MODULE 6

PART 3 Manufacturing processes

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 Manufacturing Process
• Manufacturing processes are those processes by which raw materials are converted
into final products.
❖ Manufacturing processes can be classified as follows.
✓ Shaping process :- Processes in which the shape and size of the metal is changed
without the removal of the material. Eg:- Casting, Forging, Rolling, Extrusion etc.
✓ Machining process :- Processes in which the shape and size of the metal is changed
by removing the material from the workpieces. Eg:- Turning, Drilling, Milling etc.
✓ Joining Process :- Processes in which two or more parts are joined together for
getting desired product. Eg:- Welding, Soldering, Brazing etc.
✓ Finishing Process :- Process by which the required surface finish or protective
coating is provided to the part. Eg :- Grinding, Polishing, Electroplating,
Galvanizing etc.
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 1. SandCasting
• It is a manufacturing process in which molten metal
is poured in a mould or cavity and allowed to
solidify.
• In sand casting, sand is used as the mould material.
• Mould of desired shape made by using sand and
pattern.
• Basic moulding sand include Silica sand with
binders and additives.
• A pattern is the model of part to be cast. Wood is
the most common material for making pattern.
• The place where casting is carried out is known as
foundries.
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 Sand mould
• Flask :- It is the box that contains the mould cavity.
• Drag :- Lower part of the flask.
• Cope :- Upper part of the flask.
• Pouring basin: top of the mould for pouring the
molten metal at the required rate into the mould
cavity.
• Sprue: vertical passage made through the cope for
connecting pouring basin with the gate.
• Runner: for connecting the sprue and gate.
• Gates: passage for connecting the base of the runner
with the mould cavity.
• Riser: passage made in the cope to permit molten
metal to rise up after filling the mould cavity. 4
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 Sand mouldingprocedure
1 ✓ Place the drag pattern on the bottom board

✓ Sprinkle the facing sand carefully all around the pattern

so that the pattern does not stick with moulding sand.
2 ▪ Fill the drag with loose moulding sand.
▪ Ram the sand uniformly around the pattern.
▪ Strike off the excess sand.
▪ Sprinkle parting sand over the top of the drag.
3 ❑ Roll over the drag and remove the pattern.

❑ Cut gate connecting the sprue basin with mould cavity.

4❖ Place sprue and riser pins.

❖ Fill the cope with sand and ram.

❖ Strike off the excess sand from the top of the cope.
5 ➢ Place the cope over drag.
➢ Sprinkle parting sand over the top surface of the cope.
6 o Remove the sprue and riser pins.
o Close the mould by the cope over drag. 6
The Sand Casting Process

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Properties of mouldingsand
• Refractoriness :- Ability to withstand high temperature.
• Chemical inertness :- Sand should not chemically react with the metal.
• Permeability or Porosity :- It is the ability of sand by which it allows the gases to pass through it
easily.
• Cohesiveness or strength :- Sand should have enough cohesiveness to bind each other.
▪ (i) Green strength: The strength of sand possessed by it in its green or moist state is called
green strength.
▪ (ii) Dry strength: The strength possessed by the sand in its dry or baked state is called dry
strength.
• Collapsibility :- The ability of the moulding sand to collapse after solidification of the molten metal
is called collapsibility.
• Adhesiveness :- The ability of the sand particles to get stick with another body is called
adhesiveness.
• Flowability :- The ability of moulding sand to behave like a fluid when it is rammed is called
flowability. 12
 2. Rolling
• Process of plastically deforming metal by passing it
between rolls
• Cylindrical rolls are used to reduce the cross sectional area
of a bar or plate with a corresponding increase in the length
• Process of rolling basically consists of passing metal
between two rolls rotating in opposite direction at the same
speed.
• Purpose of rolling is to convert large sections such as ingots
into smaller sections.
• Rolling helps to improve various physical properties such
as strength, toughness, ductility and shock resistance.
• A large number of useful articles such as sheets, rails,
plates, rings, bars, etc., are produced through rolling.
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 Hot Rolling
❑ Hot rolling :- Process in which metal is fed
to the rolls after being heated above the
recrystallization temperature
❑ As a result of squeezing, the grains are
elongated in the direction of rolling and
after crossing the stress zone. grains start
refining.
❑ The figure shows the changes in the grain
structure of hot rolling.
❑ Hot rolling is an effective way to reduce
grain size in metals for impact strength and
ductility.
❑ In hot steel rolling, the continuous exposure
of metal to air produces a layer of oxide
called as scale is formed on the surface of
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the steel.
 Cold Rolling
❑Cold rolling :- Process in which
metal is fed to the rolls after being
heated below the recrystallization
temperature generally at room
temperatures.
❑ In cold rolling, the grains tend to
retain the shape acquired during
rolling.
❑Cold rolling increases the strength
of the metal and also makes it
stiffer.
❑Therefore the metal becomes less
ductile more brittle.
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Types of rollingmills

a) Two high mill

b) Three high mill
c) Four high mill
d) Cluster mill
e) Tandem mill

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 Two high mill

• Two rolls are used.

• Lower roll will be fixed.
• Upper roll can be moved to adjust the space between the rolls.
• Both the rolls rotate at the same speed but in opposite directions.
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Three high mill

• Three rolls positioned one over another.

• Upper and lower rolls rotate in the same direction.
• Middle roll rotates in the opposite direction.
• Middle roll is fixed.
• Upper and lower rolls are moved to adjust the roll gap. 21
Four highmill

• Four rolls.
• Two rolls are working rolls and the other two are back up rolls.
• Back up rolls preventing the deflection of the working rolls.

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Cluster mill

• Used for rolling very thin sheet or foils.

• It consists of a Pair of working rolls of very small diameter, supported
by a number of back up rolls on either side.

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Tandem mill

• Series of rolling mills are placed one after another.

• Different reduction takes place at each stand, the strip will be moving at
different velocities.

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 3. Extrusion
❑Process of forcing a metal enclosed in a container to flow through the
opening of a die.
❑Metal is subjected to plastic deformation.
❑Metal undergoes reduction and elongation during extrusion.
❑Extrusion is used to manufacture rods, tubes, variety of circular, rectangular,
hexagonal and other shape both in solid and hollow form, channel, I, Z, T
and other sections.
❖There are two types of extrusion processes,
➢ Hot extrusion :- Process in which extrusion is carried out above the
recrystallization temperature.
➢ Cold extrusion :- Process in which extrusion is carried out below the
recrystallization temperature. 25
 Forward or Direction extrusion

• Flow of metal through the die is in the

same direction as the movement of ram.
• As the ram moves forward, pressure
develops and metal plastically deforms.
• As the chamber is close on all sides, the
heated material is squeezed through the
die-opening as an elongated strip.

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 Backward or indirectextrusion

• Flow of metal through the die is in the

opposite direction as the movement of ram.
• Hot billet(work piece) is used.
• Ram used is hollow.
• Billet remains stationary while die is pushed
into the billet by the hollow ram.
• Less force is required as compared to direct
extrusion.

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 4. Forging
• Forging is the process in which, metals or alloys are deformed to the required
shape by applying sudden blows (hammering) or steady pressure (pressing).
• In impact or hammer forging rapid blows are given to the surface of the
metal. In this, intensity of force on the metal is maximum only at the surfaces
and reduces below as the energy is absorbed by the deforming metal.
• In press forging, the metal is subjected to slow speed compressive forces.
Here, the pressure increases as the metal is being deformed and its maximum
value is obtained just before the pressure is released.
• There are two types of forging processes,
• Hot forging :- Process in which forging is carried out above the
recrystallization temperature.
• Cold forging :- Process in which forging is carried out below the
recrystallization temperature. 30
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Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages
❑Since forging gives a finished product, excess metal is not required as in
machined products.
❑Forging improves directional properties.
❑Mechanical properties are improved (strength and toughness).
❑Metals can be easily shaped to the required dimensions using forging dies.
❑Heavy parts can be formed easily compared to other processes.
Disadvantages
❑The initial cost of the equipments and dies are high.
❑Maintenance costs of tool and dies is involved.
❑Intricate and cored shapes cannot be produced by forging.
❑The size and shape is limited as compared to casting process.
❑The forged part costs more than the cast part.
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 Hand forging

• Traditional forging operation carried out by blacksmith in a section of

workshop called smithy.
• Hand tools are used for forging(eg. Hammer, chisel…etc).
• Not suitable for mass production. 33
Forging operations
a) Upsetting
b) Drawing down
c) Bending
d) Edging
e) Swaging
f) Forge welding

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 a)Upsetting
• It is a process of increasing the cross
sectional area of a bar at any desired location
with the reduction in length.
• The portion to be upset is heated and then
hammered.
• This is done generally to obtain localized
increase in thickness. For example, forming
of a bolt head.
• The heated metal is held by tong at one end
and supported by anvil at other end.
• Then pressure is applied on the job by means
of a hammer or dropping weight from a
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convenient height
 b) Drawingdown
• It is used to reduce the thickness of a bar and to
increase the length.
• This operation is carried out by hammering the
hot work-piece keeping it on the anvil and
holding it by a suitable tong.
• The angles between the hammer face, the metal
and the anvil will decide the shape of finished
work. 36
 c) Bending

• Bending is an operation by which bars are bent to form rings,

hooks etc.

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d) Edging

❑Edging is the process of concentrating

material using a concave shaped open die.
❑ The process is called edging, because it
is usually carried out on the ends of the
work-piece.
❑It is used to shape the ends of bars and to
gather metal.

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e) Swaging

❑Swaging is done to reduce and finish

work to the desired size and shape,
usually round or hexagonal.
❑Swaging is usually a cold working
process; however, it is sometimes done
as a hot working process

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 f) Forgewelding
❑ In forge welding, the parts to be welded
are heated to a temperature of about
1000 °C.
❑ Then the mating surfaces are then
upsetted, then a cleft shape is formed at
the mating surface and is joined by
applying excess pressure at the mating
surfaces.
❑ This forms a strong weld.
❑ Forge welding can be carried-out for
low carbon steels. 40
 Welding
➢Process of joining similar or dissimilar metals by the application of heat,
with or without the application of pressure and with or without the addition
of filler material.
➢Welding can be classifieds into two types.
➢Fusion welding :- No pressure is involved but a very high temperature is
produced in or near the joint. The metal at the joint is heated to the molten
state and allowed to solidify. A filler material may be used during the
welding process. Eg. Oxy-acetylene welding, carbon arc welding etc.
➢Plastic welding :- Metals to be joined are to be heated to the plastic state
and then forced together by external pressure without the addition of filler
material. Eg. forge welding, resistance welding etc
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 Arc Welding
➢The welding in which the electric arc is produced to give heat for the purpose of
joining two surfaces is called electric arc welding.
➢The arc is like a flame of intense heat that is generated as the electrical current
passes through a highly resistant air gap.
➢ It is a fusion welding processes.

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➢It is a manual arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the
weld.
➢An electric current, in the form of either alternating current or direct current from a welding
power supply, is used to form an electric arc between the electrode and the metals to be
joined.
➢Arc welding is a process that melts and joins metals by heating them with an arc established
between a stick like covered electrode and the metals.
➢The core wire conducts the electric current to the arc and provides filler metal for the joint 45
➢The electrode holder is essentially a metal clamp with an electrically insulated outside shell
for the welder to hold safely.
➢The heat of the arc melts the core wire and the flux covering at the electrode tip into metal
droplets.
➢Molten metal in the weld pool solidifies into the weld.
➢As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that
serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area
from atmospheric contamination.. 46
Advantages
➢Simple welding equipment.
➢Portable.
➢Inexpensive power source.
➢Relatively inexpensive equipment.
➢Welders use standard domestic current.
➢Process is fast and reliable.
➢Equipment can be used for multiple functions.
➢Used for maintenance, repair, and field
construction.

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Disadvantages
➢Not clean enough for reactive metals such as Aluminium and titanium.
➢The deposition rate is limited.
➢The electrode length is ~ 35 mm and requires electrode changing lower the
overall production rate.

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 Welding electrodes
▪ Electrodes can be classified into non-consumable electrodes and consumable electrodes.
▪ The composition of electrode depends up on the metal to be welded.
Non-consumable electrodes -
✓ Non-consumable electrodes are those electrodes. which do not get consumed during the welding
process.
✓ Separate filler metals are necessary to fill the gap between the joints.
✓ Non-consumable electrodes are made up of higher melting point materials like carbon, graphite or
pure tungsten, etc.
Consumable electrodes –
✓ Consumable electrode is consumed during welding operation.
✓ Consumable electrode possesses more thermal efficiency than non consumable electrode.
Consumable electrodes may be classified as follows.
✓ Bare electrodes - In bare electrodes, there won't be coating of flux. Arc produced by bare
electrode is unstable. Joint produced by bare electrodes are not strong enough. Also, irregular
metal transfer and atmospheric contamination takes place
✓ Coated electrodes - Coated electrodes (flux coated) are used to prevent formation of oxidizes
and helps to form slag. Due to flux coating, the molten metal is not exposed to
oxygen/nitrogen in atmosphere resulting in strong bond 49
 Types of weld joints
❑ Butt joint - Butt joint is obtained by welding the
edges or ends of the two base metal plates which are
approximately in the same plane.
❑ T-joint - Tee joint is suitable for joining two plates
whose surfaces are approximately at right angles to
each other.
❑ Lap joint - Lap joint is obtained by overlapping the
plates and then welding the edges. It is most often
used to join two pieces together with differing levels
of thickness.
❑ Corner joint-As the name indicates, it is used to
connect two pieces together forming a corner. This
weld is most often used in the sheet metal industry.
❑ Edge joint - Edge welds are used where the edges of
two sheets or plates are adjacent and are in
approximately parallel planes at the point of welding. 50
Soldering

• Method of joining two or more metal pieces by means of a fusible alloy or

metal called solder(filler alloy), applied in molten state.
• The melting temperature of filler metal is lower than 450°C and also lower
than the melting point of the components to be joined.
• No direct melting of the metals being joined.
• During the process, the filler alloy(solder) flows between the two closely
adjacent surfaces of the work pieces by capillary action.
• Solder is melted by using a soldering iron, which is heated by electrical
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resistance.
 Brazing
• Metal pieces are joined by heating the closely placed parts and then filler alloy
called spelter applied in the molten state which upon solidification produces the
desired joint.
• Melting temperature of filler metal is more than 450°C but lower than the
melting temperature of the components to be joined.
• No direct melting of the metals being joined
• Brazing gives a much stronger joint compared to soldering
• During the process, the filler alloy(spelter) flows between the two closely
adjacent surfaces of the work pieces by capillary action
• Torch brazing is the most versatile method (Oxygen-Acetylene).

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