THERMOMETRY

TEMPERATURE:-
1. Temperature of a body is a state which determines the direction of heat flow when two bodies are placed
in contact.

2. Heat flows from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature. The flow continues till
temperatures of the two bodies become equal.

3. Two bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium if and only if they are at same temperature. In this
situation heat in the two bodies may or may not be equal.

4. Zeroth Law of thermodynamics: According to it, “If systems A & B are each in thermal equilibrium with
a third system C then A & B are in thermal equilibrium with each other”. Actually this law introduces the
concept of temperature. In other words it defines temperature as the property of the system which equals
that of another system when the two systems are in thermal equilibrium.

5. Temperature is a scalar physical quantity , SI Unit – Kelvin (K), Dimension   or K  Measurement of

temperature is called “Thermometry”.

SCALE ICE STEAM NO . O F SMALLEST ABSOLUTE

POINT POINT DIVISIONS DIVISION ZERO
Celsius or Centigrade C  0 100 100 10 C  273
Fahrenheit  F  32 212 180 10 F  460
Kelvin or Absolute  K  273 373 100 1K 0
Any temp. scale or faulty scale T  Ti Ts n  

CONVERSION FROM ONE SCALE TO OTHER SCALE:

T  Ti C F  32 K  273 T  Ti
   
Ts  Ti 100 180 100 n

RELATION BETWEEN CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE OF DIFFERENT SCALES:

C F K T
  
100 180 100 n

TRIPLE POINT OF WATER:

In modern thermometry instead of two fixed point only one reference point is chosen which is triple point
of water. At this point all three phases, solid, liquid & vapour of water coexist. Corresponding values of
pressure & temperature are-
Ptr  0.46cm of Hg or 6.05  10 3 atm. Ttr  273.16K or 0.01o C 
FORMULAE TO DETERMINE UNKNOWN TEMPERATURE:
* When the ice point is chosen as the zero of scale of temperature then unknown temperature is given by-

Xt  X0
t   100 o C
X 100  X 0

Where X o , X 100 & X t is the thermometric property at temperatures 0 o C , 100 o C & t o C .

* When triple point of water is chosen as the zero of scale of temperature then unknown temperature is
given by-
X
T  t  273 .16 K
X tr

Where X tr & X t are the thermometric properties at temperatures 273 .16 K & T K .
THERMOMETERS:
A thermometer is an instrument, which uses any property of matter that changes with temperature to
measure the unknown temperature.

1
LIQUID THERMOMETER:
 These are based on thermal expansion of liquids in a narrow tube which rise with temperature.
 In liquid thermometers mercury is preferred over other liquids as –
1. Its expansion is large and uniform and it has high thermal conductivity
2. It has low specific heat hence absorbs small amount of heat form the body whose
temperature is being measured.
3. It does not wet the walls of glass tube.
4. Its freezing point is -39oC and boiling point is 357oC hence remains liquid over a wide
range of temperature and can measure temperature form -39oC to 357oC.
5. Upper range of mercury thermometer can be raised up to 500oC by filling N2 gas in space
over mercury at high pressure.
GAS THERMOMETER:
 These are based on the fact that for a given mass of a gas –
P  T if V  constant  Constant Volume gas thermometer
V  T if P  constant  Constant Pressure gas thermometer
 In case of constant volume gas thermometer-
Pt  P0 P
t  100o C or T  t  273.16K
P100  P0 Ptr
Where Po , P100 , Ptr & Pt are pressures of gas at temperatures O oC , 100o C , triple po int of water
and unknown temperature.
 Gas thermometers are quite accurate and are used to calibrate other thermometers.
 These are more sensitive than liquid thermometer as expansion of gas is more than that of liquids.
 Range is from (-268oC to 1600oC). Hydrogen gas thermometer can measure temperature from
– 200oC to 500oC. Lower limit can be extended to – 268oC by replacing hydrogen by helium and
upper limit can be extended to 1600oC by replacing hydrogen by nitrogen.
 These are large and take enough time to record a given temperature.

RESISTANCE THERMOMETER:
 These are based on the fact that resistance of a metal varies with temperature.
 In case of resistance thermometer –
Rt  R 0 R t  R o 1   t  R 2  R1
t   100  
R100  R 0   temp. coeffi. of resis tan ce R1t 2  R 2t1
 Range is form – 200oC to 1200oC.
 Usually platinum is used in resistance thermometer as it has high melting point.
 Coefficient of thermal expansion (  ) of platinum is also high which makes the thermometer
sensitive.

TOTAL RADIATION PYROMETER:

 These are based on Stefan’s law of thermal radiation according to which – E  T 4
Where E = Radiant energy emitted per unit time per unit area of body
T = Absolute temperature of body.
 These thermometers are used to measure high temperature (greater than 1000oC) from a distance.
 The temperatures of furnace, glowing filament, sun etc are measured by this thermometer.

MAGNETIC THERMOMETER:
 These are based on the ‘curie law’. According to which the susceptibility (K) of paramagnetic
substance is inversely proportional to its absolute temperature (T).
1 C 0
K  K  C  curie cons tan t.
T T
 These are used to measure very low temperature below 2K.
NOTE:
(1) Measurement of very high temperature is called pyrometry & measurement of very low
temperature is called cryogenics.
(2) The highest laboratory temperature is about 108K while lowest 10-8 K. (Theory has established that
zero Kelvin temperature can never be achieved practically.)
(3) Normal body temperature is around 370 C (or 98.60 F)

2
 PROBLEMS
1. The r eadin g of c entigr ade thermome ter
coincides with that of Fahrenheit thermometer 10. The graph AB shown in 100 0 C
B
in a liquid. The temperature of the liquid is: figure is a plot of
temperature of a body in
1 40 0  2   40 0  3  36 0  4   36 0 degree Celsius and
2. The Fahre nheit and K elvin scales of degree Fahrenheit. 2120 F
temperature will give the same reading at: Then 0
32 F Fahrenheit
A
1 574 .25  2  374 .16  3  316 .15  4  436 .10 1 Slope of line AB is 9 / 5.
3. The freezing point on a thermometer is marked  2  Slope of line AB is 5 / 9.
as 20 o an d the boil ing point as 150 o . A  3  Slope of line AB is 1 / 9.
temperature of 60oC on this thermometer will  4  Slope of line AB is 3 / 9.
be read as:
1 78 0  2  58 0  3  69 0  4  98 0
4. A centigrade and a Fahrenheit thermometer are
dipped in boiling water. The water temperature
is lowered until the Fahrenheit thermometer
register 140o. What is the fall in temperature as
registered by the Centigrade thermometer.
1 77.80 C  2 400 C  3 48.670 C  4 360
5. Two thermometers, one calibrated in Celsius
and the other in Fahrenheit scale, are used to
measure the temperature of the same object. If
the readings are in oC and oF then:

1  C  F  2  F  C  3  F  C  4  F C

6. A correct thermometer in Fahrenheit is
introduced in a water bath along with a
Celsius thermometer. The reading observed are
86oF and 32oC. The correction to be made to the
Celsius reading will be:
1 30 0  2  25 0 3  5 0  4  20
7. A faulty thermometer has its fixed points marked
as -5° and 95°. If the temperature of a body as
shown on Celsius sca le is 55 o , then its
temperature shown on this faulty thermometer
is:
1 50 0  2  55 0  3  60 0  4  65 0
8. On a new scale of temperature (which is
linear) and called the W scale the freezing and
boiling points of water are 39°W and 239oW
respectively. What will be the temperature on
the new scale corresponding to a temperature of
39°C on the Celsius scale? [CBSC 2008]

1 200 0W  2  139 0W  3  78 0W  4  117 0W

9. A thermometer is graduated in millimeters. It
register -3mm when the bulb of thermometer is
in pure melting ice and 22 mm when the
thermometer is in steam at a pressure of l
atmosphere. The temperature in oC when the
thermometer registers 13 mm is:
1 64 0 C  2  40 0 C  3  55 0 C  4  720 C

Que.: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans.:
Que.:
Ans.:

3
 THERMAL EXPANSION
1. Almost all the substances (solid, liquid and gases) expands on heating and contract on cooling. Exception:
Rubber contract on heating & water contract on heating from 00 C to 40 C .
2. Expansion is due to the increase in the mean distance between the molecules while contraction is due to
the decrease in mean distance between the molecules.
3. Intermolecular force is maximum in solids while minimum in gases therefore the expansion of solids is
least while that of gases in highest.

Liner Superficial or areal Volume or Cubical

Expansion Expansion Expansion
Expansion in length. Expansion in area. Expansion in Volume

Coefficient of Linear expansion Coefficient of areal expansion is Coefficient of volume expansion is

is given as:- L given as:- A given as:- V
     
L t A t V t
 L  L  t A  A  t  V  V  t

L V
L L L
A
L
L  Lt L L
A  A t
 V  V t
Final length Final Area Final Volume
L   L  L  L  L t A   A   A  A  A  t V   V   V  V  V  T
L   L 1   t  A   A 1    t  V   V 1   t 

Fractional Change in length: Fractional Change in area Fractional Change in Volume

L A V
  t  Independent    t  Independent   t  Independent
L of Length A of Area V of Volume

Note- Note- V  L3
A  L2
A L V L
 3
2 V L
A L
  t  3  t
  t  2  t
  3
  2

 
 :  :  1: 2 : 3   
2 3
SOME IMPORTANT CASES:
Case1. Effect of thermal expansion on moment of inertia:

4
Case 2. Effect of temperature variation on pendulum clock:

5
Case 3. Space between two rails: Space L is provided between the rails of railway lines to accomodate the
expansion in length or rail in summer where L   L t
L/2 L L/2 L/2 L L/2

L
Case 4. Condition for constant difference between length of two rods: Difference between the length of two
rods will remain constant at all temperatures (i.e. independent of temperature variation) if expansion in
both the rods is same i.e.

Case 5. The area of hole (or volume of cavity) in a body will increase when body expands on heating

A r B r

on heating expansion of AB, BC, CD all will

A & B will be same for same increase with rise in
increment in temperature temperature

Case 6. Bimetallic strip:

(a) If two strips of equal length but of different metals are joined with each other (side by side) then the single
strip so formed is called bimetallic strip, and can be used in thermostate to break or make electrical
contacts.
(b) On heating, the strip will bend with the metal of greater  on outer side i.e. convex side.
steel  Cu   Brass   Al Brass

Brass B 
x
x

ON HEATING
 x
x
Copper
R
Copper C 
x
Radius R is given as R =
 B - C  Δt O
 B  for brass, C  for copper   B  C  , t  Increment in temperature, x = Width of each strip

Case 7. Thermal stress developed in a rod rigidly clamped between flxed supports, on chang-
ing the temperature F F
F  Force on Rod by clamp F F
A = Cross Sectional area Heated Cooled
L = Length of Rod Compressive Stress Tensile Stress
A = Cross Sectional area
 = Thermal coeff. of linear expansion
Y = Young's modulus of elasticty of material of rod

Note: If rod expands freely then no thermal stress develop. Also no thermal strain will develop.
6
Effect of temperature variation on density:

Expansion of Liquid:
When the liquid is heated the volume of its container also B Apparent
Heating expansion
increases & therefore the apparent expansion of liquid is A A
slightly different than the real expansion.
 V AL   V RL   VC .............( 1)
 V AL  Apparent expansion of liquid
 V RL  Real expansion of liquid
 VC  expansion of container
dividing equ. (1) on both sides by V  t we have
 V AL  V RL  VC
 
V t V t V t
 AL   RL   C
 AL  coefficient of apparent expansion of liquid
 RL  coefficient of Real expansion of liquid
 C  coefficient volume expansion of container.
By V=V  t
 V AL  V  AL t  V   RL   C   t

 If  RL   C then V AL  ve  level of liquid will rise on heating

 If  RL   C then  V AL  ve  level of liquid will fall on heating
 If  RL   C then V AL  0  level of liquid will remain unchanged
Note: If initially the container was completely filled &  RL   C then liquid equal to  V A L spills over on heating
7
 PROBLEMS
1. How much should the temperature of a brass rod 10. Three rods of equal length l are joined to form
be increased so as to increase its length by 1%. an equilateral triangle PQR. O is the mid-point
[  of brass = 0.0000 2 per oC] of PQ. Distance OR remains same for small
change in temperature. Coefficient of linear
2. The coefficient of linear expansion of iron expansion for PR and RQ is same i.e.,  2 but
is1.1×10-5 per oC. An iron rod is 10 m long at that for PQ is 1 . Then R
27oC. The length of rod will decrease by 1.1 mm
when the temp. of the rod changes to: 1  2  3 1
3. When a copper ball is heated, the largest  2   2  4 1
percentage increase will occur in its:  3  1  3 2
[AFMC- 2003]  4  1  4 2 P Q
1 Diameter 2 Area O

 3  Volume 4 Density 11. A bimetal lic strip i s formed out of two
identical strips, one of copper and other of brass.
4. 5 litre of benzene weighs: The coefficients of linear expansion of the two
1 More in summer than in winter metals ar e C and  . On heating, the
 2  More in winter than in summer temperature of the strip goes up by T and the
 3  Equal in winter and summer strip bends to form an arc of radius of curvature
 4  None of the above R. Then R is: [IIT-JEE]
5. The coefficient of volume expansion of liquid is  
1 Proportional to  T
49×10-5K-1. Calculate the fractional change in its  2  Inversely proportional to  T
density when the temperature is raised by 30oC.  3  Proportional to  B   C
[AMU- 2010]  4  Inversely proportional to  B   C
6. Two uniform brass rods A and B of lengths l and 12. An iron tyre is to be fitted onto a wooden wheel
2land radii 2r and r respectively are heated to 1.0 m in diameter. The diameter of the tyre is 6
the same temperature. The ratio of the increase mm smaller than that of the wheel. The tyre
in the volumes of A to that of B is: should be heated so that its temperature
[AMU -2009] increases by a minimum of (coefficient of
7. Two rods, one of aluminium and the other made volume expansion of iron 3.6 × 10-5 /Cº).
of steel, having initial length l1 and l 2 are 1 167C 0  2  334C 0  3  500C 0  4  1000C 0
connected together to form a single rod of length
l1  l 2 .The coefficients of linear expansion for 13. The apparent coefficient of expansion of a
aluminium and steel are a and  s respectively. liquid when heated in a copper vessel is C and
If the length of each rod increases by the same when heated in a silver vessel is S. If A is the
amount when their temperature are raised by linear coefficient of expansion of copper, then the
linear coefficient of expansion of silver is:
l1 C  S  3A C  3A  S
toC, then find the ratio l  l . [IIT 2003] 1 2 
1 2 3 3
  S  3A  C C  S  3A
1 s 2  a 3  4 
a s 3 3
s a 14. A flask is filled upto the 50 cm 3 mark with
3  4 mercury at temp 28oC. If the flask and the
 a   s   a   s  contents are heated to 48 oC the volume of
merc ury above th e mark will be-
8. A unifor m metal rod i s used as a bar  glass  9 106 per oC, Coeffi. of r eal exp. of
pendulum. If the room temperature rises by 10oC, mercury = 180×10-6 per oC:
and the coefficient of linear expansion of the metal
of the rod is 2 × 10-6 per oC, the period of the 1 0 .15cm 3  2  0 .25cm 3
pendulum will have percentage increase of:  3  0 .3cm 3
 4  0 .5cm 3
15. A metal ball immersed in alcohol weights W1 at
1 2  10 3  2  1  10 3 0ºC and W2 at 59ºC. The coefficient of cubical
 3  2  10 3  4  1  10 3 expansion of the metal is less than that of
alcohol. Assuming that the density of metal is
9. Two holes of unequal large compared to that of alcohol, it can be shown
diameters d1 and d2 (d1 > d2) d2 that: [CPMT]
are cut in a metal sheet. If the
sheet is heated:
1 W 1  W 2 2  W1  W 2
3  W1  W 2  4  W 2  W1/2 
d1
Que.: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Both d1and d 2 will decrease Ans.:
 2  Both d1and d 2 will increase Que.: 11 12 13 14 15
 3  d1will increase , d 2 will decrease
 4  d1will decrease , d 2 will increase Ans.:
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 HEAT & CALORIMETRY
HEAT: NOTE:
The energy being transferred between two 1. Specific heat depends on nature of material of
bodies or between adjacent part of a body as a body.
result of temperature deference is called heat. 2. Dulong and Petit has found that for elemental
SI Unit = Joule [Heat] = ML2T-2 solid
Practical unit = Calorie cal Joule
Atomic W t.  Heat  3 R  6  25
1 cal = 4.186 J  4.2J mol C 0 M ole K
So heavier the element lesser will be the spe-
cific heat that is sHg < sCu < sA1.
CALORIE:
3. Specific h eat is maximum for hydrogen
One calorie is defined as the amount of heat (3.5 cal/gm Co)
required to raise the temperature of 1g of water
through 1Co (from 14.5 to 15.5oC) at 1 atm 4. Specific h eat is minim um for radon Rn
pressure.
(0.028 cal/gm Co) & actinium (Ac)  0.028 cal/
gm Co (sRn> sAc)
EQUIVALENCE BETWEEN JOULE AND CALORIE: 5. Specific heat depends on the state of substance
Large number of experiments shows that when (i.e. solid, liquid or gas). In case of water-
mechanical energy (work) is converted into heat,
the ratio of work done (W) to heat produced (Q)
always remains the same and constant. i.e. STATE SP . HEAT  s 
W Ice Solid  0.5 cal /gC 0
 constant  J or W  JQ
Q Water  Liquid  1 cal /gC 0
 The constant J is called mechanical equivalent Steam Gas  0.47 cal /gC 0
of heat.
 J is not a physical quantity but a conversion
factor. 6. Specific heat also depends on the
 J = 4.186 Joule/calorie  1cal = 4.186 Joule temperature(but at low temperature only)
=4.2Joule s(cal / gC0 ) C(cal / mol.K )

1.008 6

1 Debye temp.
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OR SPECIFIC (270 C or 300K)
CT 3

HEAT: (s) 15 0 C 0
tc0 T(K)
Water 100 C Metal
The heat required to raise the temperature of
unit mass of a body through 1Co (or 1K) is called
Q Q 1
specific heat capacity of the material of the body. 7. s  t   t  (for given Q & m) i.e.
m t ms s
greater the sp. heat of a substance lesser will be
Q the change in temperature.
s cal /g C o or cal/gK .
m t
NOTE:
Q  Heat Supplied
1. Among all known solids & liquids specific heat
 t  Change in Temp. m  mass of body of water is maximum i.e. water takes more time
to heat and more time to cool w.r.t. other solids
and liquids.
MOLAR HEAT CAPACITY OR MOLAR SPECIFIC 2. As specific heat of water is very large 1 cal/gCo
HEAT [C]: its temperature change by small amount by
It is defined as the heat required to raise the absorbing large amount of heat. That is why it
temperature of one mole of a substance through is used as coolant in radiators.
1 Co (1K).
Q Q Q 3. Specific heat of saturated water vapour is
C   M  Ms negative.
n t m
t m t
M THERMAL CAPACITY:
Q cal
C   Ms The heat required to raise the temperature of a
n t mol.K given body by 1Co (or 1K)
n  number of moles
Q
M  molecular mass s  specific heat T h e rm a l ca p a city   ms  nC
t
9
WATER EQUIVALENT: HEATING CURVE:
The mass of water which requires same H  R ate of heat supplied
amount of heat as required by the body for same
change in temp. is called water equivalent of Q H t H
the body. s   
m  m    
m 
 t 
  
wh ere    slope
 t 
1
 s 
slope of temp.  time curve

Q H t
L    L  t
m m

 L  Length of correspon din g temp.-tim e curve

only f or fusion an d vapo risation 

Temp  
E

C
B .P D
Vaporisation

A B
M .P
Fusion

Time t 
O t2 t4
t1 t3
NOTE:
Water equivalent and thermal capacity of a body For Part AB : L f  length of AB
is numerically equal.
s  1/tan    
LATENT HEAT (L):
The amount of heat required to change the
state of unit mass of a substance at a constant For part CD : LV  length of CD
temperatur e is called t he heat of
transformation or latent heat. s  1/tan    
Q  heat required for
Q cal  GRAPH BETWEEN Q Cal & TEMP. WHEN HEAT IS
L  or Q  mL  change of state
m gm  m  Mass of subs tan ce ADDED TO ICE AT 1atm PRESSURE

(a) Latent heat of fusion (LF): Temp  
It is the heat of transformation during melting E
 All the Water 
or freezing of unit mass.  has Transformed 
 into steam 
 
(b) Latent heat of vaporization (LV): 100 0 C C
B .P
It is heat of transformation during boiling or Vaporisation D
condensation of unit mass.
 L  80 cal / gm 00 C A
For water  F M .P
B
 LV  540 cal / gm Fusion

PRINCIPLE OF CALORIMETRY:-
Has Melted 
All the ICE

Q C a l 
When two bodies at different temperature are t 0C
O
mixed then heat will be transferred from body Heat 
at higher temperature to a body at lower
tem peratur e ti ll bot h acq uire same
temperature. The body at higher temperature
release heat while body at lower temperature
absorbs it so that,
Heat lost by one body  Heat absorbed by other
NOTE:
Principle of calorimetry represents the law of
conservation of heat energy.
10
 PROBLEMS
1. The following f igure r epre sents the 5. A stationary object at 4oC and weighing 3.5 kg
temperature versus time plot for a given amount falls from a height of 2000 m on a snow moun-
of a substance when heat energy is supplied to tain at 0°C. If the temperature of the object just
it at a fixed rate and at a constant pressure. before hitting the snow is 0°C and the object
Which part of the above plot represent a phase comes to rest immediately (g = 10 m/s2) and
change? (latent heat of ice = 3.5 × 105J/kg), then the
f object will melt:
1 a to b and e tof d
e
1 2 kg of ice  2  200 g of ice
 2  d to e and e to d  3  20 kg of ice  4  2 g of ice
 3  b to c and c tof b 6. The height of a waterfall is 84 metre.
 4  b to c and d to e 0 c Assuming that the entire kinetic energy of falling
a water is converted into heat, the rise in
Time temperature of the water will be: (g = 9.8m/s2)
2. A block of ice at -10°C is slowly heated and 7. A metal sphere of radius r and specific heat S is
converted to steam at 100°C. Which of the rotated about an axis passing through its cen-
following curves represents this phenomenon tre at a speed of n rotations per second. It is
qualitatively? suddenly stopped and 50% of its energy is used
2  in increasing its temperature. Then the rise in
1 temperature of the sphere is :
2 2n 2r 2  2n 2
1 2 
5S 10r 2S
5  rn 
2
Heat supplied  Heat supplied  7
 3   r 2n 2S 4 
8 14S
3  4 
8. A lead bullet strikes a steel plate with a
velocity of 300 m/s and is completely stopped. If
the heat produced is shared equally b/w the
bullet & the target the rise in the temp. of the
Heat supplied  Heat supplied 
bullet is (sp. heat of lead = 0.03 cal/goC)
9. A copper block of mass 2.5 kg is heated to 500oC
3 Liquid oxygen at 50K is heated to 300 K at
and then placed on an ice block. If the sp. heat
constant pressure of 1 atm. The rate of heating of copper is 0.4 J/gCo the max. amount of ice
is constant. Which of the following graphs
that can melt is-
represents the variation of temperature with
time? (IIT 2004, CBSE 2012) 10. Two liquids A and B are at 30oC & 20oC resp.
When they are mixed in equal masses, then temp.
1  2  of the mix is found to be 26oC.The ratio of their
sp. heats is-
1 4 : 3  2  3 : 4 3  2 : 3 4 3 : 2
T im e T im e 11. How much steam at 100oC will just melt 3200
gm of ice at – 10oC.
3  4  12. 10 gm of ice at 0oC is added in 40 gm of water at
15oC find the temp of mix and wt. of contents of
the mix.
T im e T im e
13. 5 gm of water at 30oC & 5gm ice at – 20oC are
4. Two bodies of equal mass m are heated at a mixed together in a calorimeter. Find the
uniform rate under identical conditions. Their final temperature of the mix and weight of
change in temperatures are shown graphically content of the calorimeter. Assume water
in Fig equivalent of calorimeter to be negligible.
14. A mix of 250 gm of water and 200 gm of ice at
0oC is kept in a calorimeter, which has water
equivalent of 50 gm. If 200 gm of steam at 100oC
is passed through the mix. Calculate the final
temperature & weight of contents of the
calorimeter.
Que.: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans.:
1 What are their melting points ? Que.: 11 12 13 14
 2  What is the ratio of their latent heats ?
 3  What is the ratio of heir specific heats ? Ans.:
11
15. 10 gm of ice at – 20 oC is dropped into a
calorimeter containing 10 gm of water at 10oC
when equil ibr ium, is r eached the
calorimeter will contain-
16. A piece of ice (Specific heat =2100Jkg-1oC-1
and latent heat =3.36×105Jkg-1) of mass m
gram is at -5oC at atmospheric pressure. It is
given 420J of heat so that the ice starts
melting. Finally when the ice-water mixture is
in equilibrium, it is found that 1 g of ice has
melted. Assuming there is no other heat
exchange in the process, the value of m is:
1 8 2 6 3 4  4  8.5
17. In the definition of ‘calorie’ one calorie is the
heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram
of w ater t hrough 1°C in a cer tain
int erv al of temperatur e and at cer tain
pressure. The temperature interval and
pressure are: [IIT- 2005]

1 13.5C to 14.5C and 76 mm of Hg

 2 6.5C to 7.5C and 76 mm of Hg
 3  14.5C to 15.5C and 760 mm of Hg
 4  98.5C to 99.5C and 760 mm of Hg
18. Steam at 100°C is passed into 20g of water at
10°C. When water acquires a temperature of
80°C, the mass of water present will be:
[Take specific heat of water = 1 cal g-1 °C-1 and
latent heat of steam = 540 cal g-1][AIPMT-2014]
1 24g  2 31.5g  3 42.5g  4  22.5g

Que.: 15 16 17 18
Ans.:
12
 KINETIC THEORY OF GASSES & GAS LAWS
ASSUMPTIONS OF KINETIC THEORY OF GASES:
1. A gas consists of a large number of identical, tiny,spherical and elastic particles called molecules.
2. The molecules are in random motion and obey Newton’s laws of motion.
3. The volume of a molecule is negligible in comparison to that of the gas.
4. There is no force of attraction among the molecule.
5. Collision between molecules or between molecule and wall of container are perfectly elastic.
6. The pressure of the gas is due to elastic collision of gas molecules with the walls of container.

EVIDENCES IN SUPPORT OF MOLECULAR MOTION:-

R= Universal Gas constant
Diffusion: Motion from high concentration to low concentra- = 8.31 Joule/mole-K
tion. = 1.98 Cal/mole-K  2Cal/mole-K
R
Evaporation: Motion of molecules at any temperature. k= =Boltzmann constant = 1.38×10 -23 J/K
NA
N A =Avogadro's Number = 6.02×10 23 per mole.
Brownian motion: Irregular motion.
Dimension of N A =  mol -1  or  μ -1 

PRESSURE EXERTED BY A GAS: Y

m  mass of one molecule of gas. v
vy
n  Total no. of gas molecules. L
V  L3  vol. of container occupied by the gas.
vx
m
v x m vx
L X
 Change in momentum of a molecule in one
vz
collision along x  axis. L v 2  v x2  v y2  v z2
p  p f  pi  mv x  mv x  2mv x .
Z
 To make successive collision with the same wall , a molecule travel a distance 2L in the x direction
2L
so the time duration between two successive collisions t 
vx
Collision Frequency:
 It is defined as the number of collisions per second.
1 v
Collision frequency   x
 t 2L
p  2mv x mv x2
Force on one molecule   
t 2L / v x L

mv x2
Force on wall due to each collision 
L
If total force is F due to n mole cule then F 
m 2
L

v x1  v x22  ................  v x2n 
 Pressure P 
F

F

A L 2 L3
m 2

v x1  v x22  .......  v x2n 
n
n

mn  v x21  v x22  .............  v x2n  mn 2
P    vx
V  n  V
 
Now,
v 2  v x2  v y2  v z2  v 2  v x2  v y2  v z2

Since motion of molecul e is random so, v x2  v y2  v z2

1 2 1  mn  2
 v 2  3v x2  v x2  v  P   v
3 3 V 
Where v 2  mean square speed of molecule.
13
 Now m = mass of one molecule
mn = Total mass of gas

ROOT MEAN SQUARE SPEED OF GAS MOLECULES:

DENSITY OF GAS:

14
MAXWELLIAN DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEED:
3 RT 3P
i  rms speed v rms  
M 
8 RT 8P
ii  Average speed v av    0 .9211v rms
M 
2RT 2P
iii  Most probable speed v mp    0 .8165v rms
M 
NOTE:
1  Most probable speed is defined as the speed possesed by maximum no. of molecule of gas.
2  v rms : v av : v mp  1 : 0 .9211 : 0 .8165 dN
3  v rms  v av  v mp dv
Assymetric Curve

dN
*  no. of molecule in the speed range v  to v  dv 
dv
per unit interval of speed.
* Area under the curve gives the total no. of molecule
of gas.

v m p v av v rm s v
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE: dN T1
dv
T2
T 3  T 2  T1

T3

* Curve becomes flattened as temperature increases

but area under curve remains constant. v
v mp1 v mp 2 v mp 3

EFFECT OF MOLECULAR MASS: dN

dv Oxygen Hydrogen

v
v 
mp Oxygen v mp Hydrogen

15
MEAN FREE PATH: ()
The average distance covered by a molecule between two successive collision(with other molecules) and
is given as-
n0 = no. of molecules per unit
volume (concentration)
d = diameter of the molecule
r = radius of gas molecule

AVERAGE TRANSLATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY OF GAS:

KE of  mole of a gas is given as:
1 1 3 RT
K  m G v rms
2
 mG m G  Total mass of gas
2 2 M
3 mG
K   RT   i.e. no. of moles
2 M
1 1 3 3
K  m G v rms
2
 m G v 2   RT  PV
2 2 2 2
K  3 / 2   RT 3 N A kT
Therefore Av. translational K.E. per molecule of gas =  
 NA  NA 2 NA
3
 Av . translational KE per molecule  kT
2
Thus different gases at the same absolute temperature have the same
Av. Translational KE per molecule.
16
GAS LAWS:
BOYLE’S LAW:
1
P   PV=Constant for given mass of gas & at constant temperature.
V

P P PV

1
V
V P or V

Note: T1
*Gases do not obey Boyles law at all value of T & P T2
P
T 2  T1
*At low temperature & high pressure the experimental
curve show a large deviation from the theoratical curve
but the curves are quite in agreement with each other at
low P & High T.

CHARLE’S LAW:
V
V For given mass of
V  T or =constant
T gas and at constant P
Other Statement:
For a given mass of gas at constant P on increasing 10C
1
temperature, volume also increase part of its
273.15
volume at 00C.
T K 
at t 0 C, V t  V 0 1   t 
Vt
Where V 0  Volume of gas at 0 C 0

1 Slope  m  tan    V 0
  per 0C  coefficient of volume expansion of gas.
273 . 15
V t  V 0 1   t 
V t    V 0  t  V 0  Slope m   V 0 V0

y  mx  c  Intercept c  V 0  t 0C
 2 7 3 .1 5 C
0

V
Note:
theoratical
Experimental graph deviates from theoratical graph at low temp experimental
but at high temp experimental & theoratical graphs are quite in
agreement.

T K 

17
GAYLUSSAC’S LAW: (OR LAW OF PRESSURE) P
P For given mass of gas and
P  T or =constant
T at constant volume
Other Statement:
For a given mass of gas at constant volume on increasing
1
10C temperature, pressure also increases part of its
273.15
T K 
pressure at 00C.
At t 0C Pt  P0 1   t 
P0  Pressure at 0 0 C Pt
1
  per 0C  Coefficient of pressure expansion
273 .15 Slope  m  tan    P0

Pt  P0 1   t 
Pt    P0  t  P0  Slope m   P0 P0

y  mx  c  Intercept c  P0  t 0C
 273 . 15 C
0

DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES:

It states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of non reacting gases occupying a vessel is equal
to the sum of the individual pressures (called partial pressure) which each gas would exert if it alone
occupied the whole vessel at the same temperature.
i.e. P=P1 +P2 +P3 + .............
RT
if n1 ,n2 ,n3 ............are the respective number of mole of the gases then P=  n1 +n2 +n3 +............
V
IDEAL GAS EQUATION:
PV   RT
If 1  moles of a non reactive gas in thermodynamic state V1 , T1 , P1
 2  moles of another non reactive gas at V 2 ,T2 & P2
  moles of mixture at P, V, T
PV PV PV PV PV PV
  1   2   1 1  2 2   1 1 2 2
RT R T1 R T2 T T1 T2

NTP : Normal Temperature & Pressure STP : Standard Temperature & Pressure
T  0 C or 273 .15 K
0 T  0 .010 C or 273 .16K Triple point of water 
P  1 atm or 1.01  10 5 N / m 2 P  1atm or 1 .01  10 5 N / m 2
1 mole of any gas occupy 22 .4 lit. 1 mole of any gas occupy 22 .4 lit.

NOTE:
A real gas behaves as ideal gas most closly at
low pressure & high temperature. Also a real
gas can be lique fied m ost easly at low
temperature & high pressure.

18
GRAPH:
Case.1
(A) PV   RT If V  constant then  Isochoric process
P  T
P V P

V T T

(B) PV   RT If P  constant then  Isobaric process

V  T
P V P

T T
V
(C) PV   RT If T  constant then  Isothermal process.
1
PV  constant  P 
V
P V P

V T T

Case.2 Explain Relation between  A T1 &T2  B  P1 &P2 C V1 &V 2

P V (C) P
(A) (B) P2
V2

P1
V1
T2
T1 T
V T

19
Case.3
What inference can be drawn regarding the change of Pressure in fig.(A), Volume in fig.(B)
and Temperature in fig.(C).

(A) V
2

(B) P
2

(C) P

20
 PROBLEMS
1. In a certain region of space, there are only 5 9. Figure shows two flasks connected to each other.
molecules per cm 3 . O n an aver age, the
The volume of the flask 1 is twice that of flask 2.
temperatur e ther e is 3 K. What is the The system is filled with an ideal gas at
pressure of the gas? temperature 100 K and 200 K respectively. If the
1 20 .7  10 17 N /m 2  2  15 .6  10 15 N / m 2 mass of the gas in 1 be m then what is the mass
 3  12 .5  10 18 N / m 2  4  20 .3  10 13 N / m 2 of the gas in flask 2:
2. Estimate the total number of air molecules
m
(inclusive of oxygen, nitrogen, water vapour and 1 m 2 
other constituents) in a room of capacity 25.0 2
m m
m3 at a temperature of 27oC and 1 atm pressure. 3   
4
(kB= 1.38 × 10-23J/K) 4 8 1 2 
1 4 .1  10 25
2 6 .1  1026
10. At 0°C the density of a fixed mass of a gas
 3  7 .8  10 24 4  5 .5  10 25 divided by pressure is x. At 100°C, the ratio will
be:
3. A gas at 27oC, in a cylinder has a volume of 4 273 373 100
litres and pressure 100 N/m2. (i) Gas is first 1  x 2  x 3  x 4  x
373 273 273
compressed at constant temperature so that the
pressure is 150 N/m2. Calculate the change in 11. Two vessels separately contain two ideal gases
volume (ii) It is then heated at constant volume A and B at the same temperature, the pressure
so that temperature becomes 127oC. Calculate of A being twice that of B. Under such condi-
the new pressure. tions, the density of A is found to be 1.5 times
the density of B. The ratio of molecular weight
4. The rms speed of oxygen molecules at a of A and B is: [AIPMT –
certain temperature T kelv in is v. If the 1 2 3
1 2
2015]
2  3  4 
temperature is doubled and the oxygen gas 2 3 4
dissociates into atomic oxygen, what is the
changed rms speed? 12. Under which of the following conditions is the
law PV = RT obeyed most closely by a real gas:
1   2  2  3  3  4  4
1 High pressure and high temperature
5. Calculate the molecular kinetic energy of  2  Low pressure and low temperature
translation of a mole of hydrogen at NTP,  3  Low pressure and high temperature
R=8.31J/mole K.  4  High pressure and low temperature
1 3 .403  10 3 J 2 6 .402  10 3 J
13. The pressure P, volume V and temperature T of
 3  5 .901  10 3 J 4 7 .220  10 3 J
a gas in the jar A and the other gas in the jar B
at pressure 2P, volume V/4 and temperature 2T,
6. A vessel of volume 200 cm3 contains 0.1 mole of then the ratio of the number of molecules in the
oxygen and 0.2 mole of carbon dioxide. If the
jar A and B will be:
temperature of the mixture is 300 K, find the
pressure. 1 1 : 1  2 1 : 2 3 2 : 1 4 4 : 1
1 1 .23  10 6 Pa  2  5 .47  10 6 Pa 14. At constant temperature on increasing the
 3  9 .25  10 Pa
6
 4  3 .73  10 6 Pa pressure of a gas by 5% will decrease its volume
by:
7.(I) A sample of gas is at 27°C. To w hat
temperature it must be raised in order to double 1 5 %  2  5 .26 %  3  4 .26 %  4  4 .76 %
the r.m.s. speed of the molecule:
15. If pressure of a gas contained in a closed
1 180 0 C  2  819 0 C  3  927 0 C  4  1200 0 C vessel is increased by 0.4% when heated by 1°C,
(II) The temperature of a gas is –500C. To what tem- the initial temperature must be:
perature the gas should be heated so that the 1 250K  2  5000 K  3  2500 K  4  68500K
rms speed is increased by 3 times : 16. The speeds of 5 molecules of a gas
[NEET 2023] (in arbitrary units) are as follows : 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
(1) 32950C (2) 3097 K The average &root mean square speeds for these
(3) 223 K (4) 6690C molecules are :
8. A sample of O2 is at a pressure of 1 atm when 1 6, 3 .52  2  4, 3 .52  3  6, 4 .24  4  4, 4 .24
the volume is 100 ml and its temperature is 270C.
Que.: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
What will be the temperature of the gas if the
pressure becomes 2 atm and volume remains 100 Ans.:
ml. Que.: 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 600 0 C  2  327 0 C  3  540 0 C  4  180 0 C
Ans.:

21
 THERMODYNAMICS
DEGREES OF FREEDOM(f):
Degrees of freedom of a particle (molecule) indicate the possible independent motion which the particle
can have or the no. of possible independent ways in which the particle can exchange energy. Indepen-
dent motions are Translatory, Rotatory or Vibratory.
Y Y Y

X X X

Z Monoatomic Z Z
Diatomic Polyatomic ( Nonliner )
eg. He , Ne , Ar etc H 2 , O2 , N 2 H 2O , NH 3, CH 4
f  3  3T  0 R  f  5  3T  2rot  f  6  3T  3R 

T  Translational R  Rotational
* If the vabrations of atoms of a molecule are also considered (usually at high temp.) then the molecule
possess vibrational degrees of freedom also.
* One vibrational mode has both K.E. & P.E. mode. eg. For diatomic gas at high temp (or diatomic molecule
is not rigid) f=7 (3T+2R+2V)
* For polyatomic linear molecule like CO2, C2H2 etc. f=5 (3T+2R)
LAW OF EQUPARTITION OF ENERGY:
According to it the energy of a gas molecule is equally distributed along its various degrees of freedom &
1
each degree of freedom is associated with energy kT (k=Boltzmann’s constant, T =Absolute Temp.) So
2
the internal energy of n moles of a gas in which each molecule has f degrees of freedom will be:

Total energy of
Gas n moles of gas Total energy per molecule
Monoatomic 3 3
U  nRT kT
2 2
5 5
Diatomic U  nRT kT
2 2
6 6
Polyatomic U  nRT  3nRT kT  3kT
2 2
MOVING CONTAINER:
Let a continer filled with n moles of a gas is moving with velocity v0 the kinefic energy of this system is
given as:

22
MOLAR SPECIFIC HEATS OF GAS:
(i) A t con stan t Pressure :  C p  :
It is defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of gas through 1K when its pressure
is constant.
Q P  Heat supplied at constant Pressure.
QP n  no. of moles.
CP   Msp
n T s P  Specific heat at constant Pressure.
M  Molecular mass
(ii) At constant Volume :  C V  :
It is difined as the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of gas through 1K when its volume
is constant.
QV  Heat supplied at constant Volume.
Q n  no. of moles.
CV  V  MsV
n T sV  Specific heat at constant Volume.
M  Molecular mass
Note:
CP ms P C s
  P  P
CV msV CV sV
Relation between CP & CV: Piston movable i.e.  P  constant 
Piston Fixed i.e. V  constant

At constant V the heat At constant P the heat supplied to

supplied t o t h e g a s i s the gas is used in two ways
u s e d o n l y i n increasing ( A ) Increasing temperature of gas by T
temp. of gas by T (B) In doing work due to expansion
Hence gas will take more heat
i.e. C P  CV
23
Note:
For solids & liquids also CP>CV but on heating the expansion in solids & liquids is very small so external
work due to expansion is also very small. Hence for solids & liquids the difference in CP & CV is neglisible
i.e. for solids & liquids (CP-CV)<<R
EXPRESSIONS FOR CP & CV:
At constant volume the heat supplied to the gas is used to increase the temperature of gas (or say to
increase the internal energy of gas)i.e.

24
MIXTURE OF GASES:
Let us consider a homogeneous mixture to some nonreating ideal gases at temperature T.
n1 , n 2 ,........................................be the moles of gases.
M 1 , M 2 ......................................be the molecular mass of gases.
C P1 ,C P2 ,.....................................be the molar specific heat at constant P.
CV1 , CV2 ,...................................be the molar specific heat at constant V .
1. Molecular mass of mixture (Mmix):

2. Internal energy of mixture:

3. CP & CV of mixture:

4.  of mixture:

25
COMMON TEMPERATURE ON MIXING TWO OR MORE NON REACTING GASES:

26
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
It is a statement of conservation of energy

* If heat given to a system is Q, work done by the system against the surrounding is W & increase in its
internal energy is U then

Q , W  depends on path or process.

 U  independent of path or process.
SIGN CONVENTION:
Heat gained by the system is taken as +ve
Q
Heat released by the system is taken as -ve
Work done by the system is taken as +ve
W
Work done on the system is taken as -ve

Increase in internal energy of system is taken as +ve

U
Decrease in internal energy of system is taken as -ve
(1) HEAT (Q):
For a gas when Heat is absorbed & temperature changes.

(2) WORK (W):

P P
P1  P1V1  P2  P2V 2 

expansion compression

P2  P2V 2  P1  P1V1 
V1 V2
V V
V2 V1
During expansion, volume increases, During compression, volume decreases
& work is done by the system & work is done on the system

27
Work done during a cyclic process:
If a system undergoing through a series of changes comes back to its initial state the process is called
cyclic.
P P

expansion compression

Area  W Area  W

V V
V1 V2 V2 V1
Path traced clockwise or Path traced anticlockwise or
expansion curve lies above compression curve lies abov e
the compression curve the expansion curve

INTERNAL ENERGY:
(1) Internal energy of a system is the energy possessed by the system due to molecular motion &
molecular configuration.
(2) Change in internal energy is path independent & depends only on initial & final states of system i.e.
U  Uf  U i

(3) In case of cyclic process U i  U f therefore  U  0

(4) In case of gases what ever be the process

nR T P V  P1V 1
U  nCV T   2 2
 1  1

THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES:
1 Cyclic process  U  0
2 Isochoric Process V=constant   V=0
3  Isobaric Process P  constant   P  0
4  Isothermal Process T  constant   T  0
5  Adiabatic Process Q  0
6  Polytropic Process

1. Cyclic Process: ( U  0 )

SYSTEM SYSTEM

Clock wise Anticlock wise

Q W Q W
Process Process
Heat absorbed Work is done Heat released Work is done
by system by the system by system on the system

28
2. Isochoric Process:
In this process volume of gas remains constant.

i.e. Heat supplied to the system is stored as its internal energy & is responsible for the increase in
temperature of gas.
3. Isobaric Process:
In this process pressure of gas remains constant.

i.e. heat given to the system is used to increase internal energy & also in doing work against external
surrounding.
NOTE:

29
TWO IMPORTANT CASES OF ISOBARIC PROCESS
Case.1: Boiling of water at 1000C:
m  mass of water
V water  Volume in liquid state
Vvapour  volume in vapour state.
* During the change of state heat absorbed by mass m, is given as-

* Work done by the mass m in the expansion process from Vwater to Vvapour against the constant external
pressure P is-

Case.2: Freezing of water at 00C.

m  mass of water
V water  Volume in liquid state
V ice  Volume in solid state.
* During the change of state heat released by mass m is given as-

* Work done by mass m against the contt atmospheric pressure P is-

4. Isothermal Process:
 In this process temperature remains constant i.e T  0 
* System is thermally conducting to the surrounding.
* The process takes place slowly.
* Equation of state is given as

NOTE:
In isothermal process Q,W & U may change, however in case of an ideal gas the internal energy de-
pends only on temperature of gas. So if an ideal gas undergoes isothermal process then U  0

30
5. Adiabatic Process:
* In this process no heat enters or leaves the system Q =0
* System is thermally insulated from the surrounding
* The process takes place quickly.
 Equation of state is given as

* If gas expands W  ve  U  ve  T2  T1 i.e. internal energy & hence temperature decreases so the
gas will be cooled. e.g. when a bicycle tube bursts suddenly air of tube becomes cooled.

* If gas is compressed W  ve  U  ve  T2  T1 i.e. internal energy & hence temperature increases so
the gas will be heated e.g. During pumping of cycle the barrel of pump is heated.
31
ISOTHERMAL & ADIABATIC CURVES:

P
Adiabatic

Isothermal
P1
P2

V
VAdia
V Isothermal
P P

Isothermal
Adiabatic

Adiabatic Isothermal
V V
V1 V2 V2 V1
 Expansion from same thermodynamic state  Compression from same thermodynamic state
* Adiobatic Expension of mono, dia & polyalomic. * Work done is more in Adiabatic process.
32
Note:
 dP  P 
      ,  is max imum for mono atomic gas , so for monoatomic gas
 dV adiabatic V 
slope will be maximum

P P
Monoatomic

Polyatomic
Diaatomic
Monoatomic
V V
*Adiabatic expansion of mono, dia & polyalomic. *Adiabatic compression of mono, dia & polyalomic.

MIXED GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION:

1. PV Graph:

P
Isochoric V  constant 

Isobaric  P = constant 
Isothermal
Adiabatic

2. PT Graph:

Adiabatic
P
Isochoric As P  T  V  constant

Isobaric

Isothermal T  constant 
T

3. VT Graph:

Isothermal
T  Constant 
V
Isobaric As V  T  P  constant

Isochoric

Adiabatic
T
33
VOLUME ELASTICITIES OF GASES:
Gases possess property of Volume elasticity. If we change the pressure of a given mass of a gas, the
volume of the gas changes.

For Isothermal Process For Adiabatic Process

NOTE:

6. Polytropic Process:
A process in which equation of state is given as followes is called polytropic process.
PV x  constant or P 1/ xV  constant
 Where x is called polytropic index of compression or expansion and depends upon the nature of
process.
 - < x < 

To find molar specific heat:

34
 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
Kelvin- Planck Statement: It is impossible for an engine to extract heat from a reservoir & convert it
completely into work i.e. whole of heat can never be converted into work.

Clausius Statement: Heat by itself can not flow from a body at lower temperature to a body at higher
temp.

Carnot Cycle/Engine: (Theoretical, Ideal & perfectly reversible heat engine)

 Ideal gas
(Working substance)

Source Stand Sink

Th Tl
Thermal capacity  
Thermal capacity  
P
A Qh AB  Isothermal expansion
Th
B BC  Adiabatic expansion
W Q h  Q l CD  Isothermal compression
D
DA  Adiabatic compression
C
Ql Tl
V

The working substance in a carnot engine is taken through a reversible cycle consisting of the
following four steps

AB  The gas expands isothermally at source temperature Th & absorbs heat Q h

BC  The gas expands adiabatically untill its temperature decreases to the sink temperature Tl .

CD  The gas is compressed isothermally at Tl , rejecting heat Q l .

DA  The gas is compressed adiabatically until it returns back to the initial state A.
CARNOT THEOREM:
No heat engine operating between two given temperature can have efficiency greater than that of
the carnot engine.
Reversible Process :
A process which can be retraced back in the opposite direction in such a way that the system passes
through the same states as in direct process.
Conditions:
 The Change must take place at a very slow rate. (e.g. isothermal process, very slow evaporation or
condensation)
 There should be no loss of energy of system.
 At any instant during the process the system must be in thermal equilibrium. (Such process is called
quasistatic process)
 All the intermediate states must be defined.
Irreversible Process :
 The process which cannot be retraced back in the opposite direction is defined as irreversible pro-
cess.
 The system does not pass through the same intermediate states as in the direct process.
 Almost all processes in nature are irreversible.
 Sudden expansion or contraction and rapid evaporation or condensation are examples of irrevers-
ible process.

35
 PROBLEMS
1. If C P and C V denote the specific heats of 10. A thermodynamic
nitrogen per unit mass at constant pressure and system is ta ken
constant volume respectively, then: [AIEEE-2007] through t he cy cle
PQRSP process. The net
1 C P – C V  28 R 2  C P – C V  R / 28 work done by the
3  C P – C V  R / 14 4  C P – CV  R system is:
2. A gaseous mixture consists of 16 g of helium 1 20 J  2   20 J
and 16 g of oxygen. The ratio C P/C V of the  3  2  10 4 kJ  4   2  10 4 kJ
mixture is: [AIEEE-2005]
1 1 .4  2  1 .54  3  1 .59  4  1 .62 11. An thermodynamic
system is taken through a
3. A gas mixture consists of 2 mole of O2 and 4 cyclic process ABCDA as
moles of Ar at temperature T. Neglecting all shown in fig. The net work
vibrational modes, the total internal energy of done by the system is:
the system is: [NEET 2017]
P0V 0
1 4RT  2  15RT  3  9RT  4  11RT 1  P0V 0  2  2P0V 0 3   4  Zero
2
4. The internal energy change in a system that
has absorbed 2 kcals of heat and done 500 J of 12.
work is:
1 8900 J  2  6400 J  3  5400 J  4  7900 J
5. In a thermodynamic process, pressure of a fixed
mass of a gas is changed in such a manner that
the gas molecules gives out 20 J of heat and 10
J of work is done on the gas. If the initial
internal energy of the gas was 40 J, then the
final internal energy will be: 1 20 J  2   12kJ  3  20kJ  4   20kJ
1 30 J  2  10 J  3  50 J  4  40 J
6. If the amount of heat given to a system be 35J 13. An ideal gas is made to go through a cyclic
and the a mount of work done by the thermodynamical process in four steps. The
syst em is -15J t hen t h e chan ge in the amount of heat involved are Q1=600J, Q2=-400J,
internal energy of the system will be: Q 3 =-300J and Q 4 =200J respectively. The
1 20 J  2  50 J  3  40 J  4  35 J corresponding work involved are W 1=300J,
W2=-200J, W3=-150J and W4. What is the value
7. A perfect gas goes from state A to another state of W4:
B by absorbing 8×10 5 J of heat and doing 1 150 J  2  200 J  3   150 J  4   200 J
6.5×10 5 J o f ext erna l wor k. It is now
transferred between the same two states in
another process in which it absorbs 105J of heat.
14. If the n et h eat
supplied to the gas
 
V m3

Then in the second process:[AIEEE-2007] in the cycle is 2 C

B
1 W ork done on the gas is 0 .5  10 5 J 5J,the work done by
 2  W ork done by gas is 0 . 5  10 5 J the gas in the 1 A
 3  W ork done on gas is 10 5 J process C to A is: 
P N /m 2 
 4  W ork done by gas is 10 5 J
10

8. Find work done if gas goes from

1 5 J 2   5J  3   10 J  4  10 J
(P1,V1) to (P2,V2).
15. Heat energy absorbed by a system in going through a
1 7 .5  10 5 J cyclic process shown in fig. is:
 2  8  10 5 J V in cc 
 3  12  10 5 J 40
 4  6  10 5 J 1 10 3  J
 2   /2  J
30
9. An ideal gas is taken from
point A to the point B, as  3  4  10 2 J 20
shown in the P-V diagram, 4   J 0
P in kPa 
keeping the temperature 50 100 150 200
constant. The work done in
the process is: Que.: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Ans.:
1  PA  PB V B VA  2 
 PB  PA V B  V A 
2 Que.: 11 12 13 14 15
1 1
 3   PB  PA V B  V A   4   PB  PA V B  V A  Ans.:
2 2
36
16. During the melting of a slab of ice at 273 K at 25. Thermodynamic process are indicated in the
atmospheric pressure: following diagram.Match the following-
P
(1) Positive work is done by ice-water
system on the atmosphere.
(2) Positive work is done on the ice- water IV f
system by the atmosphere. I
III
(3) The internal energy of the ice-water II
f
system increases. f
700 K
(4) The internal energy of the ice-water f 500 K
system decreases. 300 K
V
17. A mono atomic gas is supplied the heat Q very Column  I Column  II
slowly keeping the pressure constant. The work P . Process I a. Adiabatic
done by the gas will be: Q . Process II b. Isobaric
R . Process III c . Isochoric
1   Q  2    Q  3    Q  4    Q
2 3 2 1
S . Process IV d. Isothermal
 
3  
5  
5 5
1 P  a, Q  c, R  d, S b
18. 0
1cc of water at 100 C is converted into 1681cc of
2  P  c, Q  a, R  d, S b
steam at 1000C and 1atm pressure. Find the in- 3  P  c, Q  d, R  b, S a
crease in internal energy. (LV=540 cal/gm) 4  P  d, Q  b, R  a, S c
26. A cyclic process ABCA is shown in the V-T
19. When 1gm of water at 0 o C and 10 5 N/m 2 diagram. Process on the P-V diagram is:
V
pressure is converted into ice of volume 1.091cm3
then the work done will be:
C B

20. A mon oatomic gas    5/3  i s suddenly

A
compressed to 1/8 of its original volume adia-
batically, then the pressure of the gas will 1 P 2  P
change to: C
B
1 24/5
2  8 B
 3  40/3
A A C
V V
 4  32 times its initial pressure.
3  P
4  P

A B A
21. During an adiabatic process, the pressure of gas
is found to be proportional to the cube of its C B
C
absolute temperature. The ratio Cp/Cv for the V V
gas is: 27. A cyclic process ABCD is shown in the figure
3 4 5
1 2  3  2 4  P-V diagram. Which of the following curves
2 3 3 represent the same process:
P
A B
22. The work of 146 kJ is performed in order to
compress one kilo mole of a gas adiabatically and C
in this process the temperature of the gas increased
by 7oC. The gas is: (R = 8.3 J mol-1K-1) D
V
[AIEEE-2006]
1 Triatomic 1 P  2 P

 2  A micture of monoatomic and diatomic A B A B

 3  Monoatomic
 4  Diatomic D
C
D
C

V V

23. How may times a diatomic gas should be  3 P

 4 P
expanded adiabatically so as to reduce the root B
mean square velocity to half. A A B

1 64  2  32  3  16 4  8 D C D C
V V

24. A sample of gas expands from volume V1 to V2, Que.: 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

the amount of work done by the gas is greatest Ans.:
when the expansion is:
Que.: 26 27
1 Isothermal  2  Isobaric
 3  Adiabatic  4  Equal in all cases Ans.:
37
28. One mole of an ideal gas having init ial
volume V, pressure2P and temperature T
undergoes a cyclic process ABCDA as shown be-
low. The net workdown in the complete cycle is
: [AMU-2009]

1 Zero
1
 2  RT n 2
2
 3  RT n 2
3
 4  RT n 2
2

29. One mole of diatomic ideal gas P

B 800 K
undergoes a cyclic process ABC as
shown in figure . The process BC
is adiabatic . The
temperature at A, B and C are 400 600 K
A C
K, 800 K and 600 K, 400 K
respectively.Choose the correct V
statement [JEE main 2014]
1 The change in internal energy in whole
cyclicprocess is 250 R
 2  The change in internal energy in the
process CA is 700 R.
 3  The change in internal energy in the
process AB is 350 R
 4  The change in internal energy in the
process BC is  500 R

30. Six moles of an ideal gas performs a cycle shown

in figure. If the tempera tures are
TA = 600K, TB = 800K, TC= 2200K & TD=1200K, the
work done per cycle is approximately
P
1 20kJ B C

 2  30kJ A
 3  40kJ D

 4  60kJ T

31. For a process equation of state is given as PV4 =

constant. If gas used is monoatomic then find
the molar specific heat.
[Similar NEET 2016]
6R 7R 3R 5R
1 2  3  4
7 6 4 3

32. For a process equation of state is given as P3V =

constant. If gas used is diatomic then find the
molar specific heat.
1 R  2  2R  3  3R  4  4R

Que.: 28 29 30 31 32
Ans.:
38
 HEAT TRANSFER
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER:
Heat may be transferred from one place to another place by three different processes.
1 Conduction 2 Convection 3  Radiation
1. Conduction:
Molecules of the body transfer heat without actually moving in the body but oscillate at its place. In solids
and mercury transmission of heat takes place by conduction.
Note: In metals transmission of heat takes place by free electrons also, which is more effective that is
why thermal conduction in metal is much more than that in insulators.
2. Convection:
In case of fluid (liquid & gases) heat is transferred not only by collisions but also by the actual motion of
heated molecules through the medium.
(a) Natural convection:
 This is due to density difference
 This is based on gravity. In zero gravity region there will be no convection.
e.g. The water in vessel placed on fire becomes hot by convection.
(b) Forced convection;
 In forced convection material is to move by a pump or by some other physical means.
 Possible in any direction.
e.g. Forced air heating system in home, human circulatory system
Note: If the liquids and gases are heated from top (convection is not possible) they transfer heat (from top
to bottom) by conduction.
3-Radiation:
The process by which heat is transferred directly from one body to other without requiring any medium
is called radiation.

 All bodies emit and absorb thermal radiation in the form of electromagnetic waves.

 Radiation is the fastest mode of heat transfer (speed = 3 × 108 m/s)

 It does not affect the medium through which it passes.e.g. When heat radiation is conversed by a lens on
a body (which is opaque to it) the body is heated & not the lens.

 Heat from sun reaches the earth by radiation. (Time taken = 8 min 20 sec)

 Just as light, thermal radiation follow laws of reflection, refraction interference, Diffraction &
polarization.

CONDUCTION:
Steady State:
Heat received by any cross section of a bar heated at one end is used in three ways-
1 In increasing its temp.
2 A part is conducted to the next crosssection
3 A part is radiated.
(a) The temperature of each cross section increases & after some time a state is reached when
temperature of each crosssection becomes constant though different for different crosssection.
This is called steady state.

(b) In steady state no heat is absorbed by the bar & if radiation & convection losses are neglisible the
heat entering the bar at one end becomes equal to that leaving the bar at the other end.
Constant at steady state

200 0 C 150 0 C 1300 C 100 0 C

Q Q

Is o th e r n a l Isothernal urface
s u rf a c e a t 2 0 0 0 C at 1000 C
39
Isothermal Surface:
It is the surface of a material whose all points at the same temperature.
Temperature Gradient:
It is the rate of change of temperature with distance between two isothermal surfaces.
In steady state heat passing through bar in
time t is given by:
T1 T1  T2 T2

Heat Flow
Q

x 0 x L
A
L

dT -ve sign indicates that with increase in x, temperature decreases.

  Temp gradient.
dx K  coefficient of thermal conductivity or thermal conduction.
Note: Higher the value of K greater will be the conductivity of material.
Joule watt
unit of K  or
m.sec C m 0C
ML2T 2
K   LT 
  MLT 3 1 

Note: Value of K is determined by Searle’s experiment.

Thermal Resistance(R):

40
RODS IN SERIES: T ?
A
T1 T2

L1 L2
T1  T2

41
RODS IN PARALLEL: T1  T2

A1 H1
K1
T1 T2
K2
w
ax
A2

42
Engen Housz experiment:
* It is used to compare thermal conductivities of different materials.

* If l1, l2 & l3 are lengths of melted wax on the rods then:

Hot water
Thermal conductivity  K   length of melted wax 
2

l3
i.e. K 1 : K 2 : K 3  l1 : l 2 : l 3 K3
l2
K2
l1
K1

Anomalous behaviour of water:

* Volume of water decreases on heating from 00C to 40C & increases after that.
density
Vol / mass
or
Specific Volume

T
00 C 40 C
T 00 C 40 C

Since the density of water is max. at 40C, water at the ICE

bottom of lacks remains at 40C in winter even if that at
00 C
the surface freezes. This allows fish & other aquatic
animals to remain alive & move near the bottom. 10 C
When the atmospheric temperature falls below 00C the 20 C
cold air above water extract heat from the water. As a 30 C
result the water begins to freeze into the ice layers.
40 C

Increase in width of ice layer over a Lake:

The time in which thickness of ice will increase from x1 to x 2 is given as Surrounding at T 0C
 LF ICE
t 
2KT
x 2
2  x12 
x1
x2
00 C
K  Thermal conductivity of ice.
T  Temp of surrounding in 0C 
L F  Latent heat of fusion.
  density of ice.

43
 RADIATION
Due to incident radiation on the surface of a
body following phenomenon occurs INCIDENT REFLECTED
RADIATION Q  RADIATION Q R 
a  Reflection
b  Absorption
c  Transmission ABSORBED
RADIATION Q A 

Q  Q R  Q A  QT QR
% Reflecting power   100
Q R Q A QT Q
  1 Q TRANSMITTED
Q Q Q % Absorbing power  A  100 RADIATION QT 
Q
Q
% Transmitting power  T  100
Q
Emissive Power (e):
The total energy radiated per unit area per sec by a surface is called emissive power of that surface. It
depends on the nature and temperature of surface.
Unit of e  Joul/ m 2  sec  or watt/m 2 e    MT 3 
Spectral Emissive Power e : 
 Radiation energy has different wavelength and its spectrum can be obtained. d
 The energy radiated by a surface per unit area per sec. per unit wavelength-
range at wavelength  is called spectral emissive power of that surface at
wavelength  .
   d
Unit of e   Joule / m 2  sec  Å 
or watt / m 2  Å e    ML1T 3

Amount of energy  dQ  radiated

per unit area per sec . between
the wavelength  &   d  will bed Q  e  d 
Absorptive Power or Absorption coefficient (a):-It is the ratio of energy absorbed by the given area in a given
time to the energy incident on same area is same time.

a  Unit less & Dimensionless a  1

If we consider absorptive power of a surface for a particular wavelength then it is called spectral absorp-
tive power. a  

If incident energy is dQ (b/w the wavelength  &   d  ) then energy absorbed by the surface will
be  a  dQ.
Perfectly Black Body:
A body which absorbs all the radiation incident on it is called perfectly black body.
Absorptive Power  A   1
 A perfectly blackbody neither reflects nor transmits any radiation.

 In fact a perfectly black body is one which is capable of emitting or absorbing all possible radiation. Thus
sun is a black body.

 Platinum black & lamp black are considered as perfectly black body. (absorbs 85% to 96%)
Kirchhoff’s Law:
The ratio of emissive power to absorptive power is same for all the bodies at the same temperature and
is equal to the emissive power of a perfectly black body at that temperature.
If a & e represent the absorptive & emissive power of a given surface while A & E for a black
body then,
e E e
 But A  1 for a perfectly black body so E
a A a
e
for a particular wavelength   E   constant
a
This law implies that –
 A good absorber is a good emitter (or radiator).
 Highly polished or smooth surfaces are bad emitters, bad absorbers but good reflectors.
44
Emissivity (e0):
Emissivity of a body is the ratio of emissive power of a body to the emissive power of a perfectly black body
at a given temperature.
e  e e 
eo  a  E  a 
E  a E 
For practical bodies  o  e o  1
For perfectly black body e o  1
For highly polished body e o  0

Stefan – Boltzmann law:

According to it the energy radiated per second per unit area of a perfectly black body is directly
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

E  T 4  E  T 4 W / m2
Where   Stefan’ s cons tan t  5 .67  10 8W /m 2 K 4
ML2T 2
   2 4  MT 3 4
TL 
If temperature of a perfect black body is T and the surrounding temp is To then besides emitting body
will also absorb energy.

Energy radiated per sec per unit area E   T 4 T0

E
Energy absorbed per sec per unit area E    To 4 E

If T  To  Net energy radiated per second per

unit area T
E net  E – E   E net   T 4  T04 

In case body is not perfectly black body then

E  e o  T 4 & E net  e o  T 4  T04 

Where e o  emissivity of surface

Cooling of a body:
(b)Cooling by radiation
(a)Newton’s law of cooling

Cooling by radiation:
When a body cools by radiation the rate of cooling is given by-
m  mass of body
dT eo A 4
dt

ms
T  T0 
4
s  specific heat of body
A  area of radiating surface
When a body cools by radiation the rate of cooling depends on-
e 0  greater the emissivity faster will
be the cooling.

A  greater the area of radiating surface

faster will be the cooling.
m  greater the mass of radiating body
slower will be the cooling.
s  greater the specific heat of body slower
will the cooling.

T  greater the temp. of radiating body

faster will be the cooling.
T0  greater the temp. of environment
slower will be the cooling

45
Newton’s Law of cooling
It states that the rate of cooling of a body is directly proportional to the temp. difference between the
body and the surroundings provided the temperature difference is small.
dT
Rate of cooling  T  T0  T
dt 
Where T0  temp. of surrounding medium

If temp. of body falls from T1to T2then

T  T2
T  1
2 T0
dT e A
 K T  T0  where K  o  4T03  0
Now Time t 
dt ms
Also T  T0  35 0 C
Wien’s Displacement Law:

1. The energy is not uniformly distributed in the E

radiation spectrum of a black body. i.e. among
different wavelengths E m T3  T2  T1

2. Area under the curve  T 4 Spectral T3

radiation
intensity T2
3. Area under the curve represents the total
intensity (energy per unit area per unit time) at T1
a particular temp. i.e. Total emissive power  T 4
mmm 
3 2 1

4. E m  T 5

5. If m is the wave length of radiation with max. energy at temp T (in K) then mT  b
b = Wien’s constant = 2.89 ×10-3mK
1
6. m  i.e. as the temp. of the black body increases the max. energy emitted radiation shifts towards
T
shorter wavelength. This means that on heating a body to ordinary temp, only long wavelength radiation
is emitted but as the temp is increased shorter wavelengths also starts to emit.

7. This law can be used to calculate the temperature of the distant stars.
Solar constant (S):
It is the amount of heat energy of sun radiation absorbed per unit time by unit surface area of a black
body on the earth. S  1388 W /m 2 S   MT 3

Temperature of Sun:-
Total energy radiated per sec. by the sun with its surface temperature T, is given by –
E  e o  AT 4 but for sun e 0  1 so
E   4 R 2T 4
This energy distributes in area 4 r 2
4 r 2 Area  E
E
1 area  S
4 r 2
 4 R 2T 4  R 2T 4
S   S 
4 r 2 r2
1/ 4
  r 2 S 
T    
  R   
r  average Distance between earth & sun
R  radius of sun

46
 PROBLEMS
CONDUCTION RADIATION
1. A metal rod of length 2m has cross-section area
2A & A as shown in figure. The ends are 8. Total radiation incident on body = 400J, 20%
mai ntained at 1 00 o C & 70 o C. The radiation reflected & 120 J absorb. Then find
temperature at middle points is: out % of transmittive power.
1 270 0 C  2  85 0 C 1 30%  2  40%  3  50 %  4  60%
 3  90 0 C  4  65 0 C 9. Two spheres of the same material have radii
2. The temperature of the two outer surfaces of a 1m & 2m and temperatures 4000 K& 2000 K
composite slab, consisting of two materials respectively. Find the ratio of energy radiated
having coefficients of thermal conductivity K and per second by the spheres.
2K and thickness x and 4x, respectively are T2 1 1 : 4 2  4 : 1  3  16 : 1  4  1 : 16
and T1 (T2>T1). The rate of heat transfer through
10. The temperature of a body is increased from
 AT2  T1 K  27 oC to 127oC. The radiation emitted by it
the slab, in a steady state is   f , with
 x  increases by a factor of:
1 256/81  2  81/256
f1equals
1 to [AIEEE-2004]
 3  4/ 1  4  None
 2  1/2
11. If temperature of ideal black body is increased
 3  2/3 by 50%. What will be percentage increase in
 4  1/3 quantity of ra diations em itted from its
surface.
3. A cylindrical metallic rod in thermal contact with
two reservoirs of heat at its two ends conducts an 12. A black body at 227°C radiates heat at the rate
amount of heat Q in time t. The metallic rod is of 7 Cal/cm2s. At a temperature of 727°C, the
melted and the material is formed into a rod of rate of heat radiated in the same units will be –
half the radius of the original rod. What is the [CBSE PMT- 2009]
amount of heat conducted by the new rod when
placed in thermal contact with the two 13. A solid sphere of density  , radius r and at
reservoirs in time t? [CBSE-2010] temperature T is placed in an environment of
Q Q Q
1 2   3  2Q 4  temperature. T0(T > T0). If sp. heat of material
4 16 2 of sphere is s then rate of cooling is
4. Find the thermal conductivity of the given proportional to:
1 1
conductor. 1 r 2  3  2 4 r 2
r r
14. A body cools from 70oC to 60o in 10 min. when
kept in air at 30 o C. What will be the
temperature of the body after next 10 min.
5. Three rods of the same dimension have
thermal conductivities 3K, 2K & K. They are 15. A liquid takes 5 min to cool from 80oC to 50oC.
ar ranged a s show n in f igure. The How much time will it take to cool form 60oC to
temperature of their junction is: 30oC. The temperature of surrounding is 20oC.
1 50 0 C
 2  70 0 C 16. Assuming the Sun to have a spherical outer
 3  90 0 C surface of radius r radiating like a black body
 4  35 0 C at temperature toC, the power received by a unit
surface, (normal to the incident rays) at a
6. All rods are of identical distance R from the centre of the Sun is:
length (l) & cross-section [CBSE PMT-2007]
r 2  t  273 
4
A. F ind the effectiv e 4 r 2 t 4
ther mal r esistance 1 2 
R2 4 R 2
between A & D.
r 2  t  273 
4
16 2 t 4
7. A wall has two layers A & B each made of a 3  4
R2 R2
different material. Both the layers have the same
thickness. The thermal conductivity of B is twice Que.: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
that of A. Under thermal equilibrium the
temperature difference across the wall is 45oC. Ans.:
Find the temperature difference across layer A. Que.: 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans.:
1 300 C  2  20 0 C  3  15 0 C  4  22 .5 0 C
47
17. Assuming the sun to be a spherical body of
radius R at a temperature of T K, evaluate the
total radiant power, incident on Earth, at a
distance r from the Sun: (r0= Radius of earth)
[AIEEE-2006]
1  r02R 2 T 4 / r 2  2  r02 R 2 T 4 / 4 r 2
 3  R 2 T 4 / r 2  4  4 r02R 2 T 4 / r 2
18. The total radiant energy per unit area per
second normal to the direction of incidence r
eceived at a distance R from the centre of a star
of radius r whose outer surface radiates as a
black body at a temperature T K is given by:
[CBSE 2010]
r T
2 4
r T 2 4
1 2
R2 4 r 2
 r 4T 4 4 r 2T 4
3 4 4
r R2
19. A black body emits radiations of maximum
intensity at a wavelength of 5000Å, when the
temperature of the body is 1227°C. If the
temperature of the body is increased by 1000°C,
the maximum intensity of emitted radiation
would be observed at:[CBSE-PMT-2006]
1 2754 .8 Å 2 3000 Å
 3  3500 Å 4 4000 Å
20. The plots of intensity versus wavelength for three
black bodies at temperatures T 1, T 2 and T 3
respectiv e ly are as shown. Their
temperature are such that:
1 T1  T2  T3
 2  T1  T3  T2
 3  T2  T3  T1
 4  T3  T2  T1
21. Variation of radiant energy
emitted by sun, filament of
tungsten lamp and
welding arc as a function of
its wavelength is shown in
figure. Which of the
following option is the
correct match:[IIT-JEE-2005]
1 Sun  T1, tungsten filament  T2 , welding arc – T3
2 Sun – T2 , tungsten filament  T1, welding arc – T3
3 Sun  T3 , tungsten filament  T1, welding arc - T2
 4 Sun  T1, tungsten filament  T3 , welding arc – T2

Que.: 17 18 19 20 21
Ans.:
48