ENGLISH IN THE WORLD

SECTION 9
ENGLISH IN THE WORLD

STATUS OF ENGLISH

Language and communication are two different but closely related concepts. Language is
a tool that helps in expressing and carrying the thoughts, feelings of individuals. It is a system
of conventional spoken, manual (signed), or written symbols by means of which human
beings express themselves. The functions of language include communication, the expression
of identity, play, imaginative expression, and emotional release. Language allows us to
express our feelings and thoughts via sounds, symbols, written or spoken words, posture,
gestures or signs, etc.

On the other hand, communication is a process of exchanging messages and information,

either verbally or nonverbally. It is the exchange of information and can be defined as the
transmission and reception of thoughts and feelings between people. Communication takes
seven simple steps such as the sender, encoding process, message, channel, the receiver,
decoding process, feedback. Feedback is one of the most crucial parts of this process.

In essence, language is the medium through which we communicate. Without language, it

would be nearly impossible to have effective communication.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE

North Sea Germanic, also known as Ingvaeonic

Weser–Rhine Germanic, or Istvaeonic
Elbe Germanic, or Irminonic

English is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family, whose speakers,
called Anglophones, originated in early medieval England. The namesake of the language is
the Angles, one of the ancient Germanic peoples that migrated to the island of Great Britain.
Modern English is both the most spoken language in the world and the third-most spoken
native language, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish. It is also the most widely learned
second language in the world, with more second-language speakers than native speakers.
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The English language has a rich history and has seen significant historical developments that
have led to English becoming a worldwide language. Here are some key points:

1. Origins: English is a West Germanic language of the Indo-European language family

that is closely related to the Frisian, German, and Dutch languages. It originated in
England.
2. Growth: Unlike languages that have developed within the borders of a particular
country (or region), English has grown from its earliest beginnings some 1600 years
ago by crossing borders through war clashes and conquests. Parts of other
languages were added along the way, and English changed as it made its way across
this planet.
3. Evolution: The evolution of the English language happened in three phases: the
Anglo-Saxon phase, the Medieval or the Middle English phase, and the Modern
English phase. Each phase is characterized by distinct influences and their resulting
changes to the language’s vocabulary, syntax, grammar, and pronunciation.
4. Globalization: English became the language of commerce, science, and politics as a
result of the British Empire, and it was adopted as the official language of many other
countries. This aided in the globalization of English, allowing it to become the
worldwide language that it is today.
5. Present Status: Today, English is the dominant language of the U.S., the U.K.,
Canada, Australia, Ireland, and New Zealand. It has become the world’s lingua franca.

An article for your reading from A brief history of the English language - Oxford International
English Schools

A Brief History of the English Language

Regardless of the many languages one is fortunate to be fluent in, English takes its place as
one of the world’s predominant forms of communication with its influences extending over
as much as +2 billion people globally.

Quirks and inconsistencies aside, the history surrounding its monumental rise is both a
fascinating and rich one, and while we promise to be brief, you just might pick up a thing or
two that may stimulate your interest in studying English with us here at Oxford International
English Schools.

Where it all started

Many of you will be forgiven for thinking that studying an English Language course consists
of English grammar more than anything else. While English grammar does play a part when
taking courses to improve English overall, it is but a small part of the overall curriculum
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where one becomes immersed in a history that was partly influenced by myths, battles, and
legends on one hand, and the everyday workings of its various social class on the other.

According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, the English language itself really took off with
the invasion of Britain during the 5th century. Three Germanic tribes,
the Jutes, Saxons and Angles were seeking new lands to conquer, and crossed over from the
North Sea. It must be noted that the English language we know and study through various
English language courses today had yet to be created as the inhabitants of Britain spoke
various dialect of the Celtic language.

During the invasion, the native Britons were driven north and west into lands we now refer
to as Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. The word England and English originated from the Old
English word Engla-land, literally meaning “the land of the Angles” where they
spoke Englisc.

Old English (5th to 11th Century)

Albert Baugh, a notable English professor at the University of Pennsylvania notes amongst
his published works[1] that around 85% of Old English is no longer in use; however, surviving
elements form the basis of the Modern English language today.

Old English can be further subdivided into the following:

• Prehistoric or Primitive[2] (5th to 7th Century) – available literature or documentation

referencing this period is not available aside from limited examples of Anglo-Saxon
runes;
• Early Old English (7th to 10th Century) – this period contains some of the earliest
documented evidence of the English language, showcasing notable authors and
poets like Cynewulf and Aldhelm who were leading figures in the world of Anglo-
Saxon literature.
• Late Old English (10th to 11th Century) – can be considered the final phase of the
Old English language which was brought about by the Norman invasion of England.
This period ended with the consequential evolution of the English language
towards Early Middle English.

Early Middle English

It was during this period that the English language, and more specifically, English grammar,
started evolving with particular attention to syntax. Syntax is “the arrangement of words and
phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language,” and we find that while the British
government and its wealthy citizens Anglicised the language, Norman and French
influences remained the dominant language until the 14th century.

An interesting fact to note is that this period has been attributed with the loss of case
endings that ultimately resulted in inflection markers being replaced by more complex
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features of the language. Case endings are “a suffix on an inflected noun, pronoun, or
adjective that indicates its grammatical function.”

History of the English language

Charles Laurence Barber[3] comments, “The loss and weakening of unstressed syllables at the
ends of words destroyed many of the distinctive inflections of Old English.”

Similarly, John McWhorter[4] points out that while the Norsemen and their English
counterparts were able to comprehend one another in a manner of speaking, the
Norsemen’s inability to pronounce the endings of various words ultimately resulted in the
loss of inflectional endings.

This brings to mind a colleague’s lisp and I take to wondering: if this were a few hundred
years ago, and we were in medieval Britain, could we have imagined that a speech
defect would bring about the amazing changes modern history is now looking back on?
Something to ponder…

Late Middle English

It was during the 14th century that a different dialect (known as the East-Midlands) began to
develop around the London area.

Geoffrey Chaucer, a writer we have come to identify as the Father of English

Literature[5] and author of the widely renowned Canterbury Tales, was often heralded as
the greatest poet of that particular time. It was through his various works that the English
language was more or less “approved” alongside those of French and Latin, though he
continued to write up some of his characters in the northern dialects.

It was during the mid-1400s that the Chancery English standard was brought about. The
story goes that the clerks working for the Chancery in London were fluent in both French
and Latin. It was their job to prepare official court documents and prior to the 1430s, both
the aforementioned languages were mainly used by royalty, the church, and wealthy
Britons. After this date, the clerks started using a dialect that sounded as follows:

• gaf (gave) not yaf (Chaucer’s East Midland dialect)

• such not swich
• theyre (their) not hir [6]

As you can see, the above is starting to sound more like the present-day English language
we know.

If one thinks about it, these clerks held enormous influence over the manner
of influential communication, which ultimately shaped the foundations of Early Modern
English.
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Early Modern English

The changes in the English language during this period occurred from the 15th to mid-17th
Century, and signified not only a change in pronunciation, vocabulary or grammar itself but
also the start of the English Renaissance.

The English Renaissance has much quieter foundations than its pan-European cousin, the
Italian Renaissance, and sprouted during the end of the 15th century. It was associated with
the rebirth of societal and cultural movements, and while slow to gather steam during the
initial phases, it celebrated the heights of glory during the Elizabethan Age.

It was William Caxton’s innovation of an early printing press that allowed Early Modern
English to become mainstream, something we as English learners should be grateful for!
The Printing Press was key in standardizing the English language through distribution of the
English Bible.

Caxton’s publishing of Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur (the Death of Arthur) is regarded
as print material’s first bestseller. Malory’s interpretation of various tales surrounding the
legendary King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, in his own words, and the
ensuing popularity indirectly ensured that Early Modern English was here to stay.

It was during Henry the VIII’s reign that English commoners were finally able to read the
Bible in a language they understood, which to its own degree, helped spread the dialect of
the common folk.

The end of the 16th century brought about the first complete translation of the Catholic
Bible, and though it didn’t make a markable impact, it played an important role in the
continued development of the English language, especially with the English-speaking
Catholic population worldwide.

The end of the 16th and start of the 17th century would see the writings of actor and
playwright, William Shakespeare, take the world by storm.

Why was Shakespeare’s influence important during those times? Shakespeare started
writing during a time when the English language was undergoing serious changes due to
contact with other nations through war, colonisation, and the likes. These changes were
further cemented through Shakespeare and other emerging playwrights who found their
ideas could not be expressed through the English language currently in circulation. Thus,
the “adoption” of words or phrases from other languages were modified and added to the
English language, creating a richer experience for all concerned.

It was during the early 17th century that we saw the establishment of the first successful
English colony in what was called The New World. Jamestown, Virginia, also saw the dawn
of American English with English colonizers adopting indigenous words, and adding them to
the English language.
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The constant influx of new blood due to voluntary and involuntary (i.e. slaves) migration
during the 17th, 18th and 19th century meant a variety of English dialects had sprung to
life, this included West African, Native American, Spanish and European influences.

Meanwhile, back home, the English Civil War, starting mid-17th century, brought with it
political mayhem and social instability. At the same time, England’s puritanical streak had
taken off after the execution of Charles I. Censorship was a given, and after the
Parliamentarian victory during the War, Puritans promoted an austere lifestyle in reaction to
what they viewed as excesses by the previous regime[7]. England would undergo little more
than a decade under Puritan leadership before the crowning of Charles II. His rule,
effectively the return of the Stuart Monarchy, would bring about the Restoration period
which saw the rise of poetry, philosophical writing, and much more.

It was during this age that literary classics, like those of John Milton’s Paradise Lost, were
published, and are considered relevant to this age!

Late Modern English

The Industrial Revolution and the Rise of the British Empire during the 18th, 19th and early
20th-century saw the expansion of the English language.

The advances and discoveries in science and technology during the Industrial Revolution
saw a need for new words, phrases, and concepts to describe these ideas and inventions.
Due to the nature of these works, scientists and scholars created words using Greek and
Latin roots e.g. bacteria, histology, nuclear, biology. You may be shocked to read that these
words were created but one can learn a multitude of new facts through English language
courses as you are doing now!

Colonialism brought with it a double-edged sword. It can be said that the nations under the
British Empire’s rule saw the introduction of the English language as a way for them to learn,
engage, and hopefully, benefit from “overseas” influence. While scientific and technological
discoveries were some of the benefits that could be shared, colonial Britain saw this as a
way to not only teach their language but impart their culture and traditions upon societies
they deemed as backward, especially those in Africa and Asia.

The idea may have backfired as the English language walked away with a large number of
foreign words that have now become part and parcel of the English language e.g. shampoo,
candy, cot and many others originated in India!

English in the 21st Century

If one endeavours to study various English language courses taught today, we would find
almost no immediate similarities between Modern English and Old English. English
grammar has become exceedingly refined (even though smartphone messaging has made a
mockery of the English language itself) where perfect living examples would be that of the
current British Royal Family. This has given many an idea that speaking proper English is a
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touch snooty and high-handed. Before you scoff, think about what you have just read. The
basic history and development of a language that literally spawned from the embers of wars
fought between ferocious civilisations. Imagine everything that our descendants went
through, their trials and tribulations, their willingness to give up everything in order to
achieve freedom of speech and expression.

Everything has lead up to this point where English learners decide to study the language at
their fancy, something we take for granted as many of us have access to courses to improve
English at the touch of a button!

Perhaps you’re a fan of Shakespeare, maybe you’re more intune with John Milton or J.K.
Rowling? Whatever you fancy, these authors, poets and playwrights bring to life more than
just words on a page. With them comes a living history that continues to evolve to this day!

[1]
Baugh, Albert (1951). A History of the English Language. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
pp. 60–83; 110–130 (Scandinavian influence).

[2]
Stumpf, John (1970). An Outline of English Literature; Anglo-Saxon and Middle English
Literature. London: Forum House Publishing Company. p. 7. We do not know what languages
the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons spoke, nor even whether they were sufficiently similar to make
them mutually intelligible, but it is reasonable to assume that by the end of the sixth century
there must have been a language that could be understood by all and this we call Primitive
Old English.

[3]
Berber, Charles Laurence (2000). The English Language; A Historical Introduction. Cambridge
University Press. p.157.

[4]
McWhorter, Our Magnificent Bastard Tongue, 2008, pp. 89–136

[5]
Robert DeMaria, Jr., Heesok Chang, Samantha Zacher (eds.), A Companion to British
Literature, Volume 2: Early Modern Literature, 1450-1660, John Wiley & Sons, 2013, p. 41.

[6]
http://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-
maps/chancery-standard

[7]
Durston, 1985
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Influence of any language is a combination of three main things: the number of countries
using it as their first language or mother-tongue, the number of countries adopting it as their
official language, and the number of countries teaching it as their foreign language of choice
in schools. But, at base, history shows us that a language becomes a global language mainly
due to the political power of its native speakers, and the economic power with which it is able
to maintain and expand its position.

David Crystal on Language on Global English

David Crystal, a renowned linguist, has extensively studied the historical development of
English as a global language. Here are some key points according to his belief:

1. Origins and Evolution: English, originating in England, is a West Germanic language

of the Indo-European language family. It has grown and evolved over centuries,
influenced by various historical, military, political, economic, and cultural factors.

2. Globalization: The spread of English initially occurred through the migration from
Europe to the Americas, primarily by English speakers. This trans-Atlantic migration
subsequently led to the advent of slavery, further spreading the language.

3. Present Status: Today, English is a truly global language, used extensively in

international travel, trade, science, medicine, and on the Internet. The accent and
structural features of English have significantly changed over the past 1,500 years. As
English continues to be used as a means of international communication, it is
becoming easier for speakers of other languages to learn and use.

4. Future Potential: Crystal explores the future potential of English as an international

language of communication. He provides a factual account of the rise of English as a
global language and delves into the reasons behind its history, current status, and
future potential.

Crystal’s work offers a comprehensive and engaging perspective, backed by facts and figures,
on the historical development of English as a global language.

The Status of English as a Global Language

English has a significant status as a global language. Following criteria are used to assess the
status of English:

1. Widespread Use: Over 380 million people currently speak English as a first language,
over 550 million use it as their second language, and approximately a billion people
are learning it worldwide. The World Economic Forum estimates about 1.5 billion
people around the world speak it. English is the most widely studied foreign
language in the EU, and has official status in over 75 territories. Its use in culture
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(e.g. Hollywood), in global organizations and business, as well as in the field of
technology also serves to reinforce its presence.
2. Official Status: English has official or special status in at least 75 countries (with a
combined population of two billion people).
3. Political Economy: The under specification of globalization and neoliberalism in the
subfield of language policy leads to disputes and contrary positions on important
issues. A greater understanding of how globalization interacts with national
economies and how those interactions may influence both the trajectory and fate of
languages might serve as a starting point for new research directions in the field of
language policy and planning
4. Future Prospects: Adopting a new, political economic approach to language policy
research will enhance our ability to provide more consistent explanations about the
status, functions, benefits, and limitations of English in its various roles in non-English
dominant countries.
5. Role in Multilingualism: Multilingualism is the norm in most contexts around the
world. English is often one of the languages used in multilingual situations where
everyday communication is managed by individuals using their full range of
languages organically and fluidly – a practice known as ‘translanguaging’.

In summary, English has an influential role as a global language as well as a global language
in political and economic affairs, and it’s expected to maintain this status for the foreseeable
future.

Could the status of English as a global language change?

The status of English as a global language could potentially change in the future. While
English is currently the most widely spoken language across the globe and serves as a
dominant language in various aspects such as business, education, and media, there are
several factors that could lead to a shift in its status.

Demographic Shifts: The distribution of global population and the rise of other language-
speaking regions could impact the prominence of English. For example, as countries like
China and India continue to grow economically and have more influence globally, there might
be increased demand for Mandarin or Hindi as global languages.

Technological Advancements: Advancements in translation technology and artificial

intelligence could make language barriers less significant, reducing the need for a single
dominant global language. This could lead to a more level playing field for various languages,
making it possible for other languages to gain more prominence.

Economic and Political Changes: Shifts in economic and political power dynamics can also
influence the status of languages. If there were significant changes in the global economic or
political landscape, it could lead to different languages gaining more influence or becoming
more widely spoken.
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Cultural and Social Changes: Changing cultural preferences and evolving societal norms can
also impact the prominence of languages. As different cultures gain more recognition and
influence, there might be a greater focus on preserving and promoting native languages,
which could potentially challenge the dominance of English.

In our multilingual world, English is often one of the languages used in multilingual
situations where everyday communication is managed by individuals using their full range of
languages organically and fluidly. This practice is known as 'translanguaging’.

However, it is important to note that language change is a gradual process and is influenced
by multiple complex factors. While English's position as a global language may evolve over
time, its widespread usage and established infrastructure make it unlikely for any significant
changes to occur in the near future. It’s also worth noting that new ‘Englishes’ have emerged
since the 1960s in countries across the globe2, further contributing to the dynamic nature of
the language.

David Crystal on language evolution…

David Crystal, a renowned linguist, has written extensively on the evolution of language. In
his book “The Language Revolution”, he identifies three major trends that have fundamentally
altered the world’s linguistic ecology:

1. The emergence of English as the world’s first truly global language.

2. The crisis facing a large number of languages which are currently endangered or
dying.
3. The radical effect on language due to the arrival of Internet technology.

He suggests that these trends have led us into a new era in the evolution of human language,
with repercussions for many individual languages. Crystal also notes that vocabulary is the
primary index of language change, but grammar has shifted too, in more subtle ways. For
instance, the use of “that” has been replacing “which” in certain sentences, and the frequency
of the present continuous tense has increased.

Crystal’s insights highlight how language is a mirror of the people who use it, reflecting their
culture, mentality, technology, and other developments affecting their lives. As technology
continues to evolve rapidly, so does our language to represent these new developments.
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An article for your wide reading…

What's the future of English?

By Keira Ives-Keeler
13 June 2014 - 10:19

'New forms of English are swiftly evolving.' Photo ©

John Keogh, licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 and adapted from the original.

Linguistics expert David Crystal is in Russia to give a series of lectures. At the UK-
Russia Linguistic Symposium at the Russian State University for the Humanities in
Moscow, he described 'the future of Englishes' and the evolution of global varieties of
English across the world. Keira Ives-Keeler of the British Council in Russia explains.

Advertising campaigns give an insight into how languages evolve

What role does advertising play in the evolution of languages and the relationship between
language and cultural knowledge? Using the example of the well-known Heineken slogan,
'Heineken refreshes the parts other beers cannot reach', David Crystal explained how this
initial phrase evolved with the help of word play. Over 30 years, the phrase came to represent
an ad campaign with 300 variations on the same phrase, with the word 'parts' substituted with
everything from 'parrots' to 'pilots' to 'poets'.

Understanding different cultures helps people understand different languages

David Crystal recounted the difficulties he had in explaining the Heineken campaign’s
meaning to a group of Japanese English language teachers when they stumbled across a
billboard for it whilst on a study trip to the UK. Their confusion highlighted the importance of
cultural understanding as a tool for understanding languages.

He found it equally challenging to convey the same message and humour to an American
friend when they came across the same billboard just a week later -- demonstrating that even
native speakers often require cultural context in order to fully understand phrases in their
mother tongue, as culture inevitably shapes the language that we use on a daily basis. As a
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localised national advertising campaign run exclusively in Britain, only those living in Britain
and exposed to the campaign would understand the reference to 'refreshing the parrots that
other beers cannot reach'. The phrase was utterly incomprehensible to anyone outside of
that specific context.

New forms of 'English' are swiftly evolving

Crystal estimates that around 60-70 new 'Englishes' have emerged since the 1960s in
countries across the globe. There are an estimated 400 million people who speak English as
a first language and 7-800 million people who speak English as a second language. Around
a billion more speak English as a foreign language. This means that now there is just one
native speaker to every five non-native speakers of English -- an unprecedented situation in
the history of languages. It also means that people are no longer exclusively looking to Britain.
British English is now a minority amongst the many 'Englishes' that are spoken around the
world.

'English is of no use beyond our shores', stated the Earl of Leicester upon returning from his
tour of Europe in the late 1500s. Indeed, Chaucer asked why anyone would want to study
English: a language 'with no literature' (as David pointed out, though, anyone lucky enough
to have studied Chaucer would be able to confirm that his works are almost unintelligible to
modern English speakers). And yet, in the very same year, Shakespeare emerged from his
‘lost years’ - a period from 1585 to 1592, when it was thought that the playwright was
perfecting his dramatic skills and collecting sources for plots -- and produced some of his
finest work. Just over a decade later, Walter Raleigh’s expeditions in the early 1600s saw
American English take root within a matter of days, with terms such as 'wigwam' and 'skunk'
appearing and becoming commonplace extremely quickly. It takes very little time for a
language to evolve; this language 'of no use beyond British shores' grew from a population
of four million speakers to two billion in just 400 years.

A language's development reflects the power of those who speak it

So how exactly did that happen? How did English grow so quickly and seemingly so
unexpectedly? According to Crystal, in spite of the widespread notion that this is due, at least
in part, to the fact that it is an easy language to learn, 'without any grammar', as some people
have said, there is something much deeper behind the exponential growth of English as a
global language. Crystal suggests that a language’s development is a direct reflection of the
power of those who speak it. From the beginnings of the British Empire, to the industrial
revolution in Britain, which brought significant technological and scientific developments and
a number of influential inventions from English-speaking inventors, through to the continued
economic power of the 19th century and cultural power of the 20th century, English has
maintained its edge.

Speakers of English adapt the language to their local context

Turning his attention to colonial and post-colonial environments, Crystal suggested that even
in countries where English was seen as the language of oppressors, complexities in the
linguistic make-up of the local environment (for example, Nigeria where 500+ languages are
spoken) meant that a 'better the devil you know' approach was adopted 'because at least
everyone hates English equally'. This meant that English was adopted as an official language
and then adapted to the local context. Within months of independence, thousands of new
words appeared, linked to politics, food and drink, folklore and plants. Fifty years on, these
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words are featured in dictionaries of global English -- there are 15,000 Jamaican words and
10,000 South African words alone.

This trend of 'Englishes' in the plural shows no sign of slowing down anytime soon. But
nothing lasts forever. Who knows whether English will retain its position as the widely
accepted lingua franca. And if it does, then how many 'Englishes' might evolve? How can
we prepare our students and in particular younger generations for this culturally diverse
future?

Your notes…