Chapter 3

Plastic Packaging
After completing this chapter, the reader will be able to:
• List the major plastics used in packaging.
• Give a typical use for each type of plastic.
• Describe the methods of forming plastic into sheets, cups, cushions, and other products.
• Discuss gutta-percha and its influence on the plastics industry.
• Discuss early applications of plastics, particularly polyethylene.
• Discuss the environmental impacts of plastics.
• Discuss the environmental controversies around certain plastics.
• Describe the operation of an extruder.
• Discuss the influence of barrier characteristics on the typical applications for various
plastics.

I. Introduction
Plastic materials are largely organic and usually based on synthetic resins or modified polymers
of natural origin. These materials, which are solid in the finished state, can be made to flow and
can be molded by using controlled heat and pressure at relatively low temperatures, compared
to glass and metals.
Plastics can be subclassified into two categories, according to their behavior after being
cast into a permanent shape. They are:
• Thermoplastics: Thermoplastics are materials that soften when heated and harden
when cooled. This process can be repeated indefinitely. Because of this behavior,
thermoplastics are recyclable to some extent.
• Thermosets: Thermoset materials harden when heated or, in some cases, when they
are treated with certain chemicals. After the initial set, thermoset materials no longer
soften when heated. They are not recyclable except as inert fill in concrete or other
materials.

Raw Materials for Plastic Manufacturing

The primary raw material used to produce synthetic polymers is naphtha, which is derived from
petroleum. The second most common raw material is natural gas. Petrochemicals are produced
from these materials, which are used in the subsequent polymerization reactions. The following
flowchart depicts the process.

Petroleum Natural gas

(Naphtha)

Ethylene, propylene,
butadiene styrene, styrene, Chlorine,
vinyl chloride acetylene, nitrogen
cyclohexane, etc.

Polymerization reaction

PE, PP, ABS, PVC, PA, PS, etc.

Polymers are then blended with anti-oxidants,

plasticizers, slip agents, lubricants, fillers and
converted in various processes such as
injection molding, extrusion, blow molding, to
give commercial plastic forms

Synthetic polymers are generally produced by one of two types of polymerization reactions:
(1) addition reactions and (2) condensation reactions. These reactions build up the long
molecule chains of the polymers from shorter molecule called monomers. A monomer can be
attached to one or more other monomers of the same type or can be attached to different
monomers. The result is a conglomerate of very long molecule chains called polymers. There
are literally thousands of different polymers that can be formed.
Except for these few comments, polymerization processes involved in the manufacture of the
various plastic resins are beyond the scope of this book and will not be discussed further.
The Nature of Plastic

The ability of plastics to be shaped is an important property that results from their molecular
structures. All plastics are composed of large molecules called polymers, which are long chains
of repeating units formed from shorter molecules. However, not all polymers are plastics.
Cellulose fibers, for example, are polymers but are not plastics (they cannot be melted or cast).
Polymers can be natural or synthetic. Among the natural polymers, the most representative are
polysaccharides, cellulose, proteins, and rubber. These materials are not considered to be
plastics, even though the distinctions among plastics, fibers, adhesives, and rubbers are not
always clear. In contrast, most synthetic polymers are considered to be plastics.

Plastic History

The first synthetic plastic, a form of cellulose nitrate called parkesine, was invented in 1838 by
A. Parker and was presented at the Great International Exhibition in London. Parkesine was
developed to replace some natural materials, particularly ivory used for billiard balls. Billiard
balls were important because the game was a staple of activity in the gentlemen’s clubs of the
time and an ivory shortage had caused a crisis of sorts.
During the late 1860s, J. Wesley Hyatt developed celluloid from a homogeneous colloidal
dispersion of cellulose nitrate and camphor, and in 1907, L. Baekland developed another
synthetic plastic material, phenol formaldehyde. Commonly known as Bakelite.
A natural polymer of significance was gulta-percha, made from the sap of rubber trees. It could
be molded into shapes that would harden. This early form of “plastic” was used for tool handles
and similar applications around the mid-1800s.
The exact nature of plastics, rubber, and similar natural materials was not known until 1920
when H. Staundinger proposed that all plastics, rubber, and materials such as cellulose were
macromolecules or “polymers.” This explanation permitted the rational interpretation of
experiments and so gave industrial chemists a firm guide for their work. Consequently it
became the spark for the development of many new polymer materials.
Since 1930, the growth in the number of polymers has been rapid, Low-density polyethylene
(LDPE), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC), polymethyl
methacrylate, polyvinylacetate (PVA), and Nylon 66 were all developed during the 1930s.
During the 1940s, polytetrafluoroethylene, unsaturated polyesters, polyethylene (PE), butyl
rubber, Nylon 6, fluoropolymers, silicones, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), epoxies, and ABS
resins were developed. Polypropylene (PP), polycarbonate (PC), ionomers, polyamides,
moldable elastomers, ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH), methalocene polymers, and polyethylene
naphthalate have all been invented since the 1950s.
Applications were limited at first. One of the most significant early applications was the use of
polyethylene to waterproof the wires and other components in radar, sonar, and similar
equipment that was first used during WWII. Such equipment was, obviously, helpful to sailors
and airmen fighting the war. However, the equipment was very sensitive to moisture, which
often caused electrical short circuits leading to equipment failures. (Moisture was an obvious
problem on ships.) The polyethylene insulation was more effective than earlier rubber-based
materials and greatly improved the reliability of the equipment. Since that time, applications of
plastic have exploded onto the commercial landscape.
In packaging, plastic containers have replaced many of the metal, glass, paper, or wood
packages that were formerly used for many products. Many new products have been
introduced that are made of plastic and/or have plastic packaging. Many of these products
would have been impossible to develop without plastic.
Currently, more than 100 million tons of plastics are made each year. The United States
produces more plastic than steel, aluminum, and copper combined. Many plastic materials can
be easily identified by common names, such as Teflon, nylon, rayon, polar fleece, Plexiglas,
Lucite, Lycra, Formica, Velcro, vinyl, Gore-Tex, saran, Styrofoam, celluloid, polycarbonate and
many others. Plastics are used for key components in computers, cell phones, automobiles, and
jet aircraft. Plastics are used to encapsulate medicines, ensure sterile surgeries, and provide
artificial organs and limbs. Plastics are found in alarm clocks, shower curtains, contact lenses,
clothing, TVs, cookware, and sofas. Even the Statue of Liberty is coated in a polymer that
protects it from corrosion.

II. Plastic Packaging

Packaging is the largest market for plastics. In 1998 about
33 percent of all plastics used in the United States were
Film
used for packaging. Of this percentage, about 50 percent 6% 4%
was used for films, 40 percent for containers, 6 percent Containers
for closures, and about 4 percent for adhesives and other 50%
40%
uses. Closures

The growth in the use of plastic packaging has Adhesives

accelerated rapidly since the 1970s, largely because of and others
four characteristics of plastics:
• Low density
• Formability Packaging uses for plastics of all types.

• Strength and damage resistance

• Economics
Low density makes the use of plastics attractive when compared to other materials because of
the weight savings, which translates into lower energy requirements and lower cost for
transportation of packaged goods.
Many plastics are available in a variety of forms, film, sheet, foam, and so on. Plastic material
can be formed into shapes that are extremely difficult or even impossible to achieve with other
material. This flexibility allows the manufacturer to develop packages with handles, grippers, a
variety of sizes, special shapes, and other features. These features can support marketing
campaigns.
Plastics are strong and lightweight materials. On a pound for pound comparison, several
plastics are stronger than steel. The combination of strength and flexibility makes plastic
packages resistant to damage. For example, if a child
drops a plastic jar of peanut butter on the floor, the jar
will probably just bounce. It will deform for an instant,
then return to the original shape. An equivalent glass jar
would probably break, scattering dangerous shards of
glass. A similar metal container would almost certainly
be dented (permanent damage) by the impact, even if it
did not rupture and spill the contents.
An individual plastic container is often more costly than
an equivalent glass or metal package. However, there
are savings in transport costs, lower liability claims, and
other savings. The flexibility and ease of forming allow
Plastic bottles for milk product. companies to move into and out of a market quickly.
Many plastic containers can be made on site, in the same
plant where they will be filled. For these reasons, the applications of plastic packaging continue
to grow. Overall, systems using plastic are usually less costly.
Many or the early applications of plastics were in food packaging. The substitution of plastic
films for paper in flexible packaging led to the development of many new combinations of
materials, and to the use of several polymers together to gain the benefit of their various
attributes. The processes used to manufacture these new material forms will be discussed later.
Plastic uses for industrial packaging include liners for multiwall paper shipping sacks (e.g.,
cement bags), drums and pails, totes and other large containers, reusable containers, and as
cushioning material to protect goods from damage caused by vibration and impact during
shipping and handling.
In the medical packaging area, plastics are widely used for the molding of low-cost small vials
and for replacing glass in many applications. Plastic packaging wrap allows sterilization to be
done after the package has been filled and sealed, thus eliminating the possibility of
recontamination after sterilization, as long as the package remains intact.
Finally, large numbers of specialized niche products are flooding the market. For example, there
are beauty aids targeted at girls between the ages of 11 and 14 and energy beverages targeted
at age 50+ athletes who want the stamina they had a decade earlier. This trend to niche
marketing increasingly demands more specialized packaging.
Frequently, the package can no longer just contain, display, and advertise the product. It often
must also deliver added value. The package may serve as a container for cooking a food product
or for storing leftovers. The package may dispense the product. The packaging generally has to
be light, portable, clean, and attractive- and it is often made of plastic.

III. Types of Plastics Used for Packaging

As mentioned earlier, there are thousands of different plastics. Of these, a small group, about
12, are widely used in packaging. A further subset, the “big five” packaging plastics, are
discussed in the following section. Each plastic is identified by a set of symbols for convenience.
For example, polyethylene is often simply referred to as PE.

Polyethylene (PE)
There are several types of polyethylene. Three common forms that are frequently used for
packaging are:
• Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
• High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
• Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE)
The differences among the three are related to the way they are produced. The three materials
all have the same chemical composition, but the molecules are arranged in different spatial
patterns. HDPE, a linear type of molecule (better able to be packed), is, therefore, more dense
than others. LDPE, a branched type of molecule (more difficult to be packed), is, as a result, a
less dense material. LLDPE’s structure and density falls between the others.

Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)

LDPE is the most widely used packaging plastic. It is flexible, transparent, and low in cost. LDPE
is a highly branched structure. Under high magnification, it looks like a pile of sticks. It has very
low water vapor permeability, so it is a good moisture barrier. However, LDPE is a poor barrier
to organic vapors, essential oils, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Thus, LDPE should not be used to
package products that are to be pressurized by carbon dioxide, such as soft drinks.
LDPE is though and shock resistant, relatively inert
chemically, and almost insoluble in most solvents. It can
be processed into many forms and shapes, including
bottles, films, bags, closures, and the like. It can be
coated or coextruded with other plastics to make a new
material with different properties. A primary
application is the manufacture of bags, including plastic
grocery bags, dry cleaning bags, and small bags for
holding hardware and similar items. LDPE is used predominately in film applications due to
its toughness, flexibility, and relative transparency.

High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

Because of a somewhat different manufacturing process, the
structure of HDPE has less branching than LDPE. HDPE is a little
more expensive than LDPE, but it is still an economical material
for many applications. The material may be clear like LDPE, but
it often has a translucent, white, milky appearance. HDPE can
be formed into cups, tubs, film, and bottles. One of the biggest
uses is as plastic jugs for milk, fruit juice, and water.
HDPE is the most widely used type of
plastic.

Polypropylene (PP)
PP is more dense than PE. It is available as a film or it can be
molded into containers and closures. The material has excellent
clarity and sparkle. In addition, it does not change color or get
brittle with age. These characteristics have made PP and
excellent replacement for cellophane (paper) in applications
ranging from overwraps on paperboard cartons to envelope
PP has good chemical resistance, is
windows. strong, and has a high melting point
making it good for hot-fill liquids.
PP has a higher melting temperature than most packaging
plastics. It also undergoes an abrupt transition from a
reasonably stable material to a material with virtually no
internal strength. This characteristic makes it more difficult to control during thermoforming
operations. The solution is to form the material at a temperature just below the temperature
where the material loses strength. However, at this temperature, the material is still strong and
difficult to stretch. As a result, the equipment must be built stronger and heavier, and more
highly skilled people are needed to supervise the operation. This raises costs.
PP can be used to make ovenable containers (containers that can withstand moderate
temperatures in a conventional oven). It is also widely used for manufacturing caps, lids, and
other closures. Other applications of note include squeezable condiment bottles (particularly
ketchup bottles) and bottles for intravenous medical liquids.

The squeezable plastic ketchup bottle was developed by the Heinz

Company working with suppliers. The initial bottle had nine layers of
HISTORICAL
plastic. This structure worked well and enabled the company to gain
NOTE enough market share to more than offset the higher cost of the bottles
and the development costs.
Virtually the only detractors were certain groups in the environmental
movement who criticized the container because the multiple materials
made recycling impossible.
Further development resulted in the current three-layer bottle, which
has PP on the inside and outside with a thin layer of a very high-barrier
plastic sandwiched in between. The entire bottle can be sent through the
recycling process as PP.

PP is typically about 25 percent higher in cost than PE.

After the initial sheet is manufactured, there are many additional processes that can be used to
modify the material or to form it into particular shapes. One process, which will be illustrated
later, is to orient the molecules in the film. Orientation changes the properties of the material,
often making it more suitable for a particular application. In the case of PP, biaxial orientation
and metallization are used to produce the material, which is used for packaging most pretzels,
potato chips, and similar salty snack foods.

Polyethylene Terephthalate-PET (Polyester)

PET has good tensile strength. When formed into a bottle, it
can resist the internal pressure from carbonation. This is why
it is widely used as bottles for carbonated soft drinks. PET
provides an acceptable, but only “fair” barrier to oxygen and
carbon dioxide. For this reason, the shelf life of carbonated PET resin is commonly used in beverage
beverages is only about 6 to 8 weeks when packaged in PET bottles and many injection-molded
compared to months or even years when packaged in glass or consumer product containers.

aluminum containers.
 Soft drink bottlers switched from aluminum and glass to plastic because
of the advantages of plastic. The containers weighed less, they were
transparent (an advantage over metal, but not glass), and were less
subject to damage and breakage than metal and glass. These advantages
HISTORICAL were realized in the marketplace.

NOTE But, because of the reduced shelf life of the beverage products in the
plastic containers, it was necessary to re-structure the entire
warehousing, distribution, and retail system to ensure that the products
passed through the stores and reached consumers in a much shorter
time period. This is one of the reasons that there are numerous small
bottling plants scattered around a state, rather than one large plant in a
central location.

PET bottles are commonly available in sizes ranging from 10 ounces to 3 liters in a variety of
shapes. The containers can be clear or colored. The most common colors are green and a pale
shade of blue.
PET containers are often made of different forms of PET; called copolymers. The most common
are PETE and PETG. PETE is formed by adding ethylene glycol, and PETG is formed by adding
glycol. The effect is to change the properties of the plastic, making it easier to form containers
by certain processes. However, any further discussion of these materials is beyond the scope of
this book, except for the later discussion of the SPI marking system.
There is an ongoing process of converting packages for many products from glass, metal, and
other plastics to PET. One reason is that many local curbside collection recycling systems will
accept PET containers for recycling. While PET, also known as polyester, can generally not be
recycled into food packages, it can be made into carpets, fabrics, and many other products.
PET recycling will be discussed further in the chapter on the environment.

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

PVC is a tough film with excellent clarity. At one time, many packaging professionals felt that
PVC would become the standard plastic packaging. However, this has not happened. One of the
primary reasons is the presence of chlorine in the PVC molecule. If PVC is burned, the chemical
processes involved in combustion may produce dioxin, a very poisonous and carcinogenic
material. Certain environmental groups have used this fact to try to get PVC banned in several
countries. Another reason for the unpopularity of PVC with some groups is the “vinyl” in the
name. Several years ago, there was a series of news stories about the dangers of working in
plants that produce vinyl. The stories disclosed increased risk of cancer and other health
problems among the workers.
As a result of these negative influences, PVC use has been generally confined to bottles for
nonfood products, such as shampoo and hair conditioner, thermoformed blister packages of
various types, stretch film, and a few other applications
One application of PVC in the food area is for film used to package red meats. PVC has a low
oxygen barrier, so the meat in a PVC-wrapped package is continually exposed to oxygen,
maintaining the bright red color favored in the United States. In several other countries, the
packaging of red meat is done with other films that have more effective oxygen barriers. The
oxygen level in the package quickly drops as the
oxygen is taken up by the product, turning the
meat to a gray or blue color. Although several
companies have attempted to market meat this
way in the United States, the process has not
been accepted by the U.S. market.
The diverse slate of PVC products can be broadly divided into
PVC film is also used to wrap leftovers, rigid and flexible materials.
sandwiches, and other items in the home. The
film adheres or “clings” to glass bowls and other
containers, making it fast and easy to use.

Polystyrene (PS)
Polystyrene is available in foamed and
unfoamed forms. The foamed (expanded)
version of PS is called expanded polystyrene or
simply EPS. EPS is widely used for applications
where products must be protected from
PS is a versatile plastic that can be rigid or foamed. It has a
damage y shocks. Egg cartons are often made of relatively low melting point.
EPS for this reason. Another well-recognized use for
EPS is as “packaging peanuts.” This loose fill material
is used to cushion products and fill the voids left in
shipping containers after the product has been loaded into the box. The material is also used to
manufacture shaped cushions for televisions, computers, VCRs, telephones, appliances, and
many other products.
Labels made of EPS provide a means of cushioning the impacts between adjacent glass bottles
while simultaneously satisfying the functions of the labels. EPS is used for a variety of single-use
cups, plates, trays, and other food-service items.
PS is also available as a clear film and can be formed into solid objects, such as videocassettes,
toilet seats, and many other products.
EPS has also been a target of certain environmental groups, particularly because of litter
problems resulting from careless disposal of fast-food packages. There have been numerous
attempts, some temporarily successful, to ban the use of EPS food-service items in certain
states, cities, or counties. One highly publicized result was the decision by McDonald’s to stop
using EPS “clamshell” containers for sandwiches. Instead, the corporation adopted a coated
paper wrap. It is interesting to note that at the time the switch was made, EPS food-service
items were being collected and recycled, but the paper replacement could not be recycled.
Today, there is very little recycling of food-service items made of EPS, probably because of the
difficulty of cleaning off the food residue. However, large volumes of cushioning and other EPS
items are being recycles, often into packaging peanuts.

Raw Materials for Plastic Manufacturing

Recycling plastic containers can be difficult because of the difficulty of identification. The
ordinary person cannot usually tell a plastic tub made of HDPE from a similar tub made of PP or
PET. In fact, experts often cannot tell the difference without lab testing.
However, for effective recycling, the streams of material must be consistent. It is undesirable to
have a stream of one plastic contaminated by another plastic. To address this problem, the
Society of the Plastic Industry (SPI) developed a system used to identify the materials used in
containers in the United States. The system uses number from 1 to 7 and letter symbols as
shown.
PETE is the form of PET discussed previously. V is the symbol for vinyl. The V was used instead
of PVC at the request of the manufacturers who
wanted to minimize the impact of chlorine. Category
7, OTHER, is used for all conatiners that do not fall
into the other six categories.
This system was adopted into the solid waste
management plans produced by the hundreds of
states, counties, cities, and other governmental units
that operate solid waste systems. It has not been
adopted as a federal standard or officially
promulgated by the Environmental Protection Agency. This method of adoption has
subsequently caused difficulties when new materials were developed.
 PEN is a new, high-barrier plastic that several manufacturers are
considering for use as plastic beer bottles. However, since there is no SPI
C
category for PEN, the new plastic would have to be included in the
O Category 7 group. OTHER, for recycling. This precludes the possibility of
M recovering the expensive PEN material for future use.

M If the SPI system were to be modified, it would have to be readopted by

hundreds of governmental units. It is unlikely that this could be
E
accomplished, so there would be two systems in use. The problem could
N be addressed by having a federal law or regulation revise the SPI system,
T but neither Congress nor the EPA has shown any interest in following this
path. To date, no one else has proposed a workable system, so the
problem remains.

IV. Plastic Processing

Plastics are supplied by the primary manufacturers in the form of small pellets or beads of a
particular resin. The pellets must be melted and formed into appropriate products to be used as
packages.
A common form of plastic used for packaging is thin sheets or continuous thin strips of plastic
of various widths, on rolls. This material is referred to as plastic film if it is thinner than 10 mils
and as plastic sheet if it is 10 mils or thicker.
1 mil = 1/1000 of an inch = 0.001 in.
So, a 12 mil thick plastic sheet would be 12/1000th of an inch thick or 0.012 in thickness.
The plastic forming methods that will be discussed in this section include:
• Extrusion
• Coextrusion
• Film casting
• Film blowing
• Injection molding
• Extrusion molding
• Thermoforming
• Lamination
Extrusion

Extrusion is the beginning step in most plastic processing.

Extrusion is the basic process involved in plastic processing. A supply of resin pellets, along with
the additives such as colorants, are held in the reservoir and fed into the barrel of the extruder.
The barrel is basically a tuber or pipe with a tight-fitting screw (auger) inside. The screw
pressurizes the material, raising its temperature. Electric resistance heaters on the barrel
provide additional heat energy to melt the plastic. The screw also mixes the materials as the
pass through the extruder. The melted and mixed material is the pushed out the end of the
barrel through a small opening call a die.
A die can have virtually any shape, rectangular, circular, triangular, and so on. The shape of the
resulting extruded product depends on the shape of the die. The shape can be solid or hollow.
The most common shapes used in packaging are circles and flat, thin rectangles.

Coextrusion
Coextrusion is similar to extrusion except that multiple extruders are involved. Each extruder
pushes plastic out through an individual die. The streams from the individual dies are brought
together and extruded out through a second-stage die, making a multiple-layer sheet or other
product. Coextrusion is used to make multiple-layer plastic bottles, tubs, and other conatiners.
Most plastics can be coextruded. However, sometimes it is necessary to include layers of
polyethylene between the layers of other material to serve as an adhesive, called a tie layer.
Coextrusion allows packagers to make up new
materials out of other materials to have
desired properties. It can greatly improve the
effectiveness and economics of material use. A
thin layer of a highly effective and expensive
barrier material can be “backed up” by layers
of cheaper material, yielding a material that
has the required barrier and is still relatively
inexpensive. Materials of this type are
sometimes called prescription materials.
Coextrusion is also useful tool in recycling
programs. Recycled material can be “buried” in
the center of a structure that has thin layers of A co-extruder making a 3-layer film

virgin material on the inside and outside. The

virgin layer on the inside, in contact with the
product, will not include contaminants that
may affect the product. Similarly, the virgin
material on the exterior provides a good
surface for labeling and a clean appearance.

Film Casting
Film casting starts with the extruder. The
plastic is extruded through a rectangular die
into a thin film, which is deposited on a
smooth, polished, chilled rolls on a paper
machine. The rolls cool the web and squeeze
the material into a consistent thickness. The
material is then wound up onto a roll. Often,
there will be a second set of draw rolls that turn Film casting - the plastic is extruded out into a cold roller
faster than the cooling rolls. This stretches the
material, providing some molecular orientation
before the material is wound up.
There is an additional processing step when the material is to be biaxially oriented. The plastic
sheet, as it emerges from the chill rolls, is gripped on both sides by clips attached to chains that
move at the same speed as the moving film. The chains diverge at an angle so the plastic is
stretched in the transverse direction. If the chains are set to move faster than the speed that
the sheet is moving as it exits from the chill rolls, the sheet will also be stretched in the machine
direction. The overall effect is to continuously stretch the material in both directions.
Depending on the material, the stretch ratios can range from 0 percent up to about 500
percent. A 500 percent stretch means that a sheet exiting from a 5-foot-wide chill roll would be
stretched to a width of 30 feet after orientation. In a balanced orientation process, the linear
and transverse stretch ratios are equal. But, in many operations, the ratios are different. For
example, the linear ratio may be 125 percent and the transverse ratio 400 percent.
After the orientation process is complete, the chain clips open to release the sheet, which is
trimmed and wound on a roll.

Controls

Track-mounted instruments continuously

traverse back and forth across the sheet as it exits
from the bi-axial orientation step. The
instruments measure various properties of the
sheet, particularly thickness. The measurements
are made in regular steps across the width of the
sheet. If the material is too thick or too thin at a
particular point, a signal is sent back to the die to Biaxial stretch - Film being stretched lengthwise and
crosswise at the same time
slightly open or close a section of the die that
corresponds to the section of the sheet. In this
way, the constant operation of the feedback
system provides continuous checks and updates
on the thickness, improving the quality of the
sheet.

Film Blowing
Film blowing is another method of
manufacturing plastic film. Like casting, the
process begins with an extruder or
coextruder. The die is shaped like a ring,
hollow in the center, and makes a
continuous tube of plastic. The film is fed
between a pair of pinch rollers that collapse
the sides of the film tube together, sealing
off the end. Compressed air, fed through
the center of the die ring, inflates the tube,
forming a large bubble. In a commercial
process, the bubble can be as large as 15 The film blowing process starts with an extruder and ends with the
feet in diameter and up to 50 feet high. film winders.

Once the process is started, the plastic is

continuously extruded upward out of the ring and blown into a bubble, which is collapsed back
together at the other end. The flat tube is then trimmed at the edges, cutting the tube into two
layers of film, which are rolled onto separate take-up rolls. Inflating the bubble stretches the
material in the circumferential direction. The pinch
rolls (collapsing rollers) can also be set to turn at a speed that is faster than the rate at which
the material feeds out of the die. This stretches the material in the direction of feed, orienting
the molecules in both directions.

Injection Molding
Cups, bowls, tubs, and similar containers, closures,
and many other objects are formed by injection
molding. To form a tub or similar shaped container,
a mold is made in the shape and with the
Injection molding injects moltern plastic from the extruder
dimensions of the outside of the container. A directly into the mold.
second part of the mold, a moveable piece called a
plug, is inserted into the outside mold, leaving a
thin space between the two parts. Melted plastic from an
extruder is forced into the space between the two parts of the mold, flowing from a single feed
point called a sprue. The sprue generally feeds plastic into the mold from a location at the
center of the bottom.
After the mold has been filled, it is held closed long enough for the plastic to cool into the
shape of the mold. The plug is then pulled out and the finished object is pushed out of the
outer mold. As it is pushed out, a small piece of plastic from the sprue is broken off, leaving a
tiny rough point at the center of the bottom of the container. This rough point can be used to
identify a container made by injection molding process.
In a commercial facility, an injection molding machine may make only 1 large object at a time or
as many as 150 smaller items, such as closures. Cycle time can range from a few seconds to as
long as half a minute.

Extrusion Blow Molding (EBM)

Extrusion blow molding is used to manufacture bottles, jugs, and jars of various sizes, shapes,
and materials. For example, the common 1-gallon HDPE jugs used for milk are generally
produced by the process of extrusion blow molding.
The process is similar to the blow and blow
process used to make glass bottles. A two-part
mold is prepared with a cavity of the shape
and size desired for the outside of the finished
container. The mold is opened and a tube of
plastic is extruded down into the open cavity.
The mold then closes, pinching the tube closed
at the top and cutting it off. The end of the
remaining tube, which continues to extrude, is
also closed. The portion of the tube inside the
mold is then inflated by compressed air,
forcing the soft plastic outward until it
contacts the mold. It is held in position long
Extrusion blow molding process
enough to cool to the point where the container
has a stable shape. The mold then opens and the
finished container is removed. The tube of plastic
from the extruder is again fed into the open mold,
the cavity closes, and the process repeats. The finished container is moved to another station,
where it is trimmed to remove flashing, excess material in the handle, at the parting line, and so
on.
A commercial blow molder makes 1 to 10 containers per cycle and a cycle can be as short as a
few seconds to as long as a minute, depending on the material being used and the size and
shape of the finished container. A typical blow molder in a milk plant can make about 30 gallon
jugs per minute.

Injection Blow Molding (IBM)

Injection blow molding is a two-step
process. Often, the steps are located
in different plants that may be
adjacent to each other or separated
by hundreds of miles. The first step
uses injection molding process to
manufacture a preform. The preform
is a plastic tube, similar to a test
tube, with a complete bottle finish.
The injection molding process
manufactures the threads and other Injection molding process manufactures a preform and is blown to form the
final product.
parts of the finish to closer
tolerances than is possible with the
extrusion blow molding process. This is important when the finished bottle will be used for a
carbonated beverage or if it will pressurized in some other fashion, because the threads on the
bottle and in the closure must fit tightly enough to provide a secure seal and prevent the loss of
the carbon dioxide.
The dimensions and the amount of plastic in the preform depend on the size of plastic bottle to
be produced in the second step of the process.

Thermoforming
Thermoforming is a process that
makes shapes out of plastic sheet.
The sheet is heated to a desired
temperature in an oven and then
moved into position and draped over
a form in the desired shape. The
plastic cools and retains the shape
that has been molded in. Often
vacuum or overpressure are used to
force the plastic to fit closely around The sheet is heated and draped over a form in the desired shape.
the mold. In some cases, mechanical
assistance is provided in the form of a
plug, which forces the heated sheet
into the final shape. This process is often used for deep raw cups and objects made of PP. As
explained in an earlier section, PP can be difficult to work with because it must be formed at a
temperature low enough to retain the ability to manage the material.
Thermoforming is used to manufacture a wide variety of plastic shapes, such as the little
blisters used to hold individual capsules or tablets of a pharmaceutical product, blisters for
retail items, such as clocks or hand tools, or complete surgical kits. The thermoformed PET
package shown in the figure was used to ship a circuit board for installation into a new
computer. Circuit boards and some other electronic devices are subject to damage from
electrostatic discharge (ESD). Static electricity can build up on plastic surfaces. To protect
against ESD, packages should be made of material that will dissipate or conduct the electrical
charges away from the object being protected.
Lamination
Lamination is the process of gluing sheets or
webs of plastic film, paper, and/or aluminum
foil together to form a new multilayer
material. The process is not complex, but it
can be time consuming, particularly when
several layers are involved. The process
simply involves unrolling two materials,
bringing them together between a pair of
pressure rollers, and applying an adhesive Lamination can combine paper, plastic, and metal foil into a
between them. A common adhesive technique single material.
is to extrude polyethylene into the V where the
two webs come together. The materials cools the PE, which adheres to both materials, and the
combined material is rolled up. If a third layer is to be added, the roll of two-layer material is
unrolled and laminated to the third material in the same fashion.
Laminated materials are used to many purposes. The advantage of lamination over coextrusion
is that paper and aluminum foil layers can be included in lamination. A will-known laminated
structure uses paper, polyethylene, and aluminum foil in the following order from the outside
to the inside of the package:
PE/paper/PE/AL/PE
The outer layer of PE protects the paper from moisture and also protects the printed surface of
the paper from damage or defacement. The paper provides stiffness and a good-quality surface
for printing. The second layer of PE bonds the papers and the aluminum foil. The aluminum foil
provides the barrier required for the package. The inside layer of PE protects the aluminum foil
from damage and also provides a sealable layer to facilitate closing of the package.
The material is sterilized, formed into a tube, the bottom is heat sealed, the sterile product is
fed in, the top is heat sealed, the package is pressed into the shape of a box, and the ends of
the sealed areas are bent over. The packaging operations is done on form-fill-seal machinery.
The process, using sterile packaging and a sterile product, is an example of aseptic packaging.
The packaged product is shelf stable without refrigeration. The package, called a drinkbox or a
brickpack, is one of the most widely used packages in the world. Two companies, Tetra Pack
and Combi-bloc, together make more than 65 billion of these packages per year, about 8 for
every person on earth. The package would not be possible without the technology of
lamination.

Reference: Introduction to Packaging by Harold Hughes. Chapter 5 Plastic Packaging. Pages 71 to 84.
Photo credits:
https://www.plasticpackagingfacts.org/plastic-packaging/resins-types-of-packaging/
https://www.safepack.com/products/multilayer-flexible-packaging-solutions/
http://www.extrusionwiki.com/wiki/POTM-Aug-2011.ashx

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Overview-of-a-plastic-extrusion-machine-with-the-
plasticizing-component-in-evidence-The_fig1_321597264

http://www.alpha.in/products_rigid_pet.php
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/sequential-stretching
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/film-casting
https://www.engineersedge.com/manufacturing/blow-molding-manufacturability.htm
https://www.smlease.com/entries/plastic-design/injection-molding-process/