UNIT III

Polymers Introduction:
Plastics belong to the family of organic materials. Organic materials are those materials are
derived directly from carbon. They consist of carbon chemically combined with hydrogen,
oxygen and other non-metallic substances, and their structures, in most cases, are fairly
complex. The large and diverse organic group includes the natural materials: wood, coal,
petroleum, natural rubber, animal fibers and food, which have biological origins.
Synthesis include the large group of solvents, adhesives, synthetic fibers, rubbers, plastics,
explosives, lubricants, dyes, soaps and cutting oils etc. which have no biological origins. Of
them plastics and synthetic fibers termed as “Polymers”.
Polymers:
The term “polymer” is derived from the two Greek words: poly, meaning “many”, and meros
meaning “parts” or “units”. Thus polymers are composed of a large number of repeating units
(small molecules) called monomers. The monomers are joined together end- to-end in a
polymerization reaction.
The most common polymers are those made from compounds of carbon, but polymers can also
make from inorganic chemicals such as silicates and silicones. The naturally occurring
polymers include: protein, cellulose, resins, starch, shellac and lignin. They are commonly
found in leather, fur, wool, cotton, silk, rubber, wood and many others. There are also
synthetic polymers such as polyethylene, polystyrene, nylon, Terylene, Dacron etc…
termed under plastics, fibers and elastomers. Their properties are superior to those of the
naturally occurring counterparts. Our concern here is therefore with synthetic polymers, also
called plastics or resins.
Polymerization: The process of linking together of monometers, that is, of obtaining
macromolecules is called “polymerization”. It can be achieved by one of the two processing
techniques i.e., Addition Polymerization and condensation Polymerization.
Polymers can be divided into three broad divisions: plastics, fibers and elastomers. Plastic
derive their name from the fact that in a certain phase of their manufacture, they are present in
a plastic stage that is acquire plasticity, which makes it possible to impart any desired shape to
the product. Plastics fall into a category of known chemically as high polymers.
Engineering Plastics:
The “Plastics” is a term applied to compositions consisting of a mixture of high molecular
compounds and fillers, plasticizers, stains, and pigments, lubricating and other substances,
some of the plastics can contain nothing but resin.
The word plastics is from the Greek word Plastikos, means which are moulded and shaped.
Plastics can be easily machined, formed and joined into required shapes. Hence, plastics find
place in engineering materials and domestic applications. Plastics are available in rods, sheets,
films and tubes.
Types of Plastics:

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Plastics are classified on the broad basis of whether heat causes them to set (thermosetting)
causes them to soften and melt (thermoplastic). Plastics are classified as:
(a) Thermo setting plastics
(b) Thermoplastics
(a) Thermosetting Plastics: These are formed to shape with heat, with or without pressure,
resulting in a product that is permanently hard. The heat first softens the material, but as
additional heat or special chemicals are added, the plastic is hardened by chemical change
known as “polymerization” and cannot be re-softened. Thermosetting plastics are phenol-
formaldehyde, Urea formaldehyde, epoxy resins etc. Products made by thermosetting plastics
are T.V cabinets, telephone receivers, camera bodies and automobile parts.
(b) Thermoplastics: Thermoplastics undergo no chemical change in moulding. They remain
soft at elevated temperatures until they are hardened by cooling. These plastics can be
reused or recycled by melting and remoulding. Most commonly used thermoplastics are
polystyrene, Polytene, PVC. (Polyvinyl chloride) Nylon, Teflon etc. Products made by
thermoplastics are photographic films, insulating tapes, hose pipes etc.
Properties of Plastics:
Their great variety of physico chemical and mechanical properties and the ease with which
they can be made into various articles have found plastics their wide application in the
engineering and the other industries.
1. Their comparatively low density, substantial mechanical strength higher strength – to –
weight ratio and high anti friction properties have enabled plastics to be efficiently used as
substitute for metals.
2. With certain special properties, plastics can sometimes replace ferrous metals.
3. From the productions point of view, their main advantage is their relatively low melting
points and their ability to flow into a mould.
4. Simple processing to obtain machine parts. Generally there is only one production operation
required to convert the chemically manufactured plastic in to a finished article.
5. Good damping capacity and good surface finish of the product.
6. The high heat and electric insulation of plastics permits them to be applied in the radio and
electrical engineering industries as dielectrics and as substitutes for porcelain, ebonite, shellac,
mica, natural rubber etc…
7. Their good chemical stability when subjected to the action of solvents and certain oxidizing
agents, water resistance, gas and steam proof properties enable plastics to be used as valuable
engineering materials in the automobile and tractor, ship building and other industries.
Comparison between Thermosetting plastics and Thermoplastics: Thermosetting plastics
1. Once hardened and set, they do not soften with the application of heat.
2. These are stronger and harder.

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3. Objects made by these plastics can be used at comparatively high temperatures.
4. These are supplied in monomeric or partially polymerized form in which these are either
liquids or semi solids.
5. T.V. Cabinets, Automobile parts are made by these plastics.
Thermoplastics
1. They can be repeatedly softened by heat and hardened by cooling.
2. They are comparatively softer and less strong.
3. Objects made by thermoplastics cannot be used at higher temperatures as these lend to soften
under heat.
4. These are usually supplied as granular material.
5. Insulating tapes, photographic films
are made by these plastics. Advantages of
Plastics:
2. Excellent surface finish.
1. Light in weight compared to metals.
3. Close dimensional tolerances.
4. Moisture and corrosion resistance.
5. Easy to shape and mould. 2. Low heat resistance.
Disadvantages of Plastics: 3. Deteriorate in sunlight.
1. Low strength. Applications of Plastics:
Plastics find applications in manufacturing of:
1. Photo films in film 4. Radio, T.V. cabinets 8. Gears and Bearings
industry.
5. Furniture like chairs, 9. Toys, bottles, bucket
2. Insulating tapes tubs etc…
3. Electrical parts like 6. Telephone receivers 10. Hose pipes
plugs, switches etc…
7. Camera bodies 11. Automobile parts

Polymers of Commercial Importance

There are various polymers of commercial importance, which are used in so many different
dominions of sciences, industry and technology. Some are listed below:
Nylon
Nylon is a synthetic polymer prepared in labs and produced by industries for its commercial
importance. It is commonly used in the textile and fabric industry. Nylon comes under the
family of linear polyamides.

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Nylon 6 and nylon 66 are 2 commonly used types of nylon. In fact, Nylon 66 (widely used as
fibres) is made from adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine. They have a compact molecular
structure exhibiting excellent abrasion resistance. The monomers are joined by hydrogen
bonding. Nylon’s characteristics which make it such a valuable material can be attributed to its
strength, lustre, elasticity and resistance to damage by oil and chemicals.

In Nylon66, the carbonyl oxygens and amide hydrogens can hydrogen bonded with each
other. This allows the chain to line up in an orderly fashion to form fibers
Hydrogen bonding in Nylon 66.
Nylon Fiber: Nylon Fibre is used in clothing/apparels in shirts, underwear, raincoats lingeries
etc. Industrial uses of Nylon are the production of Conveyer and seat belts, nets and ropes,
parachutes and tents.
Polytetrafluoroethylene
It is commonly known as PTFE is a synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene. It is of high
molecular weight and made up of mainly carbon and fluorine. The best-known brand name of
PTFE-based formulas is Teflon which is extensively used in cook-wares such as non- stick
pans.

Structure of PTFE
Bakelite
Bakelite is one of the oldest polymers that was synthesized by man. It is a thermosetting
polymer and has high strength and retains its shape after moulding. It is one of the first
polymer/plastic created in a laboratory. The polymer is formed by condensation of
formaldehyde with phenol. Its chemical formula is (C6H6O·CH2O)n.
Bakelite has a high resistance to heat and chemicals and also has a low electrical conductivity
due to which it is most commonly used for making electrical switches Bakelite is also used to
make the handles of a variety of utensils. It is one of the most important and extensively used
polymers for making components and parts of various items. Other uses of this polymer are
seen in pipe stems.

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Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
When talking about polymers of commercial importance we must discuss PVC. It is one of the
most widely used polymers in the world. PVC is used extensively across a broad range of
applications (used in building, transport, packaging, electrical etc. products), and this can be
attributed to its highly versatile nature.
PVC is a highly durable and long-lasting material. It is thermoplastic in nature. It is formed
after polymerization of vinyl chloride monomer. It is a very durable and long-lasting material
which can be used in a variety of applications, either rigid or flexible, white black or a range
of colours in between.
Some common commercial products which use the polymer PV Care window frames, drainage
pipe, medical devices, cable and wire insulation. Credit cards and vinyl records are also made
using PVC. Recently PVC has also found a place in the textile industry.

Elastomers (rubbers) are special polymers that are very elastic. They are lightly cross-linked
and amorphous with a glass transition temperature well below room temperature. They can be
envisaged as one very large molecule of macroscopic size. The intermolecular forces between
the polymer chains are rather weak. The crosslinks completely suppress irreversible flow but
the chains are very flexible at temperatures above the glass transition, and a small force leads
to a large deformation. Thus, elastomers have a low Young's modulus and very high elongation
at break when compared with other polymers. The term elastomer is often used interchangeably
with the term rubber, although the latter is preferred when referring to vulcanized rubbers.

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Manufacturing elastomeric parts is achieved in one of three ways: injection molding, transfer
molding, or compression molding. The choice of the molding process depends on various
factors, including the shape and size of the parts, the required tolerance, as well as the
quantity, type of elastomer, and raw material cost.
As with almost any material, selecting the right elastomeric product for the application requires
consideration of many factors, including mechanical and physical service requirements,
exposure to chemicals, operating temperature, service life, manufacturability of the parts, and
raw material and manufacturing cost.
Liquid Crystal Polymers:
Liquid Crystal Polymers (LCPs) make up a family of thermoplastics which have a unique set
of properties. They perform very well in harsh environments, including high heat resistance
and tolerance, high electrical resistance, and high chemical resistance. Unlike other
polymers such as ABS or nylon, LCPs show a high degree of anisotropy in both solid and liquid
crystal phases. This means that the strength, stiffness, and thermal expansion will be
greater in one direction, not the same in every direction. The three most commonly used
LCPs are PET copolyester, copolyamide, and polyester-amide, however others are also
possible.
LCPs have a highly crystalline molecular chain in comparison to most common polymers such
as ABS and nylon. They exhibit a semi rigid, nearly linear, stacked orientation of molecules
which stay highly ordered even in the liquid crystal phase. This is in comparison to the
molecular structure of ABS and nylon which have intertwining molecular chains. This special
stacked molecular architecture of LCPs creates anisotropic tendencies which introduce many
fascinating properties.
The reason for anisotropy is the primary bonds within the molecule, causing a high attractive
force within the molecule itself. The molecules are bonded together by less attractive secondary
bonds, making them more susceptible to separation. When a force is applied transverse to the
molecular orientation the secondary bonds receive the majority of the load resulting in easier
separation. Conversely, a load in the longitudinal direction more heavily loads the primary
bonds of the molecules resulting in a higher difficulty of separation.
LCPs are most easily injection molded, although it is possible to use other processing
techniques to accommodate the material. The melt temperature of LCPs is between 280- 330ºC,
and mold temperatures should be between 70-130ºC. The molecular chains in the melt are
highly oriented along the direction of the resin flow. For this reason, careful attention needs to
be given to the gating locations on the mold to achieve the desired resin flow, which will dictate
final molecular orientation and anisotropic properties. This has a significant effect on the final
part, as anisotropic dependent properties such as tensile strength, thermal expansion, and elastic
modulus, can be up to three times greater in the longitudinal versus the transverse direction.
LCPs demonstrate good cycle repeatability due to their high melt flow and low thermal
expansion in the direction of molecular orientation. This allows thin walled parts be easily
molded without the part warping. LCPs also show a high resistance to heat, burning, weather
and UV rays, and very good electrical insulation properties. LCPs are very resistant to
hydrolysis, weak acids and bases, alcohols, aromates, chlorinated hydrocarbons, esters, and
keytones throughout a wide range of temperatures. They also display good mechanical

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properties, with high strength, modulus of elasticity, and toughness. Table 1 below illustrates
the difference between longitudinal and transverse thermal expansion in LCPs, and also
compares it to the thermal expansion of 2 other common polymers. The coefficient of thermal
expansion given in Table 1 measures the meters of expansion per degree Celsius per meter.
Conductive Polymers:
An electric current results of the orderly movement of charges in a material as a response of
forces that act on them, when a voltage is applied. The positive charges flow in the direction
of the electric field applied, whereas the negative charges move in the opposite direction. In
the majority of materials, a current is resulted by the flux of electrons, known as electric
conduction (see more at [c] of "Links" Section).
The structure of these materials has conjugated chains, that is, an alternating single and double
bond between the atoms. The process of doping of conductive polymers becomes easier due to
these conjugated bonds. In this process, defects and deformations in the polymeric chain are
formed. An electron-deformation pair, or also an electron-phonon cloud pair, is called polarons,
which is responsible by the conductivity in polymers. Bipolarons and solitons, other types of
quasi-particles, also participates in the conductivity mechanism. The type of soliton, bipolaron,
or polaron formed depends on the dopant used. Their meaning and the physics behind that is
beyond the scope of this subject.
The charges resulted the doping process in conductive polymers is the reason of their great
conductivity. The constant movement of the double bonds to stabilize the charge in the
neighbor atoms causes, therefore, the movement of the charge, resulting in the conductivity.
This movement of double bonds is called resonance (see more at [d] of "Links" Section) and it
describes the delocalized electrons within a molecule. A delocalized electron is an electron,
presented in a π bond, which is shared by three or more atoms (see more at [e] of "Links"
Section). Due to this process of the polaron formation, there is a change in the band structure
of the conductive polymer. It creates the polaronic conduction bands, allowed bands in the
band gap, reducing the band gap energy, making the polymer able to conduct, as shown in
figure below.
Since the conductivity of a conductive polymer is due to the charge formed by the dopant, as
the doping level increases, more charges are formed in the polymer and, thus, results in a
greater conductivity. The conductivity of a conductive polymer is also temperature dependent,
because as the temperature increases the molecules becomes farther from each other. Thus, the
doping effect is more effective and, consequently, the amount of charges, which is the doping
level of the polymer is greater, increasing the conductivity. Moreover, as the temperature
increases, the energy of an electron is related with the temperature by the Boltzmann
relationship. Because of that, the greater the temperature, the greater is the energy of the
electrons, and, consequently, the easier is to excite the electron to the conduction band. The
best-known and most studied conductive polymers are polyacetilene, polyaniline, and
polypyrrole due to their wide range of applications.
High Performance Fibers:
There is a new array of fibres which are named as High performance fibres. They are different
from conventional fibre, on these are capable to satisfy special technical requirement due to
their unique properties.

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Some High-performance fibres, such as Kevlar, Nomex, carbon, glass etc. Have more tensile
strength, resistance to heat and flame, resistance to the chemical agent than conventional fibres
& materials such as steel for example earlier body of automobile used to be made up with metal
but now gain fibre composite used.
It has redeemed the weight and has improved the aerodynamical design. In sport-wear,
specially textured nylon fibre is used for better strength and improved breathability to sports
wears.
Similarly, Except that two area, high-performance fibres are also used in aerospace, metals,
medical Industry except for good tensile property of these are high-performance fibre can be
tailored in such a fashion that they can provide versatile, dyeability, adhesion, absorbance,
conductivity, flame retardance and a vast range of special surface characteristics.
High performance fibres is the fibre which have their unique properties that require –
1. Exceptional strength and modulus. 3. Heat resistance.
2. Stiffness. 4. Chemical resistance.
For examples – Carbon fibre, glass fibre, aramid fibre, kevlar, nomex, PBO, chlorinated fibre
like PVDV etc.
List of High Performance Fiber –
1. Glass Fiber. 3. Aramid Fiber.
2. Carbon Fiber. 4. Spandex Fibre.
Glass Fiber
Glass fiber is one of the most familiar and oldest, high-performance fibres. It has been
manufactured since the 1930s. Although early versions had high-strength, they were relatively
inflexible and not suitable for several textile applications.
The basic element of glass fibers is silica, SiO2. In its pure form, it exists as a polymer, (SiO2)n.
It has no true melting point but softens up to 1200 °C.
Today’s glass fibers offers much wider range of properties and can be found in many end uses

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Carbon Fiber
Carbon fiber is mostly used high performance fibres in the material world it’s one of the
strongest and most lightweight materials available on the market today. It is one-third its
weight and nearly 5 times stronger than steel, carbon fiber is often used in aerospace and
aviation, civil engineering, military, car and automobiles and other sports applications.
Carbon fiber is alternatively graphite fiber, carbon graphite, is a material consisting of fibers
about 5–10 μm in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms. Carbon fibre variants differ
in flexibility, electrical conductivity, thermal and chemical resistance. Because carbon cannot
readily be shaped into fibre form, commercial carbon fibres are made by extrusion of some
already made material like rayon, PAN, pitch into filaments, followed by a carbonization
process to convert the filaments into carbon.
Applications of Carbon fibre
1. Used in aerospace.
2. Sports Goods.
3. Wind turbine blades.
4. Automotive.
Biomedical applications:
Multiple biological, synthetic and hybrid polymers are used for multiple medical applications.
A wide range of different polymers is available, and they have further the advantage to be
tunable in physical, chemical and biological properties in a wide range to match the
requirements of specific applications. a brief overview about the introduction and
developments of polymers in medicine in general, addressing first stable polymers, then
polymers with degradability as a first biological function, followed by various other functional
and responsive polymers. It is shown up that biomedical polymers comprise not only bulk
materials, but also coatings and pharmaceutical nano-carriers for drugs. There is subsequently
an overview of the most frequently used polymer classes.
Biomedical applications of polymers:
a. Containers
Numerous polymer devices are not inside the body, but they are used for packaging of drugs
and devices. PVC containing the phthalate plasticizer DEHP is used for many extracorporeal
perfusion tubes to provide medicines, or also in blood leading tubes in extracorporeal dialysis
or extracorporeal oxygenation. Also blood donations and blood products are typically stored in
bags of this polymer. Due to the lipophilic nature of the plasticizer, it transfers from the polymer
surface to the lipids and membranes of the red blood cells.
For platelet storage, also alternative polymers like polyolefins are used, and polyethylene and
polyurethanes are used for tubings. The tubings of the peristaltic pumps are typically made of
silicone.
Vascular catheters

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Mechanical flexibility along with non-collapsing properties is required. Central venous
catheters with longer persistence in the body usually have antimicrobial fitting and properties
which prevent the formation and adhesion of bacterial biofilms.
Plasticized PVC was one of the first polymers used for catheters. It is mainly avoided nowadays
due to the plasticizers and is used only for short-term applications as peripheral venous
catheters. Thermoplastic polyurethanes are the key polymers for catheters as they do not need
plasticizers
Urinary catheters and ureteral stents
The catheter & stents must have sufficient strength & sufficiently soft for the tolerance of the
patient. The surface must be smooth with a low friction. Coating technologies therefore are
generally applied.
Silicone is the best biocompatible material with lowest tendency for encrustation, but low
mechanical stiffness and high friction make application difficult. Optimized polyurethane
formulationsand PMMA/pHEMA co-polymers have been developed as polymers with
improved mechanical properties than silicone. Stents are coated with glycosaminoglycanes
(GAGs, heparin or pentosan polysulfate), phosphorylcholine, PVP or hydrogels for reduced
bacterial coloninzation, encrustation and enhanced comfort for the patients.
Wound dressings
Wound dressings are a very wide field for polymers in temporary, mainly external contact with
the body. They are also more comfortable for the patient than traditional gauze dressings.
Mechanical protection and a barrier function are achieved with minimized adherence to the
wound avoiding traumatization during movements or removal. The dressing has to provide
permeability for oxygen and water vapor for a proper ambient of wound healing without
bacterial superinfection.
A wide range of synthetic, biological and hybrid materials are applied in multiple shapes to
match different types of wounds PVP or methacrylates as wound dressing are highly flexible,
but usually need a mechanical support. As they do not absorb much liquid any more, they are
not suitable for heavily exuding wounds, but they rehydrate dry tissue, facilitate autolytic
wound debridement and also may be used for drug release.
General surgical implants
Suture materials (a stitch or row of stitches holding together the edges of a wound or surgical
incision): Suture materials and staples are a domain of polymers in general surgery.
Tissue adhesives and sealants
Tissue adhesives are an alternative to sutures with lower adhesion strength than sutures, but
forming an a priori tight occlusion of the wound. Adhesives find wider application in modern
surgical techniques of laparoscopy and robotic surgery or for organs like liver or lung, where
the puncture defects of the needle are already problematic. A technological challenge is the
adhesion to the wet substrate.
Surgical meshes

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Reconstructive meshes in general surgery support organs or tissue to prevent a prolapse or
hernia. The main polymers for non-resorbable meshes are expanded PP, ePTFE, PET or
PVDF, however, also they show significant signs of degradation at the surface and even
fragmentation. Large pores (o1 mm) generally show less inflammation and bridging scare
formation than small pores do.
Orthopedic implants Joint prostheses
In orthopedic surgery, joint prostheses most frequently have a pairing of metal. . However,
inorganic pyrolytic carbon (Pyrocarbon) with graphite-like structure finds increasing attention
for small joints or as interposition material because of its inertness, low friction behavior and
a Young's modulus close to bone.
Osteosynthesis material
Stabilizing and load transferring applications at bone must be strong enough to withstand the
forces, but they also should have elastic properties similar to the bone for a homogeneous load
transfer and to prevent stress shielding of the bone, which would lead to bone resorption. bone
has a Young‘s modulus of about 20 GPa. Most metals have a higher modulus, but carbon fiber
reinforced polymer composites can reach such values and therefore they are applied for some
load bearing applications. Vertebral disc replacement may be necessary in the case of a
disrupted or degenerative intervertebral disk.
Bone cements
Bone cements serve for anchorage of a joint prosthesis into the bone and should provide a
homogeneous load transfer from the implant to the bone. PMMA is widely predominant for
this application. As PMMA does not promote bone adhesion, filling with hydroxyapatite
particles has been suggested. The polymerization reaction of PMMA is exothermic and the heat
may cause tissue damage. Calcium phosphate cements have excellent biocompatibility, but the
mechanical proper- ties do not allow application in load bearing situations; the main
applications are in dentistry and cranial surgery
Vascular and cardio-vascular intervention vascular stents
Vascular stents in conjunction with balloon angioplasty have revolutionized angiology and
cardiology as they maintain blood flow through stenotic vessels. First stents were only metal
supports,
Fully degradable stents, which vanish after the blood vessel has sufficiently remodeled are
mostly made of the metals magnesium and its alloys or iron. However, there are also polymer
stents which can be fully degraded and metabolized.
Vascular grafts
Vascular graft materials are used as vascular prosthesis in aneurysm surgery, for bypass surgery
or as hemodialysis access. ePTFE has evolved as the leading material for this application.
Polymeric heart valves
There are two main types of artificial heart valves, either mechanical tilting disk-and-ring
constructs of metal or pyrolytic carbon or bioprosthetic valves made of decellularized and

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cross- linked porcine heart valves or bovine pericardium. The mechan- ical valves have better
long-term stability than the bioprosthetic valves, but they require permanent anticoagulation of
the patient. Thermoplastic polyurethanes, polycarbonate urethanes and polysiloxane-based
polyurethanes provide good flexibility.
Plastic, reconstructive and cosmetic surgery
Tissue augmentation for the correction of contour deficiencies is a specific domain of plastic
surgery.
A HDPE with interconnected pores (Medpor) is typically used for craniofacial contour
augmentation and reconstruction of nose, orbital rim and floor and also for ear reconstruction.
Also ePTFE is used as facial augmentation material.
Ophthalmology Contact lenses
Contact lenses are the most frequently applied biomaterials on the eye. The introduction of
silicon acrylates allowed the formation of rigid gas permeable contact lenses. Siloxane contain-
ing hydrogels are used for the formation of soft oxygen permeable contact lenses for up to one
month permanent wear
Intraocular lenses
Intraocular lenses (IOLs) after cataract surgery are the most frequently implanted polymer
devices in ophthalmology. They traditionally were made of PMMA, and this material still has
outstanding biocompatibility for this application; however, due to its stiffness these lenses need
large incisions for implantation, and they are less frequently used today. Alternatives are
silicone, foldable hydrophobic acrylates, copolymers of acrylate and methacrylate or foldable
hydro- philic acrylates.
Other polymer devices in ophthalmology
In the frame of retinal detachment treatment, the vitreous body of the eye is generally removed
and needs to be substituted. Silicon oil is the most frequently used polymer for it and it is the
first choice for complex retinal detachment, however, it must be removed after healing because
of side effects like retina toxicity, cataract progression and glaucoma.
Dentistry Composites
Dental polymers have high requirements concerning esthetics, toughness, and polymerization
mode besides the biocompatibility. Materials must support high load and shear forces, and
forces of thermal expansion and shrinkage. The filler is usually inorganic with particle size in
nanometer or micrometer range. The resin usually consists of dimethacrylate or
monomethacrylate monomers, and different formulations with different viscosity, curing time,
improved volume shrinkage and shrinkage stress are the current developments.
Photonic Polymers:
In the last decade, photonics has emerged as a major interdisciplinary field of science and
technology with a focus on the transport and manipulation of light. Rapid progress in photonics
has been achieved because of continuous advances in nanotechnologies, materials science,
optics, physics, and the rapid development of micro fabrication techniques. In particular,

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interaction of light with materials possessing a periodic modulation in their structure has led to
a range of interesting and sometimes unique effects, which have shown promising applications
in the production of Bragg mirrors, switches, filters, super prisms, waveguides, and optical
resonators.
Polymers play an important role in the development of materials for photonics. Polymers are
relatively inexpensive, can be functionalized to achieve required optical, electronic, or
mechanical properties, and have demonstrated compatibility with various patterning methods.
Polymers can be used as materials for photonic applications in several ways.
Polymers possessing topographic and/or compositional patterns can coherently scatter light.
Finally, polymer templates are routinely used for producing photonic materials.
Polymers for Photonic Applications: The microelectronics revolution, which began with the
invention of the transistor in 1948 and rapidly accelerated following the invention of the I C in
1960, has had a profound influence on modern society, particularly in the processing and
transport of information.
The heart of today's telecommunications network, for example, is the highly sophisticated
electronic switching machine, which offers a wide variety of service options that cannot be
provided by electromechanical switches. Voice and data are switched over a network that
ranges from twisted copper pairs to microwave communication towers. However, two
inventions during the 1960s have begun to radically change the way i n which information is
transmitted and may, in the future, lead to a totally new switching technology. Those two
inventions are the laser and the optical fiber, which together have spawned the photonics
revolution upon whose dawn we are now entering.
Simply speaking, photons are to photonics what electrons are to electronics. In electronic
transmission, information, encoded in the form of digital or analog electronic signals, is routed
along a conductor path such as a copper wire. In an optical transmission system,
Liquid Crystal Polymers:
Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP) - A relatively unique class of partially crystalline aromatic
polyesters based on p-hydroxybenzoic acid and related monomers. Liquid crystals (LCs) are
matter in a state which has properties between those of conventional liquids and those of solid
crystals. For instance, a liquid crystal may flow like a liquid, but its molecules may be oriented
in a crystal-like way.
Liquid crystal polymer (LCP) exhibits a highly ordered structure in both the melt and solid
states. LCP can replace such materials as ceramics, metals, composites and other plastics
because of its outstanding strength at extreme temperatures and resistance to virtually all
chemicals, weathering, radiation and burning.
LCPs are fire resistant at high temperatures and chemically resistant in very thin walled
applications. LCPs are typically used for medical applications, including trays and drug
delivery systems, and in diagnostics for the automotive and telecommunication industries.
History
1890: Otto Lehmann first identified the liquid crystam phase of matter.

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1968: Commercialisation gathered pace when george heilmeier developed the first liquid
crystal application prototype
1970 Subsequent global research efforts led to liquid crystal applications replaceing
conventional display devices.
Applications:
Coatings, Composites, Additives, Electrical motor components, Electronic applications
including sockets, bobbins, switches, connectors, chip carriers and sensors.
Processes
A number of liquid crystal polymers (LCPs) were produced in the 1970s displaying order in
the melt (liquid) phase analogous to that exhibited by non-polymeric liquid crystals. However,
the commercial introduction of liquid crystal polymer resins did not occur until mid-1980s.
This was when these polymers were first processed conventionally at fast speeds, delivering
excellent replication of mold details and efficient use of regrind.
Recycling and Recovery
LCPs are recyclable and can be used for energy recovery.
High Performance Fibers
Specialty fibers are engineered for specific uses that require exceptional strength, heat
resistance and/or chemical resistance. They are generally niche products, but some are
produced in large quantities.
Glass is the oldest, and most familiar, performance fiber. Fibers have been manufactured from
glass since the 1930s. Although early versions were strong, they were relatively inflexible and
not suitable for many textile applications. Today’s glass fibers offer a much wider range of
properties and can be found in a wide range of end uses, such as insulation batting, fire resistant
fabrics, and reinforcing materials for plastic composites. Items such as bathtub enclosures and
boats, often referred to as “fiberglass” are, in reality, plastics (often crosslinked polyesters)
with glass fiber reinforcement. And, of course, continuous filaments of optical quality glass
have revolutionized the communications industry in recent years.
Carbon fiber may also be engineered for strength. Carbon fiber variants differ in flexibility,
electrical conductivity, thermal and chemical resistance. Altering the production method allows
carbon fiber to be made with the stiffness and high strength needed for reinforcement of plastic
composites, or the softness and flexibility necessary for conversion into textile materials. The
primary factors governing the physical properties are degree of carbonization (carbon content,
usually greater than 92% by weight) and orientation of the layered carbon planes. Fibers are
produced commercially with a wide range of crystalline and amorphous contents.
Because carbon cannot readily be shaped into fiber form, commercial carbon fibers are made
by extrusion of some precursor material into filaments, followed by a carbonization process to
convert the filaments into carbon. Different precursors and carbonization processes are used,
depending on the desired product properties. Precursor fibers can be specially purified rayon
(used in fabrication of the space shuttle), pitch (for reinforcement and other applications) or
acrylics (for varied end uses). Since carbon fiber may be difficult to process, the precursor fiber

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may be converted into fabric form, which is then carbonized to produce the end product. The
following materials are common precursors for carbon fiber:
Aramids are among the best known of the high-performance, synthetic, organic fibers. Closely
related to the nylons, aramids are polyamides derived from aromatic acids and amines. Because
of the stability of the aromatic rings and the added strength of the amide linkages, due to
conjugation with the aromatic structures, aramids exhibit higher tensile strength and thermal
resistance than the aliphatic polyamides (nylons). The para- aramids, based on terephthalic acid
and p-phenylene diamine, or p-aminobenzoic acid, exhibit higher strength and thermal
resistance than those with the linkages in meta positions on the benzene rings. The greater
degree of conjugation and more linear geometry of the para linkages, combined with the greater
chain orientation derived from this linearity, are primarily responsible for the increased
strength. The high impact resistance of the para-aramids makes them popular for “bullet-proof”
body armor. For many less demanding applications, aramids may be blended with other fibers.
PBI (polybenzimidazole) is another fiber that takes advantage of the high stability of
conjugated aromatic structures to produce high thermal resistance. The ladder-like structure of
the polymer further increases the thermal stability. PBI is noted for its high cost, due both to
high raw material costs and a demanding manufacturing process. The high degree of
conjugation in the polymer structure imparts an orange color that cannot be removed by
bleaching. When converted into fabric, it yields a soft hand with good moisture regain. PBI
may be blended with aramid or other fibers to reduce cost and increase fabric strength.
PBO (polyphenylenebenzobisozazole) and PI (polyimide) are two other high-temperature
fibers based on repeating aromatic structures. Both are recent additions to the market. PBO
exhibits very good tensile strength and high modulus, which are useful in reinforcing
applications. Polyimide’s temperature resistance and irregular cross-section make it a good
candidate for hot gas filtration applications.
Sulfar (PPS, polyphenylene sulfide) exhibits moderate thermal stability but excellent chemical
and fire resistance. It is used in a variety of filtration and other industrial applications.
Melamine fiber is primarily known for its inherent thermal resistance and outstanding heat
blocking capability in direct flame applications. This high stability is due to the crosslinked
nature of the polymer and the low thermal conductivity of melamine resin. In comparison to
other performance fibers, melamine fiber offers an excellent value for products designed for
direct flame contact and elevated temperature exposures. Moreover, the dielectric properties
and cross section shape and distribution make it ideal for high temperature filtration
applications. It is sometimes blended with aramid or other performance fibers to increase final
fabric strength.
Fluoropolymer (PTFE, polytetrafluoroethylene) offers extremely high chemical resistance,
coupled with good thermal stability. It also has an extremely low coefficient of friction, which
can be either an advantage or disadvantage, depending on the use.
HDPE (high-density polyethylene) can be extruded using special technology to produce very
high molecular orientation. The resulting fiber combines high strength, chemical resistance and
good wear properties with light weight, making it highly desirable for applications ranging
from cut-proof protective gear to marine ropes. Since it is lighter than water, ropes made of
HDPE float. Its primary drawback is its low

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Bio-Medical Applications:
Glucose sensor:
Earlier times, ultra violet radiation and immobilized probes were used for sensing purpose, but
nowadays a fiber based pH meter has been developed in which the cladding material is replaced
with polyaniline polymer, a polymer with broad sensitivity to pH. Since only a single broad
band is to be measured, the system adapts itself to an IR laser diode system which offers a
potential for miniaturization and greater portability. Brown et al. modified the sensor by using
glucose oxidase immobilised on the polyaniline polymer surface (an enzyme which converts
glucose to glucuronic add, resulting in a pH change) to predict glucose concentration.
Laminate cure analysis:
Monitoring reactions in hostile environment becomes much easy with these probes having
smaller dimensions and enough durability. Fiber optic probes can be introduced into an
autoclave (via the usually standard thermocouple calibration port) and thus can continuously
monitor the progress of reactions (e.g. degradation) as a function of the operating conditions.
Druy et al. utilized this approach to monitor ongoing processes in industries, notably to monitor
heal rates of polymer laminates at higher temperature and pressures.
Protein analysis:
FTIR with fiber optic probe is useful for protein analysis since high quality spectra can be
obtained from low concentrations of analyte in a variety of environments without any
interference. Globular proteins usually exhibit regions of secondary structure including alpha
helices, P-sheets, turns and non-ordered regions. Each of these conformational entities
contributes to the IR spectrum in the amide I contour region. In addition to the study of protein
in its dried state, FTIR coupled with fiber optic probes has been particularly useful for the study
of soluble proteins, whose structures had not previously been elucidated using X-ray diffraction
or NMR spectroscopy
Dosage form analysis:
Dreassi and co-workers have reported the application of an optical fiber probe for quality
control in the pharmaceutical industry. The system was used to quantitatively determine the
content of a number of pharmaceutical solid dosage forms containing ibuprofen, and powders
containing benzydamine an analogue of cetrimide. A team from Burroughs-Wellcome have
taken this one step ahead and have performed identification tests on tablets through the plastic
wall of the blister packaging] to distinguish between film coated and uncoated tablets and
between active and placebo forms. The technique satisfied the requirements of a confirmation
of identity test prior to use in a clinical trial.
Fiber optical scanning in TLC for drug identification:
Ahrens et al. proposed an organized toxicological analysis procedure using high-performance
thin layer chromatography in combination with fibre optical scanning densitometry for
recognition of drugs in biological samples. The technique allowed parallel recording of
chromatograms by identifying the drugs and comparing their ultra violet spectra with the data
obtained from library as a reference spectra.
Determination of DNA oligomers:
16
Kleinjung and group demonstrated the binding of DNA oligonucleotides to immobilized DNA
targets using a fiber optic fluorescence sensor. 13 mer oligonucleotides were attached to the
core of a multimode fiber and the complementary sequence was identified by using a
fluorescent double stranded specific DNA ligand. The evanescent field was used to
differentiate between bound and unbound species. The template DNA oligomer was
immobilized either by direct coupling to the activated sensor surface or using the avidin biotin
bridge to detect the single base mismatches in the target sequence.
Pesticide detection:
Rajan and group, fabricated and characterized surface plasmon resonance (SPR) based fiber-
optic sensor for the detection of organophosphate pesticide. Over the silver coated core of
plastic cladded silica (PCS) fiber, the acetylcholine esterase (AChE) enzyme was immobilized
to prepare the probe, the detection of which is based on the principle of competitive binding of
the pesticide (acting as inhibitor) for the substrate (acetyl thiocholine iodide) to the enzyme
AChE. For the fixed concentration of substrate, the SPR wavelength decreases with increase
in the concentration of the pesticide, this increase in pesticide amount causes an overall
decrease in the sensitivity.
Effluent monitoring:
Krska et al. reported the environmental hazard associated with the use of chlorinated
hydrocarbons by pharmaceutical manufacturers. Chlorohydrocarbons have their strongest
absorption bands and therefore polycrystalline silver halide fibers are of value as light guides.
For quantitative measurements, the 10 cm fiber collectors were coupled to the FTIR and
samples were monitored. Further study revealed the comparative analysis of tetrachlorethylene
and waste water samples showing a good concord with standard gas chromatographic
techniques.
Other applications:
Fiber optic probe is not only used for the determination of water by near infrared reflectance
spectroscopy[40] but also for determination of penicillamine in pharmaceuticals and human
plasma by capillary electrophoresis with in column fiber optics light emitting diode induced
fluorescence detection. Fiber lasers are also used for the military applications, biological and
biomedical applications and highly sensitive airborne trace gas detection.
Applications that are made possible by the use of filtered fiber optic Raman probes include
such things as measuring high levels of organic solvent contaminants in soils and aquifers,
chemical process monitoring of petrochemicals and distillation products, monitoring polymer
cure reactions in situ and many others.
In spectroscopy, in order to analyse the composition of substance that cannot be placed into the
spectrometer itself can be measured by optical bundles by transmitting the light from a
spectrometer to a substance. A spectrometer analyzes substances by bouncing light off of and
through them. By using fibers, a spectrometer can be used to study objects that are too large to
fit inside, or gases, or reactions which occur in pressure vessels.

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