1.

To determine focal length of a given concave mirror:

Aim
To determine the focal length of (i) concave mirror (ii) convex lens by obtaining the image of a distant object

Materials required
A concave mirror, a measuring scale, a screen a mirror holder and mirror stand.

Procedure

1. Select a distant object from the laboratory window (distance should be more than 50 ft).
2. Fix the concave mirror on the mirror stand placed on the table, facing the distant object.
3. Place the screen in front of the reflecting surface of the mirror. Move the screen back and forth
until a clear, sharp image of the distant object is obtained on the screen.
4. Measure the distance between the concave mirror and the screen with a meter scale. This
distance is the focal length of the given concave mirror. Record the focal length.
5. Repeat the above procedure twice and record the readings. Take three readings and calculate
the average focal length.

Observation Table

Position of concave
S.No. Position of screen (S) Focal length/ = (M – S) cm
mirror (M)

1. 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

2. 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm
3. 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

. Calculation
Mean value of focal length of concave mirror =

Result
The focal length of the given concave mirror = 10 cm

Precautions

1. The distant object must be well illuminated to produce a well illuminated and distinct image.
2. Always place the concave mirror near an open window.
3. The polished surface of the concave mirror must face the distant object.
4. There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the distant object,
incident on the concave mirror.
5. The base of the stands of the concave mirror and screen should be parallel to the measuring
scale.
6. The mirror holder along with the mirror should be kept perpendicular to the measuring scale
for precise measurements.

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 2. focal length of a given convex lens

AIM: (ii) To determine focal length of a given convex Lens

Materials Required
Wooden bench, convex lens, a lens holder, a screen fixed to a stand, a measuring scale; etc.

Procedure

1. Arrange the wooden bench capable of holding the lens and screen horizontally on a table, so
that the lens and screen are not disturbed.
2. Keeps the lens in a holder facing a distant object say tree branches.
3. Fix the screen on another holder and keep it on the bench.
4. Adjust the position of the screen in such a way that a sharp image of the given distant object
falls on it.
5. Note down the position of the lens in the table and the screen, and find the differences and
record the same. The difference will give the focal length of the given convex lens.
6. Focus the lens towards various distant objects and repeat the experiment to find the position
of sharp image and thereby the focal length.
7. Add all the focal lengths found out and find the mean value of the focal length of the convex
lens.

Observation Table

Position of convex lens

S.No. Position of screen (S) Focal length/= (L – S) cm
(L)

1. 60 cm 50 cm f1 = 10 cm

2. 60 cm 50 cm f2 = 10 cm

3. 60 cm 50 cm f3 = 10 cm
Calculation
Mean value of focal length of convex lens =

Result
The focal length of the given convex lens = 10 cm

Precautions

1. Convex lens should be placed vertically.

2. There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the distant object
incident on the common lens.
3. In order to get a well illuminated and distinct image, it must be ensured that the distanct object
is well illuminated.
4. The base of the stands of the convex lens and screen should be parallel to the measuring
scale.

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 3. Refraction through Glass Slab
Aim
To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles of incidence.
Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of emergence and interpret the result.

Materials Required
A drawing board, 4-6 all pins, white sheet of paper, rectangular glass slab, a protractor, a scale, a
pencil and thumb pins.

Procedure

1. Take a soft drawing board. Fix a white sheet on it with the help of thumb pins.
2. Place the rectangular glass slab in the centre of the white paper and draw its outline boundary
with pencil.
3. Mark this rectangular figure obtained as ABCD.
4. On one side of this figure, i.e., AB take one point E, draw a perpendicular EN and label it as
normal ray.
5. With the help of a protractor draw one angle of 30° with the EN. Fix two pins P and Q on the
ray of this angle, the distance between the pins should be more than 4-5 cm.
6. Put the glass slab on the rectangular figure ABCD.
7. See through the glass slab from side CD and fix pin R and S such that when seen through the
glass slab all
the pins lie in straight line, [i.e., Pins P, Q, R and S should lie in straight line when seen
through the glass slab], ‘
8. Now, remove the pins P, Q, R and S one by one and draw small circles around the pin points.
9. Remove the glass slab.
10. Join points R and S such that it meets CD at point F.
Draw perpendicular to CD at point F as N’M’.
11. Join points E and F with the pencil.
12. Measure the angles formed at AB and CD, i.e., the incident angle, refracted angle and
emergent angle.
13. Extend ray PQ with scale and pencil in dotted line. It will be parallel to ray FRS. The distance
between these two parallel rays is called lateral displacement (d).
14. Measure the lateral displacement.
15. Repeat the above procedure for angles 45° and 60°.
ABCD = Glass slab
EN and FM’ = Normal rays
P, Q, R, S = All pins ∠PEN = ∠i = incident angle = 30°
∠MEF = ∠r = refracted angle
∠SFM’= ∠e = emergent angle = 30° ~ 31°
d = lateral displacement.

Observations Table

Angle of
Angle of incidence Angle of refraction ∠i – ∠e
S.No. emergence
∠i = ∠PEN ∠r = ∠MEF ∠PEN – ∠SFM’
∠e = ∠SFM’
1. 30° 28° 30° 0°

2. 45° 43° 44.8° 0.2°

3. 60° 56° 59.8° 0.2°

During performing this experiment, ∠i – ∠e may not be zero at times as shown above due to human
error.

Conclusion
 1. The angle of incidence is nearly equal to the angle of emergence.
2. The angle of refraction is less than angle of incidence because light is travelling from rarer to
denser optical medium.
3. The lateral displacement remains the same for different angles of incidences.
4. When the light ray travels from optically rarer medium (air) to optically denser medium (glass)
the light bends towards the normal.

Precautions

1. The glass slab should be perfectly rectangular with all its faces smooth.
2. The drawing board should be soft so that pins can be easily fixed on it.
3. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°.
4. All pins base should lie in straight line.
5. While fixing the pins P and Q or the pins R and S, care should be taken to maintain a distance
of about 5 cm between the two pihs.
6. Draw thin lines using a sharp pencil.
7. Use a good quality protractor having clear markings.
8. Place the protractor correctly to measure the angles.
9. Perpendiculars should be drawn correctly.

Sources of Error

1. The glass slab should not have any air-bubbles.

2. All measurement of angles using protractor should be done accurately.

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 4.Refraction through glass prism

Aim
To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.

Materials Required
A white sheet, soft board, thumb pins, 4-6 all pins, prism, pencil, scale, protractor, drawing board.

Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins.

2. Place a glass prism on it in such a way that it rests on its triangular base. Trace the outline of
the prism using a pencil.
3. Draw a thin line NEN normal (perpendicular) to face AB of the prism. Also draw a straight line
PE making an angle preferably between 30° and 60° as shown in figure.
4. Fix two pins at a distance of 5 cm from each other on the line PE as shown in the figure, later
mark these points of pins as P and Q.
5. Look at the images of the pins, fixed at P and Q, through the other face of the prism, i.e., AC.
6. Fix two more pins, at points R and S vertically such that the feet of pins at R and S appear to
be on the same straight line as the feet of the images of the pins P and Q when viewed
through the face AC of the prism.
7. Remove the pins and the glass prism.
8. Join and produce a line joining R and S, let this line meet the prism at point F.
9. Extend the direction of incident ray PQE till it meets the face AC. Also extend (backwards) the
emergent ray SRF so that these two lines meet at a point G.
10. Mark the angle of incidence ∠i, angle of refraction ∠r and the angle of emergence ∠e and ∠D
as shown in the figure.
11. Repeat the experiment for more angle of incidence preferably between 30° and 60°.

Observations
 1. The light ray enters the prism at surface AB, bends towards the normal on refraction.
2. At surface AC of the prism, this light ray bends away from the normal because it travels from a
glass to air.
3. The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent ray bend at an angle to the direction of
the incident ray. This angle is called the angle of deviation (∠D)

Conclusion

1. The light ray, i.e., the incident ray first bends towards the normal when it gets refracted in the
prism and while leaving the prism it bends away from the normal.
2. The angle of deviation first decreases with the increase in angle of incidence ∠i. It attains a
minimum value then increases with further increase in angle of incidence.

Precautions

1. A sharp pencil should be used for drawing the boundary of the prism.
2. Use soft board and pointed pins.
3. The pins should be fixed at a distance of 5 cm or more.
4. The pins should be fixed vertically and immediately encircled after they are removed.
5. While viewing the col-linearity of pins and images, the eye should be kept at a distance from
the pins so that all of them can be seen simultaneously. The col-linearity of all the four pins
can be confirmed by moving the head slightly to either side while viewing them. They all
appear to move together.
6. The angle of incidence should be between 30° and 60°.
7. Proper arrows should be drawn for the incident ray, refracted ray and emergent ray.

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 5. OHM’S LAW

Aim
To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I) passing through it and
determine its resistance. Also plot a graph between V and I.

Materials Required
A battery, an insulated copper wire (cut into 10 pieces), a key, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a rheostat,
a resistor and a piece of sand paper.
Procedure

1. Keep the devices as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Connect them with the connecting wires and keep the key open.
3. Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the positive terminal of the ammeter.
4. Check the +ve and -ve terminals of voltmeter before connecting it in the circuit.
5. Once the circuit is connected, insert the key and check the rheostat, adjust its slider and see
whether the ammeter and voltmeter readings are shown.
6. By using the slider of rheostat take three different readings of current 1 and voltmeter V.
7. Record your observations in the observation table.

8. Calculate resistance of a given resistor by formula .

9. Plot a graph of voltmeter reading and current reading. On x axis take V and on y axis take I.
10. Resistance increases with increase in temperature of pure metals.
OBSERVATION TABLE

Potential difference in Volts

Current in Ampere (I)
(V)
(Ammeter Reading) Resistance in Ohms R =
(Voltmeter Reading)
V/I(Ω)
Observed Corrected Observed Corrected

R1 =2
1. 0 0.02 0 0.04
Ω
R2 = 2
2. 0 0.03 0 0.06
Ω
R3 =
3. 0 0.04 0 0.08
2Ω

Conclusions

1. The value of R is found to be same and constant in all three readings.

2. The resistance of a resistor is ratio of potential difference V and current I.
3. The graph of V and I is a straight line. This shows that V∝I. This verifies Ohm’s law.
Precautions

1. The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends should be
removed using the sand paper.
2. Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the circuit.
3. Connections should be made as per the circuit. Before closing the circuit show the
connections to the teacher to take the readings.
4. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resister such that the current enters at
the positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal of the ammeter.
5. Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to resistor.
6. Calculate the least count of voltmeter and ammeter correctly.
7. The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when no current flows
through the circuit.
8. Current should be passed through the circuit for a short time while taking observations;
otherwise current would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit. Heating may change the
resistance of resistors.

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6 a.Resistors in Series
Aim
Experiment To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in series.

Materials Required

 Two resistors of different values for example,

R, = 1 Ω, R, = 2Ω.
 Battery of 6 volt.
 Ammeter, plug key, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper, voltmeter and rheostat.

Procedure

1. Make the connections according to the diagram given below.

2. Do not ‘on’ the key.
3. Connect ammeter in series and voltmeter in parallel and rheostat in series in the circuit.
4. Carefully check the +ve and -ve terminals of the battery, voltmeter and ammeter, and the
connections as shown in Fig. I.
5. Record the ammeter reading and the voltmeter reading by inserting the key.
6. By adjusting rheostat note three readings.
7. Now connect voltmeter in parallel one by one to individual resistance as shown in Fig. II and
note down the readings.
8. Plug the key. Measure the potential difference across the first resistor. Let it be V 1 .
9. Similarly, measure the potential difference across the second resistor, separately. Let the
value be V2.
10. Calculate the relationship between V, V1, and V2.
Observation Table For Resistance In Series

Result

1. The calculated value of Rs = R1 + R2 = 3 Ω

2. The experimental value of Rs = 3 Ω
The above two values are close to each other.
Hence, Rs = R1 + R2 is verified.

Precautions

1. The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends should be
removed using the sandpaper.
2. Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the circuit.
3. Connections should be made as per the circuit.
4. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor such that the current enters at
the positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal of the ammeter.
5. Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to resistor.
6. Calculate the least count of voltmeter and ammeter correctly.
7. The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when no current flows
through the circuit.
8. Current should be passed through the circuit for a short time while taking observations;
otherwise a current would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit. Heating may change the
resistance of resistors.
 6b . Resistance In Parallel
Aim
To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in parallel.

Materials Required
A battery, a plug key, connecting wires, an ammeter, a voltmeter, rheostat, a piece of sand paper
and two resistors of different value.

Procedure

1. Keep the key off and make all the connections as shown in the given figure I.
2. When the circuit is connected appropriately insert the key.
3. Note three readings of ammeter and voltmeter for the resistors R1 and R2 separately.
4. Now connect the circuit as shown in figure II below.
5. The resistors are connected in parallel and voltmeter is also connected in parallel.
6. Use the rheostat and record three different readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
7. Remove the key.
8. Do the calculations from the observation table.

Circuit Diagrams
Observation Table For Resistance In Parallel

Voltmeter Ammeter Mean Value of

Resistor No. of R=V/I
Reading in Reading in Resistance
Used Observations (in Ohm)
Volts (V) Ampere (I) (Ohm)

R
(a) 0.01 0.01 1
1
st (b) 0.02 0.02 1 R1 = 1 Ohm
(I Resistor)
(c) 0.04 0.04 1
R
(a) 0.02 0.01 2
2
(b) 0.06 0.03 2 R2 = 2 Ohm
(2nd Resistor)
(c) 0.08 0.04 2

1/Rp= (1/R1)+ (1/R2) Rp = 0.67 Ohm

(a) 0.026 0.04 0.67
(ParallelCombination) 1/Rp =1.5 Ohm

Result

1. The calculated value of 1/Rp = (1/R1) + (1/R2) = 1.5 Ω

2. The experimental value of 1/Rp = 1.5 Ω
3. The equivalent resistance (Rp) is less than the individual resistance (R1 or R2)

Precautions

1. The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends should be
removed using the sand paper.
2. Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the circuit.
3. Connections should be made as per the circuit.
4. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor such that the current enters at
the positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal of the ammeter.
5. Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to resistor.
6. Calculate the least count of voltmeter and ammeter correctly.
7. The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when no current flows
through the circuit.
8. Current should be passed through the circuit for a short time while taking observations;
otherwise current would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit. Heating may change the
resistance of resistors.

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