more acts of physical
aggression after seeing these movies than delinquent boys who watched
neutral movies.
The Particular interest of social psychologists is on the relevance of their research to
human society i.e. human problems in the group, the community, the nation and the
world.
5.3.6. Clinical Psychology
o It is the study, diagnosis and treatment of abnormal behavior
o It looks for possible biological, educational and environmental causes of
disorders.
o The aim is to change the environment that leads to disorder.
o Clinical psychologists give advice to community workers on how to handle
psychological problems.
6. Other branches of psychology are:
o Educational psychology
o Industrial and organizational psychology
o Work psychology
o Military psychology
o Health psychology etc.,
7. Emerging fields
o Psychology of women
o Environmental psychology
o Forensic psychology
o Program evaluation psychology

8. Research methods in Psychology

 No one best method is available for studying all aspects of human behavior and
thought. Each has advantages and limitations. In general, psychological
investigations attempts to:

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 a) Describe mental and physical behavior;
b) Explain the reasons for that behavior;
c) Predict the circumstances under which it might occur again.
 Regardless of the problem type the general methods employed in psychological
research are:
 Identifying and clearly stating the problem;
 Generating hypothesis;
 Deciding the research procedure;
 Decide the type of data;
 Gather the Data;
 Analyze the data by means of statistical techniques.
 Conclusion and recommendations.
 Once the problem is identified, we can use any of the following five methods.
- The experiment: has the advantages of maintaining control over conditions but
sometime too much control may lead to an unnatural situation.
- A survey: is an attempt to estimate opinions, characteristics, or behavior. It can be
conducted through interviews, questionnaires or public records.
- Naturalistic observation: involves watching and recording behavior as it naturally
occurs.
- In naturalistic observation the observer is:
o Passive;
o Unobserved;
- Does not intrude the situation being studied.
 Different kinds of behavior that might be observed:
o Physical signs;
o Expressive movements;
 Physical location:
o where people sit or stand in relation to one another;
- Conversation;
 Length of time children play with toys.
- A case study: is an intensive investigation of the person, rather than a
representative sample, usually because the observed is rare or unique.

All these methods involve measurement of variables using one or all of three kinds of
measures: self-report, behavioral and physiological.

a) Self-report is a method whereby subjects provide verbal statements about how

they feel, what they think, or how they behave. The usefulness of self-reports is
limited because subjects may lie or may not know their true thoughts or feelings.
b) Behavioral measures are quantified observations of how subjects actually
behave.
c) Physiological assessments involve recording physical changes (more often are
used the electroencephalograms and GSP-galvanic skin response).

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 CHAPTER TWO
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR
2.1. Definition
 Biological Psychology (Physiological Psychology) or (Psychobiology) studies
the relationship between the mind and the body and how one influences the
other. It studies and explain the ways biological structures and body functions
affect behavior.
In order to understand how the brain exerts control over the different body
movements involved in simple and complex tasks, it is essential to examine the neurons
and the ways in which nerve impulses are transmitted throughout the brain and body.

2.2. Neurons:
 Neurons are specialized cells that are the basic elements of the nervous system
that carry massages.
 The most important feature of neurons is their ability to communicate with
other cells.
2.3. The Structure of the Neurons
In playing the piano, driving a car, or throwing a ball to the basket, different
muscles are involved. The body system sends messages to the muscles and coordinates
these messages to produce successful results. Such messages are passed through
specialized cells called neurons.
a) Dendrites: They are cluster of fibers at one end of a neuron that receives messages
from other neurons.
b) Axon: It is a tube-like long extension from the end of a neuron that carries
messages to other cells through the neuron. The length of axons ranges from
several millimeters to three feet.
c) Terminal Buttons: They are small branches at the end of an axon that relay
massages to other cells. Electrical messages
d) travel through neuron beginning with detection of messages by dendrites,
continue into the cell body(nucleus) and pass down the axon.
e) Myelin Sheath: It is the axons protective coating, made of fat and protein. Its
function is to prevent messages from short circulating by insulating the axons.
NOTE: our understanding of several primary psychological processes like sensation,
perception, and learning is based on fundamental knowledge of the structure, operation
and function of the neurons.
Synapse: It is the gap between two neurons through which chemical messages are
communicated.
2.3. Neurotransmitters: They are chemicals that carry messages across the
synapse to the dendrites of a receiver neuron. They can be produced in the form of
chemical liquids or gases like nitric oxide.
2.4. The Major Types of Neurotransmitters are:
2.4.1. Acetylcholine (Ach)

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  It is found throughout the nervous system, and involved in our every move.
 The drug curare used by South American Indians on the tips of poisoned darts
keeps Ach from reaching receptor cells, thereby paralyzing the skeletal muscles
and ultimately producing death by suffocation.
 Ach is closely related to memory capabilities.
Example: Alzheimer disease is associated with a deficiency in the production of Ach.

2. 4. 2. Gamma- amino butyric acid (GABA)

 It is found in the brain and spinal cord
 It is primarily an inhibitory neuro transmitter.
 It moderates activities, such as, eating and aggression.
 The poison Strychnine prevents GABA from carrying out its inhibitory role,
permitting neurons to fire wildly, thereby producing convulsions.
 Tranquilizers (e.g. Valium) and alcohol are effective because they permit
GABA to operate more effectively.
2. 4. 3. Dopamine (DA)
 Muscular rigidity and shaking (Parkinson's syndrome) seem to be caused by a
deficiency of dopamine in the brain.
 Researchers have hypothesized that schizophrenia and some other severe mental
disturbances are caused by the presence of unusually high levels of dopamine.
2. 4. 4. Adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP)
 It is the fuel used by the body to produce energy within cells.
 Because it works very quickly, some investigators hypothesized that ATP is
essential in the formation of synapses vital to memory.
2. 4. 5. Endorphins
 They are a family of chemicals similar in structure to painkillers.
 They are found in large concentration in the brains of people afflicted with diseases
that produce long term severe pain.
 In addition to pain reduction, endorphins also produce euphoric feelings that
joggers experience.
 The belief that patients can be relieved from pain due to acupuncture and placebos
can be partly explained by the release of endorphins.

2.5. MAJOR PARTS OF THE BRAIN AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO

BEHAVIOR
2.5.1. Major parts of the Brain and their Functions:
a. The central Core
o It is similar to that found in all vertebrates
o Its function is to control eating, sleeping and breathing.
b. The Reticular Formation
o It is made up of groups of nerve cells that can immediately activate other
parts of the brain to produce general bodily arousal.

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 Example: If we are startled by a loud noise the reticular formation prompts us to respond.
The reticular formation as well allows sleeping by guarding us from disturbing background
noises.
c. The Cerebellum
o Its function is to enable us to walk straight and control body balance
o It constantly monitors feedback from the muscles to coordinate their
placement, movement and coordination. Drinking too much alcohol affects
the activity of the cerebellum, leading the person to stagger.
a. The Thalamus
o It is a station for messages coming from the eyes, ears, and skin and
communicated upward to higher parts of the brain.
o It integrates and sorts out information from higher parts of the brain and sends
to the cerebellum and medulla.
b. The hypothalamus
o It is located just below the thalamus
o It helps to maintain a balanced internal environment
o It regulates such behaviors as eating, drinking, sexual behaviors, aggression and
nurturance of off springs.
c. The cerebral cortex
o It is part of the brain that distinguishes human kind from all other
animals.
o Unique function of the brain, that allows human beings to think evaluate and
make complex judgments are principally located in the cerebral cortex.
• The Cortex has three (3) Major Areas:
1) The Motor Area
o This area is responsible for the voluntary movement of particular parts of the
body
o Every portion of the motor area corresponds to a specific locale within the
body.
Example: If mild electrical stimulation were applied to a particular portion of the motor
area, there would be involuntary movement in the corresponding part of the body.
2) The Sensory Area
 This area includes three regions corresponding to the senses.
 The somatic sensory area corresponds to touch and pressure
 The auditory sensory area corresponds to sight
 The visual area corresponds to sound.
 Raw sensory inputs from the eyes are transformed into meaningful stimuli.
3) The Association Areas
o The association areas are generally considered to be the site for higher
mental processes such as thinking, language, memory and speech.
Damage to the association areas can result in:
a) Personality changes: that affect the ability to make moral judgments
b) Apraxia: a condition in which an individual is unable to integrate activities in a
rational or logical manner.
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Example: a person with apraxia when asked to open a lock with a key may be unable to
do so in response to the request.
c) Aphasia: problem of verbal expression.
Example: speech becomes halting, laborious and often ungrammatical
d) Difficulty in understanding others.
2.5.2. MAJOR BRAIN SCANNING TECHNIQUES
Brain scanning technique helps to understand about the internal workings of the brain
without surgical operations. The technique also offers possibilities for the diagnosis and
treatment of brain disease and injuries.
The most commonly used techniques are:
1) The Electroencephalogram (EEG) Technique:
 This records the electrical signals being transmitted inside the brain through
electrodes placed on the outside of the skull.
 The brain's electrical activity is transformed into a pictorial representation
of the brain.
 The use of this technique enabled the diagnosis of epilepsy and some learning
difficulties.
2) The Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) scan:
 The scan uses a computer to construct an image of the brain by combining
thousands of separate x- rays.
 Its use is to show abnormalities in the structure of the brain such as swelling
and enlargement.
3) The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan:
 It provides detailed and vivid image of brain structure and individual bundles of
nerves in other parts of the body.
4) The Position EmissionTomography (PET) scan:
 It shows bio-chemical activity within the brain at a given moment.
 The computerized devise helps to determine the more active regions of the
brain at work.
2.5. Major Components of Endocrine Systems
Definition: Endocrine system is a chemical communication network that sends messages
through the nervous system via the blood stream and secretes hormones that affect body
growth and functioning.
Major Components of the Endocrine System are:
o Pituitary glands;
o Thyroid glands;
o Adrenal glands. Major functions of the endocrine glands are:
o Regulate metabolism and growth;
o Regulate absorption of nutrients;
o Regulate fluid balance and ion concentration;
o Regulates the body's response to stress;
o Regulates sexual characteristics, reproduction, birth and lactation.

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 CHAPTER THREE
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
3.1. Introduction
o Sensation and perception are fundamental topics. Because our behavior is so much
a reflection of how we react to and interpret stimuli from the world around us.
o Sensation and perception are the starting points for all other psychological
processes. They supply the data we use for learning and remembering for thinking
and problem solving, for communicating with others, for experiencing emotions,
and for being aware of ourselves. Without sensation and perception, we would not
form thoughts or feelings.
3.2. Basic Terms and Concepts related to Sensation and Perception.
1. Stimulus: It is a source of physical energy that produces a response in the sense
organs. The energy could be sound waves, light waves, and heat pressure to which
an organism is capable of responding. A sensation is a response to that energy by a
sensory system. Stimulus and sensation have cause and effect relationship.
o Stimuli vary in both type and intensity. Different types of stimuli activate
different sense organs.
2. Response: It is any reaction of an organism to or in the presence of a stimulus.
3. Sensation: It is the process by which an organism’s sense organs respond to a
stimulus. It is the process whereby stimulation of receptor cells (in the eyes, ears,
nose, mouth, and surface of the skin) sends nerve impulses to the brain.
4. Sense Receptors: specialized cells that convert physical energy in the environment
into electrical energy that can be transmitted to the brain.
5. Transduction: The conversion of one form of energy to another.
6. Perception: It is the process whereby the brain interprets sensations, giving
information order and meaning. It takes into account experiences stored in our
memory, the context in which the sensation occurs and our internal state (our
emotions and motivations). It is the process of forming hypotheses about what the
senses tell us.
Example: Hearing sounds and seeing colors are sensory processes; whereas, listening
sweet music and detecting depth in a two-dimensional picture are perceptual processes.
Without sensation of some kind perception could not occur.
7. Psychophysics: studies the relationship between the intensity of a stimulus and its
sensory response. In other words, it studies the relationship between the physical nature of
stimuli and people’s sensory responses to them.
8. Absolute Threshold: It is the smallest intensity of a stimulus that must be
present
for it to be detected. For a stimulus to be detected by our sense organs it must
become strong enough.
The following research findings on absolute threshold are taken from the works of
Galanter (1962).
 Sight: a candle flame can be seen 30 miles away on a dark, clear night.
 Hearing: the ticking of a watch can be heard 20 feet away under quiet

pg. 12
  conditions.
 Taste: A teaspoon of sugar can be detected in nine liters of water
 Smell: A drop of perfume can be detected when one drop is present in a
three room apartments.
 Touch: The falling of a bee’s wing from a distance of one centimeter can
be felt on a cheek.
9. Difference Threshold: it is the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.
A noticeable difference depends on the value of the initial intensity of the stimulus.
Example: A person in a quiet room is more sensitive to the ringing of a telephone than a
person in a noisy room. In order to produce the same amount of sensitivity in a noisy room,
the ring has to be very loud.
10. Sensory Adaptation: It is an adjustment in sensory capacity following long period
of exposure to stimuli.
Example: Repeated hearing of a rock musical sound regularly makes a person to adjust as
if it were softer.
11. Attention: Attention is a general term referring to the selective aspects of
perception which function so that any instant an organism focuses on certain
features of the environment to the exclusion of other features.
3.3. Factors which determine whether or not we pay attention to a stimulus are:
o Intensity: a bright color will attract us more than a dull one.
o Size: a large thing is more likely to catch our attention than something small.
o Duration of repetition: a quickly running stimulus will not catch our attention as
easily as one, which persists or is repeated.
o Emotional content: a stimulus, which creates emotional feeling, attracts our
attention more than a neutral one.
o Suddenness or novelty: sudden stimulus is likely to catch our attention more easily
than one we have been expecting.
o Contrast: contrasting stimulus will attract attention more easily than those which
are similar to each other.
o Movement: a stimulus, which moves, is more likely to attract attention than
something stationary.
3.4. FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION:
A. Context and Expectation
o In an experiment by Bruner and Minturn (1955, cited by Baron),
participants were shown sequences either of letters or of numbers,
o for example:
A 13 C D E F or
8 9 10 11 12 B
o When perceived with a figure/number I3 that could be either B or 13, those who
had seen the sequence or letters tended to perceive it as B, while those who had
seen the numbers perceived it as 13. The context in which it was seen produced
expectation and induced a particular set.

pg. 13
B. Attention
o Attention plays a significant role in determining what is sensed versus what is
perceived.
o Imagine you are at a party full of music, chatter, and laughter. You get involved in
an interesting conversation with a friend, and you tune out all the background noise.
If someone interrupted you to ask what song had just finished playing, you would
probably be unable to answer that question.
C. Motivation
o Motivation can also affect perception.
o Take a situation where you are expecting a really important phone call and, while
taking a shower, you think you hear the phone ringing, only to discover that it is
not?
D. Beliefs, Values, Prejudices, Expectations and Life Experiences
o Our perceptions can also be affected by our beliefs, values, prejudices,
expectations, and life experiences.
o The shared experiences of people within a given cultural context can have
pronounced effects on perception.
E. Personality
o Personality might affect perception. Individuals who hold positive attitudes toward
reduced-fat foods are more likely to rate foods labeled as reduced fat as tasting
better than people who have less positive attitudes about these products (Aaron,
Mela, & Evans, 1994).
3.5. Distinction between Sensation and Perception
 While our sensory receptors are constantly collecting information from the
environment, it is ultimately how we interpret that information that affects how we
interact with the world.
 Perception refers to the way sensory information is organized, interpreted, and
consciously experienced.
 How we interpret those sensations is influenced by our available knowledge, our
experiences, and our thoughts.
 Sensation is a physical process, whereas perception is psychological.
3.6. THEORIES RELATED TO SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

3.6.1. Signal Detection Theory

This theory addresses the role of psychological factors in detecting stimuli.
■ Is this person HIV-positive?
■ Is the person lying?
■ Is this athlete using drugs?
■ Will this college applicant succeed?
o Several factors influence us how we answer such questions. For instance,
physicians who are seeking to identify the presence of a tumor in an x-
ray are influenced by their expectations, knowledge, and experience with
patients. From this we can understand that the ability to detect a
stimulus depends not only on the type and intensity of the
stimulus but also on psychological factors .

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 o People can make mistakes in their attempt to detect a stimulus. According
to signal detection theory there are two kinds of errors ma de by people in
their attempt to detect a stimulus. These are:
o Reporting a stimulus as existing when it is non-existent;
o Reporting a stimulus as non-existent when it actually exists;
In such conditions, using signal detection theory, psychologists are able to obtain
an understanding of how observer's expectations, motivations, and judgment
affect individual's ability to detect a stimulus.
Signal detection theory has practical applications, such as increasing air traffic
controller accuracy. Controllers need to be able to detect planes among many
signals (blips) that appear on the radar screen and follow those planes as they
move through the sky.

3.6.2. Directions in Perception

The processing of Perception proceeds along two directions. These are top-down
processing and bottom-up processing.
3.6.2.1. Top- down Processing
The top- down processing of perception is guided by a higher-level of knowledge,
experience, expectations, and motivations. Patterns can be recognized easily and
rapidly, because we expect certain shapes to be found in certain locations.
Example: When we read a sentence, we perceive that sentence with the missing
letters in it. This is because we had past experiences. Therefore, it is not
important to decode the meaning of each word. If an additional word is
inserted, we may not notice that it is there:
STUDENTS ARE
EXPECTED TO PUT OFF
THEIR MOBILES BEFOR
THEY ENTER THE
THE LIBRARY.

o In this example 'the' is often not

notice at all.
o Our expectation also plays a role in what we are reading. If a student, for
example, is reading a text in psychology material, he expects sentences from
psychology not lines from a poem.
o In the top- down processing, the context in which we perceive objects is
important. The figure "I ", for example, is perceived as the letter B in a row
that consists of the letters A through F. The same figure can be perceived as
the number 13 in a row that contains the numbers 10 through 14. Therefore,
our perception of the figure is a ffected by our expectations about the two
sequ ences.
A 13 C D E F
10 11 12 B 14
3.6.2.2. Bottom-up processing
o The bottom-up processing of perception consists of recognizing and
processing information about the individual components of the stimuli.
o In the above mentioned example, it may be difficult to recognize the sentence
without being able to perceive the individual shapes that make up the letters.
Therefore, partly perception requires the recognition of each separate letters.

pg. 15
Conclusion: top-down and bottom- up processing occur simultaneously and interact
with each other, in our perception of the world around us.
3.6.3. Gestalt Principles of Perception
The word gestalt literally means form or pattern, but its use reflects the idea
that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. Gestalt psychologists
translated these predictable ways into principles by which we organize sensory
information.

2 . The Figure-ground relat ionship: We tend to segment our visual world

into figure and ground. Figure is the object or person that is the
focus of the visual field, while the ground is the background.
Our perception can vary tremendously, depending on what is perceived as figure and
what is perceived as ground.

The concept of figure-ground relationship explains why this image can be perceived either as a
vase or as a pair of faces.
2. Proximit y: This principle asserts that things that are close to one another
tend to be grouped together.

The Gestalt principle of proximity suggests that you see (a) one block of dots on the left side
and (b)
three columns on the right
side.
3. Similarity: This principle asserts things that are alike tend to be grouped
together.

When looking at this array of dots, we likely perceive alternating rows of colors. We are grouping
these dots according to the principle of similarity.

pg. 16
 4. Continuity: The law of continuity suggests that we are more likely to
perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken
lines.

Good continuation would suggest that we are more likely to perceive this as two overlapping lines,
rather than four lines meeting in the center

5. The Principle of Closure states that we organize our perceptions into

complete objects rather than as a series of parts.

Closure suggests that we will perceive a complete circle and rectangle rather
than a series of segments.
You probably feel fairly certain that your perception accurately matches the real
world, but this is not always the case. Our perceptions are based on
perceptual hypotheses: educated guesses that we make while interpreting sensory
information.
These hypotheses are informed by a number of factors, including our
personalities, experiences, and expectations.

pg. 17
 CHAPTER FOUR
PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING
4.1. Introduction
o One of the most important, universal and distinctive characteristics of human
beings is their capacity to learn.
o Our habits, skills, knowledge, attitudes, interests and characteristics are largely the
result of learning. The capacity to learn, progresses throughout the life span until
death. It is through the process of learning that human behavior changes or
undergoes modification.
o The knowledge, understanding and skills obtained from the process of learning help
mankind have to control and change their environment for their own benefit.
Definition- Learning is a relatively PERMANENT CHANGE IN BEHAVIOR AS A
RESULT OF PRACTICE AND EXPERIENCE.

4.2. Modes of LEARNING

o In learning a new thing, we follow different ways. There are three main ways of
learning.
4.2.1. Learning by Trial and Error
o It is a random attempt to learn a new problem.
o Some of these attempts may result in success but others may not.
o The right response to a situation is arrived at by chance, by constant trial and
by making repeated errors.
o It is very common mode of learning in animals.
o Trial and error learning is s low, wasteful and unintelligent.
4.2.2. Learning by Conditioning
o It is the simplest form of learning.
o It is a process in which a response or action due to some original stimulus
becomes transferred to another stimulus which occurs at the same time or
shortly after the original stimulus.
4.2.3. Learning by Observation and Insight
o It involves mental exploration and understanding of what is being learned.
o It requires the ability to find out relationships.
o The learner uses his/her past experiences and his ability to generate new ideas.

4.3. FACTORS FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING

4.3.1. Motivation
o The stronger and clearer the motives in learning a course in health sciences,
the greater are the effort and interest shown by the learner in learning the
course.
o When the motives of learning are high, the learner becomes
enthusiastic.
4.3.2. Intelligence
pg. 18
 o It enables us to understand things
o It enables us to see the relationships between things
o It enables us to reason and judge correctly and critically.
4.3.3. Maturation
o Neuro-muscular coordination is important for learning a given task.
o Example- The child has to be physically mature before he is able to walk or
run.
4.3.4. Physical condition of the learner
o The learner should be in a good health status.
o Example- Sensory defects, malnutrition, toxic conditions of the body, loss of
sleep and fatigue hinder effective learning.
4.3.5. Good working conditions
o Example- Fresh air, light, comfortable surroundings, moderate temperature,
absence of distractions like noise, aid in learning efficiently.
4.3.6. M e n t a l health of the learner

o Example- Worries, fears, feelings of loneliness and inferiority hinders learning.

o Self-respect, self-reliance, and self-confidence are necessary for effective
learning.
4.3.7. A s s o c i a t i n g things
o Example- All related facts and understandings from a previously learned
course should be brought to new learning. While learning a nursing procedure a
student nurse could see its connection with anatomy, chemistry, and
psychology.
4.3.8. L e n g t h of the working period
o Learning periods should neither be too short nor too long.
o Long learning time sets fatigue and reduces effectiveness in learning.

4.4. THEORIES OF LEARNING

The major theories of learning are:
1) Behaviorist learning theory;
2) Cognitive learning theory;
3) Social cognitive learning theory;
4) Psychodynamic learning theory;
5) Humanistic learning theory
Assignment 01/2024 (CMHS)
Write a summary of the remaining (3) theories of learning
Submission on 24/5/2024

4.4.1. Behaviorist Learning Theory

 Behaviorists view learning as the product of the association between stimulus
conditions (S) and the responses (R).
 It is sometimes referred as the S-R model of learning.
pg. 19
  The behaviorist closely observes responses and then manipulates the environment
to bring about the intended change.
 The behaviorist, to modify people's attitudes and responses, recommends either to
alter the stimulus conditions in the environment or to change what happens after a
response occurs.
 The two basic models of learning in behaviorism are Classical Conditioning
model and Operant (instrumental) Conditioning models.

4.4.1.1. Classical Conditioning Model of Learning

o The theory of classical conditioning aims to account for the way in which
reflex behavior may become associated with a new stimulus that does not
naturally activate that behavior.
o It emphasizes the importance of stimulus conditions and the associations
formed in the learning process.
o According to this model of learning, a neutral stimulus (NS)' a stimulus that
has no particular value or meaning to the learner is paired with a naturally
occurring unconditioned or unlearned stimulus (UCS) and unconditioned
response (UCR)
o After a few such pairings, the neutral stimulus alone, elicits the same response.
o Pavlov (1927), the Russian physiologist, was studying the salivary
reflex in dogs. When he observed that the dogs salivated not only at the sight
and smell of food, a natural response, but also at the sight of the food
container alone.
o Through a series of experiments, he demonstrated that dogs could be
conditioned to salivate to other unnatural stimuli such as a buzzer being
sounded slightly before the presentation of food. Such a pairing caused an
association to be formed between the buzzer and the food subsequently
between the buzzer and the salivation response.
The process of classical conditioning model of learning.
UCS UCR (before conditioning)
(Food) (Salivation)

NS+UCS UCR (during conditioning)

(Buzzer + Food) (Salivation)

(Several pairings)

NS UCR
Or
CS CR (after conditioning)
(Buzzer) (Salivation)
Example:

pg. 20
 Offensive odor in the hospital unwanted feeling by a visitor
UCS UCR
Hospital + Offensive odors unwanted feeling
NS + UCS

UCR several pairings of hospitals

+
Offensive odors in hospitals unwanted feeling

Hospital unwanted feeling

CS CR
4.4.1.2. Operant Conditioning Model of Learning
Definition-It describes learning as strengthening or weakening voluntary response,
depending on its positive or negative consequences.
 It is a deliberate form of learning in which the organism actively attempts to
change its environment to produce a desirable outcome.
 The model focuses on the behavior of the organism and the reinforcement that
occurs after the response.
 B.F. skinner has largely developed and popularized the model.
Basic steps followed by Skinner in operant conditioning
1. A hungry animal (a cat, a rat, a pigeon) is placed in a laboratory setting (example-
skinner box)
2. The animal will wander in the box, exploring its environment in a random way.
3. The animal will press a lever by chance, which enables it to receive food from the
food container.
4. The first time the response occurred, the animal will not learn the connection
between lever pressing and the stimulus (food)
5. As the frequency of lever pressing increases, the animal learns that the receipt of
food is dependent on lever pressing behavior.
Basic Features in Operant Conditioning
(a) Shaping: It is the process of teaching behavior by rewarding closer and closer
approximation of the desired behavior. In shaping, the behavior that is similar
to the expected behavior is reinforced first. The process is sometimes called
successive approximation.
(b) Chaining: It refers to the linking together of a behavior. The initial response in
the chain provides a set of cues which becomes associated with and thus elicits the
next succeeding response and so forth so that the full sequence is chained off.
(c) Stimulus discrimination: A behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific
stimulus but not in its absence. A discriminative stimulus signals the likelihood
that reinforcement will follow a response.
Example: we borrow a certain material from our friend after we recognize that our friend
is in a good mood.
(d) Stimulus generalizations: It is a condition in which an organism learns a
response to one stimulus and then applies it to other stimuli.
pg. 21
 (e) Extinction: If reinforcement is discontinued, extinction of the operant response
will occur. Compared to classical conditioning, in operant conditioning extinction
takes place after longer period of time.
(f) Reinforcement: It is the process whereby a reinforcer increases the likely hood of
a response. The whole process that led the experimental animal to press the lever
is called reinforcement. The food that increases the probability of lever pressing
is called reinforcer.

Reinforcers are of two (2) Types

1. Primary Reinforcer: satisfies some biological need. It is not based on past
experience or learning. (e.g Food, Water, Cessation of Pain)
2. Secondary Reinforcer: is a stimulus that becomes a reinforcer because of its
association with a primary rein forcer. (e.g. Money…)

Rein forcers can also be labeled in terms of reward.

1. Positive reinforcer: it is a stimulus when added to the
environment brings about an increase to the
preceding response. It is an application of a pleasant
stimulus following an organism's response.
2. Negative reinforcer: it is a stimulus that removes
something unpleasant from the environment, leading to an
increase in the probability that a preceding response will occur
again in the future.
Negative reinforcers work in two forms

a. Escape conditioning: the learner makes a response to bring about an end

to an aversive situation. (E.g. A college student takes a day to escape from
a workload.)
b. Avoidance conditioning: when the learner responds to a signal that
marks the coming (onset) of unpleasant event with the aim of avoiding the
evasion. (E.g. The pretension of some people to look ill in order to escape
from doing something that they do not want to do.)

How to use reinforcement?

a. Identifying the type of reinforcement to increase or decrease behavior for each
individual
b. The timing or scheduling of reinforcement

The TWO MAIN SCHEDULES of reinforcements are; continuous reinforcement (when a

reward is given to every instance of the desired behavior) and partial reinforcement.
(when the learner is reinforced only some of the time.)

The four partial reinforcement schedules that are commonly used are:

pg. 22
 1. Fixed-interval: the learner is reinforced after regular time intervals; say
every 50 seconds, provided at least it shows one desired response.
2. Variable-interval: reinforcement is given on average not precisely every,
say, 50 seconds.
3. Fixed-ratio: the learner is reinforced after a regular number of desired
responses say after every four responses.
4. Variable ratio: reinforcement is given on average every, say, four
responses, though not exactly after each fourth responses.
(g) Punishment: Punishment refers to unpleasant stimulus that decreases the
probability of the occurrence of a preceding behavior. It weakens the response
and makes it less likely to recur.

The pros of punishment

• It often is the quickest way to change behavior.
• Special i n s t a n c e s like the behavior of autistic children
can be suppressed temporarily until to buy time to use positive
reinforcement techniques.
The cons of punishment
• It is ineffective if the punishment is not delivered shortly
after the individual exhibits the unwanted behavior.
• It is ineffective if the punishment is delivered out of the
setting in which the unwanted behavior is exhibited. One of
the important rules of operant conditioning is to punish the
behavior, not the person.
• Punishment should not be prolonged.
4.4.2. Cognitive Learning Theories
Note:
o The theory stresses on the importance of what goes on inside the learner.
o Accordingly, the key to learning and changing in behavior is the individual's
cognition (perception, thought, memory, and ways of processing and structuring
information).
According to this theory, in order to learn, individuals must change their cognitions.
Learning involves:
o Perceiving information;
o Interpreting the information based on what is already known;
o Reorganizing information into new insights or understanding.
According to cognitive theorists, source of motivation or the desire to act is the
individual's goals and expectations.
The tasks of the educator and those trying to influence the learning process are
to:
o Organize the variety of perceptions and experiences;
o Organize ways of thinking about information;
o Set diverse goals and expectations.
To facilitate and promote transfer of learning:
pg. 23
  The learner must act on the learning situation in some way;
 setting similar but different situations and finding relationship between
initial learning situation and subsequent situation;
 Instead of drill and rote memory, the key factor is understanding, consideration of
learner readiness, knowledge of ones learning style, and ability to
recognize information.
4.4.3. Observational Learning Theory

The theory claims that a major part of human learning takes place through
observing the behavior of another person called a model. Models have been classified
into two categories. These are:
(a) Real life models: These are really existing models such as parents, teachers,
friends, heroes of films, sport stars and other most successful persons in life.
(b) Symbolic models: These are representatives of real life models. They include
materials and other works of individuals.
NB/ In observational Learning we learn both POSITIVE and NEGATIVE behaviour.
Studies showed that children are more likely to perform behavior that is imitated from
models are:
o Similar in some respect to themselves;
o Exhibit power and control over some desirable commodity;
o Are warm and nurturing.
Observational learning takes place in four steps. These are:
1. Paying attention and perceiving the most important aspect of another person's
behavior.
o Models attract our attention because of distinctiveness, prestige,
power and other winsome qualities.
2. Remembering the behavior. some of the ways to remember the action of a
model are:
o Associations among the stimuli that occur together;
o Giving verbal description of a models behavior;
o Rehearsing the behavior again and again.
3. Reproducing the action
o To reproduce a behavior accurately the person must have the necessary
motor skills
4. Being motivated to learn and carry out the behavior.
o To be motivated and carry out the imitated behavior the person must:
 Be rewarded;
 See the consequences the model obtains;
 Evaluate one’s own behavior.

pg. 24
 CHAPTER FIVE
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
5.1. Motivation
The study of motivation answers the following questions.
1. Why do people behave as they do?
2. Why does behavior take one form and not another?
3. What makes people behave differently or similarly?
4. How can we motivate people to behave in particular ways, such as eating certain
foods, quitting smoking,
or engaging in safer sex practices?

Motivation: It is the factor that directs and energizes the behavior of humans
and other organisms. Motive is a need or desire that prompts us to do something.

5.2. Theories of Motivation

5.2.1. The Instinct Approaches to Motivation

Basic concept:
 Motivation is the result of a n inborn, biologically determined pattern
of behavior.
 According to this approach, people and a nimals a re born with
progra mmed sets of behavior essential to their survival.

5.2.2. Drive Reduction Approach to Motivation (DRT)

 Theory of motivation proposed that the maintenance of homeostasis
is particularly important in directing behavior.
 This theory suggests that when people lack some basic biological
requirements su ch a s water and food, a drive to obtain these
requirements is produ ced.
According to DRT, being hungry is uncomfortable because I'm out of
homeostasis. To reduce this tension and restore balance, I look for something to
eat.
A drive is tension, arousal that pushes behavior in order to fulfill some need.
5.2.3. Cognitive Approaches to Motivation
 This approach focuses on the role of our thought, expecta tions, and
understanding of the world.
 In line with this approach, there are two forms of motivations.
■ Intrinsic Motivation: It is motivation by which people participate in a n
a ctivity for their own enjoyment, not for the reward it will bring.
 It enables to work hard, produce higher quality work and be
perseverant.
 some psychologists argue that providing rewards for desirable
behavior may cause intrinsic motivation to decline.
■ Extrinsic Motivation: It causes us to do something for a tangible
reward.

pg. 25
5.3. Maslow's Motivational Theory

Maslow's argued that people desire to fulfill physiological needs first, then
sa fety needs, then social needs, then esteem needs. Once all other needs are met,
people desire to reach their full potential(self-actualization).

Basic Assumptions of the Theory

o Different motivational needs are arra nged in a hierarchy in a pyramidal shape.
o The more basic needs are at the bottom and the higher level needs are at the
to p.
o Before higher ordered needs are satisfied in the hierarchy, the primary needs
must be satisfied.

5.4. Achievement motivation theory

It is a stable, lear ned chara cteristic in which satisfa ction is obtained by
str iving for a nd attaining a level of excellence.

o People with high achievem ent m otivation tend to compete

against some standards and prove themselves s uccessful. They tend to
choose tasks that are of interm ediate difficulty.
o People with low achievem ent m otivation tend to be motivated
primarily by a desire to avoid failure. As a result they c hoose easy
ta s k s .
o The outcome of high achievement motivation is generally
positive. .

pg. 26
5.5. EMOTION

5.4.1. Definition:
o Emotion refers to a feeling and its attendant thoughts, psychological and
biological states, and range of impulses to act.
o The Oxford English Dictionary defines emotion as “any agitation or disturbance
of mind, feeling, passion, any vehement or excited mental state”.
o An emotion is a subjective state of being that we often describe as our
feelings such as happiness, despair, and sorrow that generally have both
physiological and cognitive elements influ encing behavior.

5.4.2. Classification of Emotion:

 There is a long-standing debate about which emotions should be considered
primary, or if there are primary emotions at all.
 The argument for set of core emotions is based to some extent on studies that
suggest there are universally recognized facial expressions for four emotions:
FEAR, ANGER, SADNESS, and ENJOYMENT.
 Plutchik proposed that eight basic emotions exist: fear, surprise, disgust, anger,
anticipation, joy, and acceptance. However this view was rejected on ground that
emotions are defined differently according to LANGUAGE and CULTURE.
 Hence Emotion was classified as Primary Emotion (Universal) and secondary
Emotion (Particular)

5.5. Theories of Emotion

5.5.1. The James-Lange theory

This theory asserts that:
 Emotions arise from physiological arousal.
 Emotional experience is a reaction to instinctive bodily events that occur
as a response to some situation or event in the environment.

Event-----Physiological changes---Emotion

James and Lang proposed that hu man beings experience emotions as a

result of Physiological cha nges that produce specific sensations. The
brain interprets the sensations as particular kinds of emotional experiences.

5.5.2. The Cannon-Bard Theory

o Walter Cannon (1932) and Phillip Bard disagreed with the James-
Lange theory.
o According to the Cannon-Bard theory, emotional feelings and bodily
arousal occur at the same time. Thus, if you see a dangerous snake,
brain activity will simultaneously produce bodily arousal, running, and a
feeling of fear.
5.5.3. The Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory
According to this theory,
 Emotions are composed of two factors: PHYSIOLOGICAL and
COGNITIVE. In other words, physiological arousal is interpreted in
context to produce the emotional experience.
pg. 27
  The two-factor theory maintains that the snake elicits sympathetic
nervou s system a ctivation that is labeled a s FEAR given the context, and
our experience is that of fear.

5.5.4. Cognitive-Physiological Theory

According to this evidence,
 Our interpretation of the situation DETERMINES what kind of feelings we
experience, whereas the physiological changes determine how strong they
seem to be.
 In the cognitive physiological theory, EMOTION is said to be the joint product
of the individual’s understanding, or cognition, and the physiological arousal .
5.6. The functions of emotions
1. Preparing us for action
Example: If we see an angry dog running toward us, the sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system prepares us for emergency action.

2. Shaping our future behavior

Example: When we encounter a threatening dog some other time, the previous
experience teaches us to avoid an incoming danger.

3. Shaping us to regulate social interaction

Example: Verbal and non-verbal ways of communicating emotions help us to
understand the behavior of another
person. Then we modify our actions.

5.7. Expression of Emotion:

Emotions may be communicated verbally or nonverbally through:
o voice quality,
o facial expression,
o body language,
o personal space, and
o gestures.
 Expression of emotions differs between the sexes and among cultures. Men are
more likely to inhibit expression of their emotions. Also men and women tend to
have different emotional reactions to the same stimuli and differ in their ability
to interpret nonverbal cues.
 Culture shapes emotional experiences.

From all these ways, facial expressions represent the primary means of
communicating emotional states. Facial expression communicates the following six
M OST DISTINC TIVELY identified BASIC EM OTIONS.

o Happiness
o Anger
o Sadness
o Surprise
o Disgust
o Fear

pg. 28
Members of the human race regardless of the situation express these six
emotions universally. The facial-affect program hypothesis assumes that each
primary emotion is universally present at birth.

pg. 29