Mans BROO, As Good As God

AS GOOD AS GOD
As Good as God
The Guru in
Gau ya Vaiavism
Måns Broo
ÅBO 2003
ÅBO AKADEMIS FÖRLAG ÅBO AKADEMI UNIVERSITY PRESS
CIP Cataloguing in Publication
Broo, Måns
As good as God : the guru in Gau ya
Vaiavism / Måns Broo. Åbo :
Åbo Akademi University Press, 2003.
Diss.: Åbo Akademi University.
ISBN 951-765-132-5
ISBN 951-765-132-5
ISBN 951-765-133-3 (digital)
Gummerus Kirjapaino Oy
Saarijärvi 2003
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
A note on transcription and pronounciation. . . . . . . . . ix
Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
I INTRODUCTION
A N D B A C K G R O U N D . ........................1
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Purpose of the study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Theory and methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Charisma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Canon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.3 A hierarchy of understandings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.4 Textual criticism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.5 Conducting interviews. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.6 Participant observation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3 Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.1 Written sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.2 Interviews. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.3.3 Field studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.3.4 Hagiographies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.3.5 Other sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.4 Overview of the thesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5 Self-positioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.6 Ethical considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2. Overview of Gau ya Vaiavism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.1 General characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2 History of the sapradya. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2.1 Caitanya and his contemporaries. . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2.2 Later developments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.3 Institutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
i
2.3.1 Sapradya. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3.2 Early descriptions of
Caitanyas sapradya. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.3.3 Vasa and Parivra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.3.4 Classes of Gau ya Vaiavas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.3.5 Modern groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
II THE GURU DOCTRINE OF

G A U YA VA I ± ¦ AV I S M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3. General characteristics of the guru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

3.1 The guru within Hinduism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.2 The ontological position of the guru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.3 The necessity of having a guru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.3.1 Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.3.2 Giver of eligibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.3 Mandated by scripture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.4 Saviour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.3.5 Practice Ka. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.3.6 Dependence on Kas grace. . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.3.7 Exceptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4 Types of gurus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.5 Defining the guru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4. Qualifications of the guru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

4.1 Personal qualifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.1.1 Primary qualifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.1.2 Secondary qualifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.1.3 Vednta Deika. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.2 Institutional qualifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.3 Standard of modern gurus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.4 Qualifications of the disciple. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
ii
5. Finding and leaving a guru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.1 Finding a guru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.1.1 The classic way. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.1.2 Predestination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.1.3 Social reasons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.2 Rejecting the guru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.2.1 The viewpoint of the scriptures. . . . . . . . . 133
5.2.2 The example of ®ymnanda. . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.2.3 Modern explanations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6. Initiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.1 Initiation in the scriptures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.1.1 Hari-bhakti-vilsa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.1.2 Sdhana-d pik. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.2 Initiation today. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.2.1 First and second initiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.2.2 Siddha initiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.2.3 Vea initiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.2.4 Sannysa initiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.3 Initiation mantras. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.4 Rules for initiated disciples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.4.1 General rules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.4.2 Rules for bbjis and sannysins. . . . . . . . . 177
6.4.3 Breaking the rules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
III R O L E S O F T H E G U R U . .................... 181
7. Parent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.1 The head of a spiritual family. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.2 Accepting fatherly duties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8. Feudal lord. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

8.1 Royal rituals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
iii
8.1.1 Consecration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.1.2 Appointing subordinate vassals. . . . . . . . . . 191
8.2 Succession. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.2.1 Hereditary succession. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.2.2 Succession by appointment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.2.3 Appointing oneself. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.2.4 Abdicating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.3 Acting as a feudal lord. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.3.1 Using regalia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.3.2 Excerting power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
9. Teacher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
9.1 Imparting the mantra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
9.2 Non-verbal teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
9.2.1 Personal example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
9.2.2 Mystical transmission of knowledge. . . . 214
9.3 Verbal teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
9.3.1 Public readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
9.3.2 Private instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
10. Preserver of tradition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

10.1 Preserving the heritage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
10.1.1 Customs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
10.1.2 Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
10.1.3 Institution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
10.2 Protecting the tradition against threats. . . . . . . . . 225
11. Renewer of tradition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

11.1 Presenting the message
in a contemporary way. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
11.2 Creating new tradition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
11.2.1 New doctrines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
11.2.2 New mantras. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
iv
12. Mediator between God and man. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
12.1 Via medium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
12.1.1 Key for the devotee to access Ka. 240
12.1.2 Key for Ka to access the devotee. 241
12.2 The greatest devotee. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
13. Manifestation of divinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

13.1 Acting like God. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
13.1.1 Giving darana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
13.1.2 Receiving pj. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
13.1.3 Entering an image. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
13.1.4 Purifying and spiritualising matter. . . . . 252
13.2 Saving the disciples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
13.3 Declaring himself God. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
IV C O N C L U S I O N . .................................... 257
14. Summary and Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

14.1 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
14.2 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
14.2.1 Characterising the guru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
14.2.2 The charisma of the guru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
14.2.3 The interplay between
canon and charisma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
14.2.4 As Good as God. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Glossary of names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Glossary of places and terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is due to the generous help of many individuals and institu-

tions that I have been able to bring my thesis to a completion. I
have had the fortune and honour of receiving scholarships from
the Ingrid, Margit and Henrik Höijer Donation Fund II (SLS) and
Åbo Akademi University Research Institute Foundation. My field
research in India has furthermore been supported by the
Nordenskiöld Society in Finland and the Foundation for Swedish
Culture in Finland. Without the financial support of these institu-
tions, this work would not have been possible.
I want to thank my supervisor, professor Nils G. Holm, and the
staff at the Department for Comparative Religion and Folkloristics,
Åbo Akademi University, for constantly supporting me and
pushing me to improve my text. Professor Holm is widely known
for creating an intimate and warm atmosphere at his institution,
which I have had the priviledge to enjoy. I have always felt at
home under his supervision. I am also thankful to Professor Knut
A. Jacobsen at the Department of the History of Religions at the
University of Bergen and Dr. Erik af Edholm, University of Stock-
holm, for the very valuable comments they gave me towards the
end of the work. I also want to thank Dr. Siv Illman, Ruth Illman,
Christian Wulff, Thomas Mansikka and Tuomas Martikainen for
giving me valuable feedback on rather horrible early drafts. I am also
grateful to the Department Secretary, Anne Holmberg, who assisted
me in many practical matters.
Martin Gansten at the Department for Religious Studies, Lund Univer-
sity, has helped me with difficult Sanskrit passages and many other
Indological issues. Dr. Kimmo Ketola at the Department of Comparative
Religion at Helsinki University offered me valuable help with the theo-
retical part of the thesis, for which I am very thankful. Kenneth Valpey at
the University of Oxford/ Oxford Institute of Hindu Studies provided
useful comments on a late draft, and helped in editing my English. For
any remaining mistakes, I am of course alone responsible.
vii
Many thanks are also due to Christoffer Leka and Kaisa Rautio, who
helped me with the layout and who did the cover, and to ®r
Mdhavnanda Dsa (Oskari Loponen), who besides providing
useful information on traditional Gau ya Vaiavism, gave me
electronical versions of many of the Sanskrit texts used in the
study, facilitating a search for individual terms that otherwise
would have been impossible. ®r Madhumagala Dsa (Mikko
Viitamäki), helped me by looking up several missing references.
I want to thank all the people who helped me during my field
research in India, particularly the staff at the Vrindavan Research
Institute, Vndvana, and at the Chaitanya Research Institute in
Calcutta. The inmates of the Bhajan Kutir in Vndvana and the
Bhajana rama in Calcutta not only offered me help in my re-
search, but graciously and warm-heartedly hosted me on re-
peated occasions. May I never forget the sound of the bell calling
to magala-rati in the pre-dawn hours of Vndvana!
I also want to thank my parents for helping me along the way,
and my wonderful wife, Laura, for always being there for me,
whether to share my joy after finishing a difficult part of the text,
or my anxiety when some new problem came up.
And finally:
gopnanda-vanasya saukhya-karaa r mat-suhotrrpita

r pda-tripurri-pjita-pada premmthldinam
yoga-kema-vahiham ryaja-pati mad-di-has -gati
bhaktn hdayntare para-guru r -abhujkhya bhaje
Helsingfors, 2.4.2003
Måns Broo
viii
A NOTE ON TRANSCRIPTION AND
P R O N O U N C I AT I O N
I have followed the standard international system for transcrib-

ing Sanskrit. For Bengali, I have used the same, even though that
language is pronounced in a different way. The reason for this is
consistency: many Sanskrit words are used also by Bengali au-
thors. Keeping track of two different versions of them (e.g.
Vaiava and Boiob) would be unnecessarily cumbersome for
the reader. In the case of commonly known place names (e.g.
Calcutta) I have used the well-known anglicised forms. I have
italicised all Sanskrit and Bengali words and titles, unless they
are commonly known (e.g. guru, mantra or bhakti).
The vowels of Sanskrit are pronounced much as those of
Latin, Italian or French, with the following exceptions:
a is pronounced like the short u in English cup

is pronounced like the long a in English father
and similarly indicate long versions of those vowels
is nowadays usually pronounced like the ry in English very
The consonants are a little more complex, but the most impor-
tant guidelines are as follows:
c is pronounced like the English ch, as in cherry

h after a consonant (e.g. ph) indicates aspiration, like the
English hip-hop
and are pronounced somewhat like the English sh, as in
shame.
ix
A B B R E V I AT I O N S
BG Bhagavad-g t
BP Bhgavata Pura
BRS Bhakti-rasmta-sindhu of Rpa Gosvmin
BS Bhakti-sandarbha of J va Gosvmin
CB Caitanya-bhgavata of Vndvana Dsa
CC Caitanya-caritmta of Kadsa Kavirja
GGD Gaura-ganoddea-d pik by Kavi Karapra
GSP Gaura-govindrcana-smaraa-paddhati of
Dhynacandra Gosvmin
HBV Hari-bhakti-vilsa of Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin
KB Ka-bhajanmta of Narahari Sarakra
SD Sdhana-d pik of Nryaa Bhaa Gosvmin
TS Tattva-sandarbha of J va Gosvmin
x
I INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
1 INTRODUCTION
A large and jovial bearded Indian man clad in shining silk robes, sur-
rounded by dozens of starry-eyed western followers, boarding a
black Rolls-Royce; a blind ascetic, marked by decades of self-starva-
tion and all-night vigils, sitting cross-legged in a shadowy room teach-
ing secrets of ancient scripture; a young man dressed in an expen-
sive suit and tie, giving a power-point presentation on the next stage
in mobile communications the word guru certainly carries a lot of
associations in our post-modern times. This thesis will look closely at
the guru institution in one modern Hindu religious movement. Be-
sides describing the conception of the guru in that particular context,
it will also shed light on perennial questions of authority and
interpretion of sacred texts.
1.1 Purpose and scope of the study

The purpose of this study is to identify, examine and characterise the
guru institution within Gau ya Vaiavism, the devotional Hindu
movement started by Ka Caitanya (1486-1533) in Bengal. This
will give a better understanding of an institution important for many
strands of popular Hinduism. Beside that, I intend to arrive at some
more general conclusions regarding interpretation of sacred texts
and the interplay between canon and charisma. This is accomplished
through examining the way the movement itself presents the guru,
disciple and initiation, and through looking at the ways in which the
guru interacts with his disciples, well-wishers and broader society.
This study is written from the viewpoint of the academic study of
religion, incorporating religio-historical as well as anthropological
and sociological perspectives.
Gau ya Vaiavism is also known as Bengali or Caitanyite
Vaiavism. Remarkably enough, I have found no clear definition of
1
Gau ya Vaiavism apart from the followers of Caitanya.1 There
are reasons for that, as we shall see (in 2.1). I will later define the
term more precisely. At any rate, Gau ya Vaiavism is especially
interesting when studying the guru institution, since this particular
Hindu movement places great stress on the guru, and since the
guru institution there has developed in ways not found elsewhere.
As it is difficult to define a Gau ya Vaiava, so it is with the guru,
especially in this movement. In section 3.5 I will present a defini-
tion suitable in this context, but for now we can use that given by J.
Gonda: the man who on account of his special knowledge and
function was held to be a bearer of power conspicious by his
prestige, weight and influence.2 A disciple is a person who has
been initiated (see chapter 6) by a guru. Persons who support a
guru and who may occasionally approach him for advice, but who
are not initiated, I call admirers or well-wishers.
1.2 Theory
Gurus have been studied from various points of view. Daniel Gold
views the guru as one of three immanent foci of the divine in his
The Lord as Guru. Part of the typology in part III stems from his
work. Ralph Marc Steinmanns Guru-iya-sabandha provides a
great deal of general information about the Hindu guru, and I will
often refer to his conclusions and typologies, even though they do
not always fit the material at hand. Kirin Narayan focuses on the
guru as a storyteller, using the tools of anthropology, folklore and
literary criticism to find out what it is that make these stories such a
compelling vehicle for religious teachings. The stories she exam-
ines all deal with aspects of the Hindu ascetic: potentially a saint,
but perhaps also a scoundrel.3 Lise McKean, again, has studied the
1 E.g. Rosen (1992), i

2 Gonda (1965), 240
3 Narayan (1992)
2
role of individual gurus in the Hindu nationalist movement in India
today.4
Most of the recent studies on Indian gurus have been done from the
viewpoint of the psychology of religion. June McDaniel examines the
role of mad religious ecstacy in Bengali devotion, pointing out the sig-
nificant discrepancy between the expectations of the religious tradi-
tions and the actual experiences of the devotees, and the extremely
fine line between the desired divine madness and ordinary madness,
considered the least desireable state in Bengali culture.5 In his psy-
choanalytically inspired study, Anthony Storr tries to find common
psychological denominators among ten popular gurus.6
There are also other approaches. Antony Copley, while relying on
the findings of Storr, examines the guru from a more biographical
point of view.7 Kimmo Ketola has studied the charisma of
Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda, the founder of ISKCON, using
primarily the framework of the cognitive science of religion.8
One large group of studies concern what could be called mega-
gurus, gurus internationally active (or at least with disciples from all
over the world), often offering new interpretations of Hinduism or
even something new altogether, for example Ramakrishna (1836-
1886)9 and Satya Sai Baba (1926-).10 Sometimes such studies are
more journalistic than academic in character, as seen for example in
the writings of Hugh Milne and James S. Gordon on Bhagwan Shree
Rajneesh or Osho (1931-1990).11
All of these approaches are of course valid, but I will try another
one by focusing on the two concepts of charisma and canon. While
4 McKean (1996)
5 McDaniel (1989)
6 Storr (1997)
7 Copley (2000)
8 Ketola (2002)
9 Kripal (1995), Olson (1989)
10 Haraldsson (1987)
11 Gordon (1987), Milne (1986)
3
these two factors on one level may seem as opposites, they are in
many ways co-dependent, and they have been shown to provide
useful new perspectives on the specific potential involved in the
legitimisation of tradition and of the authority of religious special-
ists.12 Particularly for an academic study of the guru-institution of
Gau ya Vaiavism, where as we shall see in part II the norma-
tive scriptures as well as modern practitioners express both a great
desire for orthodoxy and fidelity to tradition, and an ideal of pow-
erful individual gurus, it seems natural to focus on these two terms.
It is evident that religious concepts and practices can not be en-
compassed by notions of charisma and canon alone, but these fac-
tors offer useful analytical points of departure. Below I will present
these and other theoretical tools that I will use for analysing my
material.
While (as we shall see) canon stands for permanence, charisma
stands for innovation innovation that with the passing of time can
become canon. In this thesis, I will show how these principles are
useful for understanding the guru, a person who I will argue em-
bodies both what is perceived as the eternal truths of the canon as
well as that which is seen as the transcending power of charismatic
authority.
1.2.1 Charisma
Charisma, a certain quality of individual personality by virtue of
which he is set apart from ordinary men and treated as endowed with
supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional pow-
ers or qualities,13 is a quality bound by time. It is a power that creates
extraordinary authority, often surpassing that of a canon. It can push
new religious ideas into wider acceptance and gain them a following
12 E.g. Dalmia, Malinar & Christof (2001)

13 Weber (1964), 358
4
that may survive the charismatic person.14 Viewed sociologically,
charisma has a double effect: it may isolate the bearer to a greater or
lesser degree, or it may become the focus of a process of social crys-
tallisation, thus having an integrative effect.15 Both effects will be
noticed in the material at hand.
What then is this certain quality? Max Weber, the father of the socio-
logical concept of charisma, thought that it was marked by a unique and
innate capactity to display highly coloured emotions of different kinds.16
It is important to note that this power of course exists only in a social
setting: charisma implies a relationship between the exceptionally
powerful person and his followers.17 However, the forms that this rela-
tionship takes may be very varied. Some scholars, following Weber, see
charisma as a revolutionary, rather frightening type of absolute author-
ity,18 while others hold that being charismatically endowed does not
determine the degree of power the person has on another.19 I support
the second view. As we shall see, gurus have very different grades of
charisma in some cases, their certain quality is hardly noticeable to an
outsider as well as power of authority. The charismatic person does not
have to be a second Hitler or Jim Jones to qualify as such. In the third part
of the thesis, we shall also see that at least in this case, charismatic re-
newal is often not at all as revolutionary and disruptive as Weber imag-
ined it.
Weber describes different types of charismatic persons, categorised
according to the type of charisma they possess.At one end of the spec-
trum is the magician, whose charisma is purely personal in that it de-
pends only on his own qualities. At the other end of the spectrum is
the priest, whose charisma does not depend on his own qualities, but
14 von Stietencron (2001), 15

15 Wach (1958), 131
16 Weber, quoted in Lindholm (1990), 26
17 Lindholm, (1990), 24
18 E.g. Lindholm (1990)
19 Ketola (2002), 31
5
rather on the qualities of the institution he belongs to. His charisma is
in other words institutional, or a charisma of office. While the magi-
cian is self-employed and his practice occasional, the priests form a
specialised social group in the service of a cultic enterprise.20 In con-
trast with the magician, the priests occupation is regularly organised
and permanent.21
In between these extremes stands the prophet. As the magician,
the prophet carries personal charisma, but the revelatory knowledge
he claims to possess concerns specific doctrines and command-
ments of an older tradition. While the magician works on his own, the
prophet functions on the fringe of a cultic enterprise. In practice, the
establishment of the prophets charisma is similar to that of a magi-
cian: special ecstatic abilities or magical feats. Typically, a prophet
propagates ideas for their own sake and not for economic gains.22
Weber furthermore divides the category of the prophet into two: the
ethical prophet, who is thought to be an instrument for proclaiming
Gods will (e.g. Muhammed), and the exemplary prophet, who dem-
onstrates the way to salvation by his own example (e.g. the Bud-
dha).23
Separate from the prophet, but also as charismatic personages in
between the magician and the priest, Weber locates also the sacred
legislator, the teacher of ethics, and the mystagogue. The sacred
legislator is someone who has been assigned the responsibility of
20 Webers enumeration of types of religious authorities is not the only one. Wach
(1967), 341-374, for example, presents another one, based on Webers list, with nine
types. They are the founder of religion, the reformer, the prophet, the seer, the magician,
the diviner, the saint, the priest and the religiosus. I have chosen to stick to Webers
typology, since it is easier to use. In Wachs list, it is very hard to distinguish for exam-
ple between the reformer and the prophet. It could be argued that Webers typology is
outdated, but since it is widely known I find it convenient to use, especially for bring-
ing out the distinction between personal and institutional charisma. See also Ketola
(2002), 26-27.
21 Weber (1965), 28-30
22 Ibid, 46-48
23 Ibid, 59
6
codifying or reconstituting a law, while the teacher of ethics is some-
one who gathers disciples and counsels individuals on personal mat-
ters. Weber believes the traditional concept of guru within Hinduism
to be a typical example of this category. The mystagogue is a reli-
gious specialist who performs sacraments, magical actions meant to
bring salvation. As a prophet, he is part of a greater social community,
but teaching an ethical doctrine usually plays only a subordinate role
for him. As a priest, he may also make a living out of his practice.24
Weber locates the guru in either the category of the teacher of ethics
or as the mystagogue, both of whom implement an established so-
cial order rather than break with it, as the prophet does. As I will
show, in the tradition at hand the issue is more complicated than this.
1.2.2 Canon
According to von Stietencron, in the context of religion, canon is the
result of a deliberate attempt to collect, arrange and preserve the
original message of a religious community, and to protect it against
corruption. It transforms haphazard individual recollections into au-
thoritative tradition or sacred scripture.25 He adds that its sacredness
stems both from the original formulators and from the eternal truths
that are thought to be expressed in the canon. Ideally, a canon is
permanent once fixed. While everything else is subject to change,
von Stietencron writes, the formation of a canon is an attempt at ar-
resting time, by picking out a selected set of elements that are con-
sidered essential and eternally valid, such as values, rules, exemplary
characters, and so forth.26
Apart from its quality of attempting to arrest time, a canon is au-
thoritative. It explains and justifies a specific kind of life, ethics
and theology.27 Moreover, the canon is a closed system, deriving
24 Weber (1965), 49-55

25 von Stietencron (2001), 14
26 von Stietencron (2001), 14-15
27 Pyysiäinen (1997), 19
7
its authority and proof from itself, often in a circular manner. Ilkka
Pyysiäinen gives the following example.
1. X is Gods word.
2. How do you know that?
3. Because it says so.
4. But how can you trust it?
5. Because X is Gods word.28
However, the system is not fully closed. Believers often hold that
the canon has proven its authority by giving them good advice on
how to act in difficult situations, mystically awarding them knowl-
edge (for example when they randomly open a sacred book and
find the answer they have been looking for), etc. Such a perceived
efficacy will give the canon added authority in the eyes of the be-
liever.
Even though the canon is usually thought to be holy and authorita-
tive en bloc and on its own, in real life only selected parts are ex-
plained and interpreted, and it is often the correct interpretation by a
charismatic religious authority that is authoritative, not the literal
meaning of the text itself, which may not even be widely known. In
this way, and as will become evident later in this thesis, the canon
gathers added authority from a charismatic person.
It is sometimes argued that there are only two great religious tradi-
tions that have a canon, one starting with Judaism (and later encom-
passing also Christianity and Islam) and the second Buddhism.29 I do
not agree. Granted, the canon of these traditions is very clearly de-
fined, but many other traditions claim to base their teachings on
some collection of holy texts. That the collection may not be as
clearly defined as in the above cases need not exclude them.
28 Pyysiäinen (1997), 15
29 Ibid, 14
8
Gau ya Vaiavas are in this regard very particular in stating that
their doctrine or siddhnta is Vedic or in accordance with the scrip-
tures, probably to distinguish themselves from non-scriptural
movements such as the Bauls.30
This is not only rhetoric: according to Gau ya Vaiava theology,
scriptural evidence is the only way to reach otherwordly knowl-
edge.31 However, there is one exception, and it is noteworthy:
vaiduya-pratyaka or the faultless perception of the pure and
saintly persons, for it is considered the basis of scripture itself.32 This
dependence on scripture can also be seen in practice: theological
discussions between even modern Gau yas are often little more
than throwing quotes from the scriptures at each other,33 and in ex-
plaining the doctrine of the guru, the gurus I interviewed usually
cited and interpreted the same scriptural passages.
The term scripture is a diffuse one, especially so in a Hindu con-
text. Wach divides religious texts into three groups. The first consists
of a binding and normative canon, such as the Bible, Koran or the
Veda or ®ruti texts. The second one consists of secondary commen-
tary of a semi-canonical status, such as the Smti, Stras and commen-
taries by revered theologians. The third consists of classical literary
works such as the Mahbhrata or Rmyaa, works that are not
binding or normative, but that are meant to entertain, edify and edu-
cate.34
For the Gau ya Vaiavas this system of classification does not
work. In his Tattva-sandarbha, J va Gosvmin discusses this issue
and accepts the canonic authority of both the ®ruti and Smti class of
texts, including the Mahbhrata. However, he argues that of all
30 Madsen (2001), 27
31 Kapoor (1994), 63. For a detailed modern Gaudiya explanation of epistemology,
see Suhotra Swami (1998).
32 Sarva-savdin commentary to TS 12
33 See e.g. Satya Nryaa & Kual Dsa (1994) and ISKCON GBC Press (1996).
34 Wach (1958), 72-73
9
scriptures the Bhgavata Pura is topmost.35 For this reason J va
Gosvmin will generally quote the authority of the Bhgavata
Pura in his theological and philosophical works. However, when
convenient he also quotes other texts: S.K. De gives a list of works
cited in his ±a-sandarbha running up to nine pages!36 The same can
be seen in the writings of other Gau yas (e.g. Gopla Bhaa
Gosvmin): both ®ruti and Smti are considered authoritative, but in
the case of conflicts (and they are not few) the standard is that given
in the Bhgavata.
While the Bhgavata Pura thus is the basic canonical work of the
Gau yas and other ancient texts as far as they conform to it, later texts
have been added: the books written by the six Gosvmins of
Vndvana, the main hagiographies of Caitanya (especially Kadsa
Kavirjas Caitanya-caritmta), collections of songs by prominent
devotees (for example Narottama Dsas Prrthan), commentaries
on the Bhgavata, etc. Even though the Bhgavata is still thought to be
the supreme authority,37 it is in reality superseded by these texts, con-
sidered canonical by all Gau yas.38 There are also other, later texts that
are held as authoritative within different groups of Gau ya Vaiavas,
but their use is limited to within that particular group. Reflecting this
praxis, my use of the term canon will similarly be very broad.
1.2.3 A hierarchy of understandings

For the above-mentioned reasons, it is necessary to have a thorough
knowledge of what the canonical scriptures of the Gau ya
Vaiavas have to say on the subject of the guru. Therefore, in this
thesis, I have first gone through them and picked out the relevant
parts, presenting them in part II divided into different subjects. Un-
35 TS 12-26
36 De (1961), 413-421
37 E.g. IF 2002/14d
38 A similar development can be seen in the Vallabha-sapradya. Dalmia (2001).
10
less otherwise indicated, all translations of Sanskrit and Bengali texts
are my own.
To make sense of the sometimes very complicated doctrines
found in the Gau ya Vaiava canon, some kind of theoretical tool is
needed. In his book Ritual and Religion in the Making of Human-
ity39 , anthropologist Roy Rappaport presents an interesting and
useful hierarchy of understandings. While he basically uses the typol-
ogy for understanding rituals and liturgy, I think the same scheme
can be used for unraveling theological doctrines. In particular, I find it
useful in order to clarify the complex and seemingly contradictory
doctrine of the guru that we will encounter in part II of the thesis.
Roy Rappaport argues that there are four levels of understanding.
The first level, at the apex of the conceptual structure, he calls the
Ultimate Sacred Postulates. These are postulates, that is, claims
needing no demonstration. Self-evidence or obviousness may be the
basis. These postulates can not be falsified, since they are devoid of
material significata. Nor can they be objectively or empirically veri-
fied. Moreover, they are taken to be unquestionable.40 An example
of this, from the Gau ya Vaiava context, is the statement that
Ka is the supreme Lord.41
The next level Rappaport calls cosmological axioms. These are
assumptions concerning the fundamental structure of the universe,
or paradigmatic relationships in accordance with which the universe
is constructed. They differ from the Ultimate Sacred Postulates in
concerning relationships between qualities that may be sensible
(such as heat and cold), and which are manifested in social and physi-
cal phenomena. The expression of these axioms are thus also more
general and varied. They are more specific than the Ultimate Sacred
Postulates, and they are the logical basis of rules of conduct and pro-
prieties of social life. An example of this is the common Hindu belief
39 Rappaport (1999), 263-281

40 Ibid, 278-281
41 Brahma-sahit 1.1
11
of human society created as a fourfold system of vara and rama.42
Cosmological Axioms can, unlike Ultimate Sacred Postulates,
change, expand or even be radically changed, in response to
changes in the environment.43
The third level consists of rules of conduct. These are specifics
dealing with relations among persons, qualities, conditions and states
of affairs whose opposition are stated by cosmological axioms. They
govern the behaviour of everyday life. These rules can be changed,
even drastically, without affecting the oppositions they make mate-
rial.44 An example could be that one should not return the ghee-lamp
to the plate of offerings after one has offered it to the temple image,
based on the cosmological axiom of the difference between offered
and unoffered things, and that they should not be mixed.45
The fourth and last level consists of importations. These are indi-
cators of prevailing environmental conditions. There is a highly flex-
ible relationship between these and the rules of conduct. These im-
portations are extremely specific.46 For example, it is permitted to
offer foodstuffs with olive oil to Ka.47
These four levels can also be organized into concurrent hierarchies
of specificity, concreteness, longevity, mutablility, contingency, in-
strumentality, efficacy, authority and sanctity, with the Ultimate Sa-
cred Postulates of course occupying the high end of the spectrum,
and the importations the low.48 As we shall see in part II, understand-
ing these four levels greatly aids in understanding the seemingly
contradictory aspects of the Gau ya doctrine of the guru.
42 E.g. BG 4.13
43 Rappaport (1999), 264-265
44 Ibid, 265-266
45 Pañcartra-prad pa, 192
46 Rappaport (1999), 266-268
47 Pañcartra-prad pa, 67
48 Rappaport (1999), 275
12
1.2.4 Textual criticism
For the reasons mentioned above the textual sources of the Gau ya
Vaiavas cannot be excluded from the study. However, they are
inadequate, since they present only a normative or idealised picture
of theology and practice. Most of all, they tend to downplay the role
of innovation, even though most of these writings have their source
in individually charismatic innovators. To find a more balanced pic-
ture, I will contrast the normative scriptural statements with findings
from anthropological field work. In this way, I try to arrive at a thick
description49 of the matter at hand. Still, neither the canonical texts
nor the opinons of modern practitioners can at all times be taken at
face value. In particular, when looking for historical facts, both have
to be subjected to textual criticism.
The religious historian, Hannu Kilpeläinen notes that textual criti-
cism means that it is not enough to know 1) one truth, 2) one source,
3) one description textual or verbal, 4) one researcher/ research
and 5) one interpreter. Furthermore, the researcher must also be able
to critically view his own paradigms.50 In this case, the problem is
often aggraviated by the pious tendency of disciples to highlight the
achievements of their own guru something that often leads to de-
liberately downplaying rival gurus. In some cases (see 8.2.2), ac-
counts given by followers of rival gurus of the same events may dif-
fer dramatically.
A genre with special problems in this regard is hagiography. For
that reason, while I have used hagiographies as a source in this thesis,
what I have looked for in them have been ideals of practice, not nec-
essarily facts. I have used them very sparingly when trying to estab-
lish historical facts.
49 The term was introduced by Gilbert Ryle. See Geertz (2000), 6-7.
50 Kilpeläinen (1997), 61
13
1.2.5 Conducting interviews
In order to obtain first-hand information on how the gurus perceive
themselves and each other, I decided to make use of loosely struc-
tured interviews with gurus and disciples in the Gau ya Vaiava
movement. I drew up a basic structure of questions beforehand
that I followed more or less strictly in the actual interviews. The
main idea was to get the gurus to explain the guru-doctrine in their
own words something that usually was not very difficult, since the
subject was of great interest to themselves. Usually extra questions
would come up during the interviews, and sometimes I would omit
some of the questions, for example if I noticed that someone was
not inclined to answer personal questions. I tried to keep the inter-
views informal and free-flowing, in order to encourage the inter-
viewee to open up. For this reason, I also sometimes asked ques-
tions not directly related to my present research. During my sec-
ond term of fieldwork (in 2002), I tended to focus on specific issues
that remained unclear, such as the relationship between different
Gau ya Vaiava groups.
In chosing the persons to interview, my main concern was to
obtain as wide a spectrum of opinions as possible. With this in mind,
I approached gurus from most of the so-called traditional groups of
Gau ya Vaiavas, as well as from some of the most prominent
modern ones. Among the traditional groups, I interviewed both
goswami- and renunciate gurus, but mostly goswamis. I generally
started with someone I had heard about previously (usually from
lay Gau yas), and then proceeded in a snow-ball-fashion, asking
the interviewee to recommend someone else that I should speak
to. In this way I would usually find one or at most two more persons
before I had to start from scratch. It was also useful for me to hear
which groups had a wrong understanding of the guru-doctrine,
since that could also give me a clue as to where to go next.
Since my own knowledge of Bengali is rather basic, my choice of
interviewees was limited by a constant lack of good and reliable
translators. Some translators never turned up, others suddenly left,
14
and the ones that stayed sometimes translated only what they felt
was relevant. For this reason, out of my 43 interviews, only 10 were
conducted in Bengali with the help of a translator. In these cases, my
own Bengali was enough to verify at least a bit of what the translator
said, and to sometimes notice things he omitted and ask him to back-
track. The rest were made in English. This meant that the persons
interviewed represent a more educated section of society than
would have been the case if I had been able to speak with everyone.
Still, this was not as great a problem as it could have been, since the
gurus often come from an educated background. I failed in obtaining
only two interviews because of linguistic problems.
Of the 44 interviews, 12 were done in different places in Bengal, 2
in Puri, Orissa, 5 in Helsinki, Finland, 2 in Radhakund, and the remain-
ing 23 in Vndvana. The Vndvana side is thus somewhat over-rep-
resented in the material. A more serious overrepresentation is that
out of 17 interviewed gurus, not a single one is a woman! There are
women gurus in Gau ya Vaiavism, and I have met such, but unfor-
tunately have not been able (for linguistic and other reasons) to inter-
view any. Even though female gurus are rare in modern Gau ya
Vaiavism, this is admittedly a drawback in the study. Because of
this great predominance of men in the study, I have (if not expressly
referring to a woman) used the masculine pronoun throughout.
During my stays in India in 1998 and 2000-2001 I recorded the
interviews on cassette tapes. The advantage of using an ordinary
cassette recorder is obvious: one can easily procure more tapes if the
old run out, and if the recorder is broken, there is at least a possibility
of getting it repaired. Except for Indian batteries running out all the
time, I had no problems with the equipment. During the last term of
fieldwork, in 2002, I used a mini-disk recorder, which was very con-
venient and easy to use. The rechargeable battery also saved me
from a lot of anxiety. In some cases, when the interviewee did not
allow me to record the interview, I would take notes in shorthand
during the interview. As soon as possible afterwards I would expand
on the notes from memory.
15
The interviews were transcribed and divided into parts according
to the theme discussed (e.g. relationships between gurus and disci-
ples). Especially interesting passages (e.g. novel, illustrating or
strange) were separately noted. Since the parts roughly conformed
to the chapters of part II, it was usually easy for me to go back and see
what the different gurus had said about each topic and incorporate
their views into the text. After I had finished the first draft of the
whole text, I returned to the transcribed interviews to make sure that
I had not missed anything important.
Interviewing 17 gurus does not of course amount to a complete
survey of the opinions of all modern Gau ya gurus. Nevertheless, I
was able to obtain samples from the major groups of Gau ya
Vaiavism today, and to achieve a fair amount of satiation51 of opin-
ions within the groups, i.e. that the same opinions were repeatedly
stated without much new information emerging.
After this, the interviews were qualitatively analyzed, rather than
quantitatively. Quantitative research is based on finding statistical
regularities in the way different variables relate to each other, after
which the researcher increases the observation units, so that the sta-
tistical regularities become more significant. Exceptions are allowed
in this kind of analysis and argumentation. Qualitative analysis, on the
other hand, aims at finding rules and regularities found throughout
the material at hand. The conclusions must be absolute: even one
exception forces the researcher to reinterpret the data.52 Qualitative
analysis has two phases (that in practice are coexistent): purifica-
tion of observations, and unriddling. Purification of observations
implies examining the material from a particular theoretical point of
view. The theoretical framework and the question at hand deter-
mines what is essential. By combining several such essential obser-
vations, one further reduces the amount of data. Unriddling means to
try to come up with an interpretative explanation of the findings
51 Alasuutari (1999), 107

52 Ibid, 34-38
16
obtained through the purification phase. Different clues may be
used to arrive at the solution, such as previous studies, statistical data,
and so forth.53
1.2.6 Participant observation

Besides the interviews, the main method of my fieldwork was par-
ticipant observation. The meaning of the term is self-explanatory:
making observations while participating oneself. The idea is, as first
stated by Bronislaw Malinowski, to stay long enough in the field for
the natives to become used to and accept the fieldworker as some
kind of group member, so that their behaviour and actions are not
affected by his presence.54 While a formal interview may include a
lot of self-editing by the interviewee, the idea is that the re-
searcher by participant observation is able to access a more normal,
unreflected side of the persons he wishes to study. Not only does
the researcher become more invisible with the passage of time,
he also acquires a greater degree of competence in the new social
reality. In the eyes of the natives, if he is successful, he goes
through different stages: from interloper, to novice and finally to a
marginal member. It is unlikely that he will ever be perceived of as
a fully accepted, participating member. As pointed out by Brooks,
this need not be seen as a problem, for if the researcher ever gained
full competence and membership, it could become hard for him to
objectify his experiences enough for them to be analytical.55
Participant observation starts with locating oneself physically in
the social world one intends to study. After the physical location is
accomplished, the situations of interaction particularly important for
the task at hand must be discovered. Finally, one has to enter the
social world that is composed of these situation. For this, an accept-
53 Alasuutari (1999),, 44-48

54 Ibid, 103-104
55 Brooks (1989), 236
17
able and convincing role must be taken up.56
After these preliminaries have been achieved (and together with
them), one begins to gather observations of the experiences one
has, reflecting upon them and noting them down as precisely as pos-
sible. Finally, usually when one has returned back to his desk, comes
data interpretation. The researcher goes through all the material he
has gathered, compares it with his memories, and tries to sort is out as
best he can.57
For me all this meant travelling to the most important Gau ya
centres in India: Vndvana in Uttar Pradesh, Navadv pa/ Mypra
in West Bengal and Puri in Orissa. I spent most of the time in
Vndvana, and I will exemplify my participant observation with a
short description of my stay there. For a month and a half, I lived in
the Bhajan Kutir, the rama of the late B.H. Bon Mahrja, a rather
famous Gau ya Vaiava whose disciples I had come to know ear-
lier, when I gathered material for my MA paper.58
My reasons for staying in this place were several. First of all, since
I have been a member of ISKCON for about ten years, I had already
seen how the interaction between gurus and disciples work in that
movement. Now I wanted to observe the same in a different
Gau ya movement. Second, I had already during my previous visit
established good rapport with the leader and inmates of this rama.
Third, I knew that since it was the month of Krttika, a month of
many festivals, when many Bengalis visit Vndvana for pilgrimage,
and since the guru of the institution was present, there would be
many occasions for observing the interaction between the guru and
different types of disciples. Fourth, the physical location was good.
The Bhajan Kutir is situated near the Madana-mohana temple on the
outskirts of old Vndvana, near many other important temples and
ramas. Even though all the inmates of the rama (as in many
56 Brooks (1989), 237-238

57 Ibid, 237
58 Broo (1999)
18
Gau ya ramas in Vndvana) are from Bengal, they are well inte-
grated into the local community.
I arrived in the Bhajan Kutir on a hot, humid evening in the begin-
ning of October. I had flown into Delhi the same morning and visited
some bookstores before taking the train to Mathur. When leaving
the overcrowded train I noticed my mobile phone was missing
hardly an auspicious beginning to my research! Undaunted, I took a
motor riksha to Vndvana, where I changed into a bicycle riksha for
the last part of the journey. Arriving in the Bhajan Kutir was memora-
ble. The guru, Gopnanda Bon Mahrja, was sitting outside on the
porch, bare-breasted in the tropical heat, reading a medieval classic
about the love of Rdh and Ka. He lit up upon seeing me, having
been expecting me. I was given a bed in the same room as the pjri
(altar priest) upstairs, a small and dusty room visited also by several
small mice, a cat interested in eating anything but the mice, and the
occasional marauding monkey.
I tried to enter the social world of the rama as best I could, by
participating in the temple functions, doing a little menial service,
taking my meals with the devotees, and so on. Getting used to the
rhythm of life was hard in the beginning. Dinner was sometimes not
served before ten in the night, and one had to get up at half past
three to attend the first temple service. A siesta in the afternoon was
supposed to make up for the lost sleep. Nevertheless, I was soon
accepted as a marginal member and trusted enough for people to
be able to quarrel, laugh and go about their normal business in my
presence. Still, the colour of my skin, of course, made it impossible
for me not to stick out, as well as my notebook.
Besides staying at the Bhajan Kutir, I also visited many other places
in Vndvana, to observe festivals, initiations, interview persons or to
see holy places in the company of some guru and his disciples. Usu-
ally, I carried with me one or several notebooks, and I would try to jot
down important observations as soon as possible. It was often, how-
ever, more practical to peacefully write down the experiences later.
I would also take pictures, and was in fact commissioned to take the
19
official pictures of Gopnanda Bon Mahrja. During a later trip,
much to my pleasure, I found laminated copies of the pictures I had
taken in a remote village on the border with Bangladesh.
I have made use of the material gathered in this way particularly in
part III, where I propose a typology of seven roles the guru takes in
relationship with his disciples and other admirers. Perceiving the
guru in terms of these seven roles renders his behaviour more under-
standable generally and analyzeable in light of the theory above and
the findings of part II.
1.3 Sources
1.3.1 Printed sources

The printed sources for this thesis include both primary and second-
ary sources. The primary sources are writings from within the move-
ment itself. They are further divided into two groups: the original,
medieval writings, and modern interpretations.The medieval books
have been given much more emphasis, since they are accepted and
oft-referred to by practically all modern authorities within the move-
ment. The three most important such works are the Hari-bhakti-
vilsa by Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin, the Bhakti-sandarbha by J va
Gosvmin, and the Caitanya-caritmta by Kadsa Kavirja
Gosvmin.59
The Hari-bhakti-vilsa (Manifestations of devotion to Hari) is a
treatise on the duties of the ideal Vaiava householder. Some edi-
tions of the book contain a verse at the end stating that it was com-
pleted in the fall of 1534. Even were this verse not genuine, the book
must have been written before 1541, since it is quoted in the Bhakti-
rasmta-sindhu of Rpa Gosvmin (e.g. 1.2.72), written in that
year. The question of the authorship of the Hari-bhakti-vilsa is a
59 Some of these books are available in electronic form at the Gau ya Grantha
Mandira at http://www.granthamandira.org, but the verse- or passage-numberings
are in some cases (especially for BS) different from the printed editions I have used.
20
rather complicated one: the book clearly says that it was written by
Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin (ca 1505-1586), while two contemporary
Gosvmins as clearly write that the author was Santana Gosvmin. I
have dealt with this problem at length elsewhere.60 I believe the au-
thor is quite clearly Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin, and that the author of
the commentary named Dig-darin that practically always accom-
panies the text itself was Santana Gosvmin. Probably because of
the great repute of Santana Gosvmin, a desire arose to see the
whole book as his work.
The Hari-bhakti-vilsa is a voluminous book. It contains 9,275
verses divided into twenty Vilsas (Manifestations) or chapters.
The vast majority of these verses, however, are quotations from al-
most two hundred Puras, Smtis and other ancient works. The
method of the book is to provide a verse or two about a specific sub-
ject, and then support and illustrate that with copious and often re-
petitive quotations. This gives the work a great deal of authority in
the eyes of religious orthodoxy.
Some scholars have been surprised by how the Hari-bhakti-vilsa
omits to mention many things essential to Gau ya Vaiavism, such
as the joint worship of Rdh and Ka.61 While Caitanya is praised in
the beginning verse of each Vilsa, not a word is said about worship of
him, nor is his mantra mentioned. The explanation for this is actually
quite simple: the work is clearly not intended only for Gau ya
Vaiavas, but as a guidebook for Vaiavas in general. In many places
the reader is asked to proceed according to the rules of ones particu-
lar sapradya or group (e.g. 4.175). For this reason, the author
avoids things that he believes Vaiavas from other sapradyas
would object to. The catholic spirit of the book can also be seen from
how the author freely quotes or refers to books written by teachers of
the Kumra-sapradya (such as the Krama-d pik by Keava
60 Bhgumuni Dsa (2001), xii-xvi

61 See for example De (1961), 412
21
Kam ri), ®r -sapradya (such as the Rahasya-sra by Vednta
Deik), or even Smrta authors such as Kadeva or Hemdri.
It must also be added that at the time the Hari-bhakti-vilsa was
written, a Gau ya Vaiava sapradya per se had not yet ap-
peared in Vndvana, not to speak of ritual worship of Caitanya, who
at the time when the book was finished only quite recently had
passed away. In the early works of the Gosvmins one can clearly
see a desire to fit into a general community of Ka-devotees. For
example, in his Bhakti-rasmta-sindhu (1.2.269, 309) Rpa
Gosvmin equates his terms vaidh - and rgnug-sdhana-bhakti
with the terms maryda- and pui-mrga of the Vallabha-
sapradya. Such a desire to co-operate with other Vaiavas is
hardly surprising at a time when there were still very few Bengali
Vaiavas in Vndvana.
While the Hari-bhakti-vilsa contains much material that is inter-
esting to scholars of religion and medieval Indian iconography, the
parts of most importance for the purpose at hand are the first two
Vilsas. The first contains a short general introduction to the work
and then a description of the guru, disciple and mantra. The second
Vilsa is concerned with initiation. This Vilsa is based on the fourth
chapter of the Krama-d pik, but is much more detailed, especially
if the commentary of Santana Gosvmin is also consulted. Some in-
formation on the worship of the guru is also found towards the end of
the third Vilsa.
Some modern Gau yas consider the Hari-bhakti-vilsa of sec-
ondary importance and say that it is influenced by Smrta ideas.
Among the examples they give, one usually finds that the author
does not completely reject the Varrama system, that he quotes
Smrta authors and that he places great stress on observances not
followed by the later tradition.62 Others give the book the greatest
62 Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda (1975a), 21
22
respect, calling it the true Vaiava smti or the like.63 When defining
key terms such as guru or initiation in his famous dictionary,
Haridsa Dsa depends almost exclusively upon the Hari-bhakti-
vilsa. Still, it is uncommon that ordinary devotees study the book,
and it is one of the few books of the Gosvmins that as of yet has not
been translated into English in its entirety.
The Bhakti-sandarbha (A thesis on Devotion) by J va Gosvmin
(1516?-1608) is part five of his magnum opus Bhgavata-sandarbha
(also known as ±a-sandarbha), a prose work in six parts that sys-
tematically presents the theology of Gau ya Vaiavism. The
Bhgavata-sandarbha is generally considered the most important
philosophical treatise in the Gau ya sapradya.64 It deals, as the
title says, with devotion to Ka, the means of reaching the goal of
life, preman or ecstatic love of Ka. The exact date of the work is
not known, but it was written some time towards the end of the six-
teenth century.
Apart from being written in prose, a greater difference between
J va Gosvmins book and the Hari-bhakti-vilsa is that while that
book deals almost exclusively with ritual, the Bhakti-sandarbha is
mostly concerned with theology. The author builds up a whole sys-
tematic theology around the Bhgavata Pura (8th century CE?),
using reason and philosophy to support his ideas. Still, there is a
clear connection between the Bhakti-sandarbha and the Hari-
bhakti-vilsa, for J va Gosvmin states that he has based his
Sandarbhas on the notes of one brhmaa from the south, a friend
of Rpa and Santana Gosvmins65 a person identified with
Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin by the later commentator Baladeva
Vidybhana.66
63 Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat in the preface to Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin (1991)

64 Rosen (1991), 164
65 TS 4, also BS 1
66 In his commentary to TS 4
23
The notes J va Gosvmin refer to are not extant, but it is easy to
see that much of the material of, for example, the Bhakti-
sandarbha is based on what is written in the Hari-bhakti-vilsa.
One example is the passage on the ekda fast in Anuccheda
299 of the Bhakti-sandarbha, in which all the quotations can also
be found in Vilsas 12 and 13 of the Hari-bhakti-vilsa.67
The Bhakti-sandarbha is comprised of 340 Anucchedas or pas-
sages of various length. In passages 202 through 213, J va
Gosvmin discusses turning to a guru as the first element of
bhakti. Some more details relating to worshipping the guru are
considered in passages 237 and 238. These are the parts of main
interest for understanding what J va Gosvmin thinks on this sub-
ject.
As with the Hari-bhakti-vilsa, the Bhakti-sandarbha is not
largely systematically studied within the movement today. All
Gau yas however respect the Sandarbhas, and they are often
said to be unsurpassed by any other philosopher and perfect in all
respects,68 but probably because of their technical and philo-
sophical nature, and because of their size, few study them seri-
ously. The Bhakti-sandarbha has been translated into English (by
Kuakratha Dsa of the Krishna Institute), but the translation is
unfortunately inaccurate and sometimes even misleading.
Just as the Bhakti-sandarbha is based on the work of Gopla
Bhaa Gosvmin, the Caitanya-caritmta (The Nectar of Acts
of Caitanya) by Kadsa Kavirja (1517-1610?) is firmly based
on the works of Gopla Bhaa, J va, Rpa and Santana
Gosvmins. While it, externally, is a hagiography of Caitanya, it
presents the philosophy and theology of the Gosvmins, some-
67 ®r vatsa Goswami of the Rdh-ramaa temple in Vndvana holds that Gopla

Bhaa Gosvmin was the actual author of the Sandarbhas, and that J va Gosvmin
merely edited the books, just as he edited some of Rpa Gosvmins books (IF 2000/
14d).
68 See for example Satya Nryaa Dsa (1995), xii
24
times even putting it into the mouth of Caitanya himself.69
Kadsa Kavirja never met Caitanya, but he studied under
Raghuntha Dsa Gosvmin, who had had much association with the
master. He also made good use of earlier biographies and diaries,
some of which now are lost.70 As a work of art, the book is of great
merit. Sukumar Sen called it a landmark of New Indian literature.71
In the very first chapter, the position of the guru is described, and
later on other details are also given.
While the two previously mentioned works are written in Sanskrit,
this book is in Bengali, and this opened up the possibility for com-
mon people to become acquainted with the teachings of the
Gosvmins. Even today, when Bengali and Hindi translations of the
books of the Gosvmins have long been available, what most
Gau yas know of, for example, the Sandarbhas of J va Gosvmin is
what they have read in the Caitanya-caritmta. Undoubtedly this
that it has popularised the doctrines of the Gosvmins is the great-
est merit of the work. It is widely read and studied. Two English trans-
lations are available, one devotional (by Bhaktivednta Swami
Prabhupda) and one academic (by Edward C. Dimock).
There is a controversy regarding the date of composition of the
Caitanya-caritmta. Some editions contain a colophon with the
date 1581 at the end, and some scholars (e.g. D.C. Sen) accept this
date. As pointed out by several later scholars, however, that verse is
not found in all editions and can not be genuine, since the book cites
the Gopla-camp of J va Gosvmin from 1590. Another reading of
the verse gives the year 1615.72 The exact year of Kadsa
69 E.g. when Caitanya in CC 2.9.117 quotes a verse (1.2.59) from the Bhakti-
rasmta-sindhu of Rpa Gosvmin, written in 1541. The devotee answers by saying
that Rpa Gosvmin learnt the verse from Caitanya and later put it into his book. See
Yati Maharaj (1994b), 335.
70 De (1997), 27-29
71 Sen (1992) , 92
72 De (1961), 56-57, Kapoor (1994), 60
25
Kavirjas death is not known, but he signed as a witness to J va
Gosvmin´s will in 1608.73 It is thus possible that he was alive in
1615, though he must have been very old, as he also writes in the
book. From internal evidence, it also seems that the so-called six
Gosvmins of Vndvana had all died when the book was com-
pleted.74
Secondary printed sources are scholarly studies of Gau ya
Vaiavism. These include articles and monographies from the last
eighty years or so. Since S.K. Des groundbreaking Early History of
the Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal first came out in 1940,
the theology, philosophy and esoteric practices of the movement
have been widely studied.75 Ramakanta Chakrabartys thorough
Vaiavism in Bengal 1486-1900 provides much of the historical
material presented in chapter 2.2. While ISKCON (The International
Society for Krishna Consciousness), a Gau ya Vaiava group active
also in the West, has been widely studied76 , there is a great scarcity of
sociological and etnographical studies of Gau ya Vaiavism in In-
dia. In this regard, a recent essay by Ferdinallo Sardella of the Univer-
sity of Gothenburg concerning the two birthplaces of Caitanya is a
very welcome addition.77
I have also utilised several studies of Gau ya Vaiavism written
by devotees.78 These are sometimes written with the desire to dis-
tinguish true Gau ya Vaiavism from what are perceived as de-
graded forms, and to hopefully also attract the reader. However, they
often also contain material not found elsewhere. Used with caution,
they have been a great help. The books of O.B.L. Kapoor in particu-
lar straddle the line between primary and secondary material.
73 Mukherjee & Wright (n.d.), 310

74 De (1961), 55
75 E.g. Case (2000), Haberman (1988), Wulff (1984)
76 E.g. Brooks (1989), Judah (1974), Rochford (1985), Rothstein (1996)
77 Sardella (2002)
78 E.g. Eidlitz (1968), Kapoor (1994), Rosen (1991)
26
1.3.2 Interviews
An important part of the primary material are the interviews I

have conducted with practicing Gau ya Vaiavas, both gurus
and disciples. The interviews have been conducted in Gau ya
centres in India, such as Vndvana and Navadv pa in October
1998 (2 interviews), October to January 2000-2001 (29) and Feb-
ruary and March 2002 (8 interviews). In addition, a few (5) were
done during 2001 (with members of ISKCON) in Helsinki, Fin-
land. Out of these 44 interviews, 20 are of gurus, and 24 of disci-
ples. Since some gurus were interviewed in 2000-2001 and again
in 2002, the actual number of gurus interviewed is 17. Many (11)
of the disciple-interviews are short and concerned only with the
reason for choosing their particular guru. These interviews con-
tain a wealth of new material, and I have made extensive use of
them particularly in part II of the thesis.
1.3.3 Field studies

Much of the material presented in part III stems from participant
observation conducted in various places in India, especially in
Vndvana, where I have lived in or at least visited Gau ya
Vaiava centres. I have taken part both in the daily life of the
practitioners, as well as in special festivals. The observations were
recorded in several field diaries. In some cases, photographs
taken of the events observed have helped bring back details to
memory.
1.3.4 Hagiographies
Another important source for uncovering the dynamics between dis-
ciples and gurus are hagiographies of Gau ya Vaiava saints. While
they of course may not be fully historically accurate, used with cau-
tion, they contain much valuable information, especially for charac-
27
terising the ideal guru and disciple. I have primarily relied on two
books by O.B.L. Kapoor: The Saints of Vraja and The Saints of Ben-
gal. The first one is based on the same authors five-volume Hindi
Braj ke bhakta, while the other is based on Haridsa Dsas Bengali
Gau ya Vaiava J vana. Both are written for a wide Gau ya audi-
ence and contain stories about saints that are (with a few exceptions)
commonly accepted as genuine.
1.3.5 Other sources

I have also made use of sources found on the internet. Such material
has its drawbacks, especially since it may change over time or even
disappear completely. The list of sources gives the date I have
accessed the sites. Most of the internet documents stem from a
website called VNN or Vaishnava News Network, a site that features
news and articles by mostly Western practitioners. It is updated daily
and very widely read (the site claims to receive one million hits per
month!79 ). I have also sometimes cited letters I have received from
practicing Gau ya Vaiavas.
1.4 Overview of the thesis

This thesis consists of three parts. Part one contains two chapters. The
first is the introduction, dealing with theory, sources, method and so
on, while the second gives a descriptive overview of Gau ya
Vaiavism, particularly its history and institutions. The purpose of this
information is to give the reader a context in which to place the
Gau ya Vaiava guru. Since particularly the institutions of Gau ya
Vaiavism is an underresearched topic, the new material that I
present here possesses also an intrinsic value.
Part II consists of four chapters. It describes the guru-institution of
Gau ya Vaiavism primarily as perceived by the Gau yas them-
79 http://www.vnn.org
28
selves. The main source for this part are the medieval scriptures of
the movement. What the scriptural sources have to say about the
guru is analysed and compared with the statements of modern prac-
titioners. The topics covered are those the theologians themselves
take up. Those they leave out (and they leave out several interesting
ones) are covered in part III. I will also examine possible sociological
reasons for interpretations by the modern day gurus. The normative
descriptions are compared to categories presented by other schol-
ars, notably R.M. Steinmann. Light is shed upon the sometimes con-
flicting statements by introducing Roy Rappaports hierarchy of
understandings. I will also try to locate the guru within Max Webers
typology of charismatic personages.
Part III contains seven short chapters. Here I look at the roles of the
guru in relation to his disciples, well-wishers and broader society. I
propose a typology of seven roles, some noticed by earlier scholars,
some by myself. Many of these show the tension between charisma
and canon that the guru embodies, according to my proposition.
Some of these roles are more important than others, and not every
guru will enter all of them very deeply. The source for this part is
primarily my own ethnographic research.
Part IV is the conclusion, where the findings of the two previous
parts are drawn together, and where I point to some conclusions of
more general interest.
1.5 Self-positioning
I am myself an initiated disciple of a Gau ya Vaiava guru, Suhotra
Swami Mahrja of ISKCON, and a practicing (converted) Gau ya
Vaiava. Does this make me partial, and thus disqualify me from
writing about this subject? The simple answer is no the subject of
this thesis is not whether Gau ya Vaiavism is a good religion or
whether the gurus actually have spiritual realisation. Such questions
are beyond the scope of any academic research.
When I begun my research, a collegue told me seriously to
29
present myself as an outsider when conducting field research. Grow
your hair, pretend to not be able to sit on the floor, mix up terms
otherwise they will never take you seriously as an impartial scholar.
I did not follow this advice, for several reasons. First of all, I would
have felt very uncomfortable behaving like this as though I was
cheating. Probably it would also not have worked somebody would
see me with prayer-beads in my hand and the word would spread.
Presenting myself as something other than what I am would also
have been ethically questionable. But my main reason was that I in-
stinctively felt that my collegue was wrong. I felt that the gurus and
disciples that I wanted to approach would feel more at ease with a
convert than with a complete outsider, that my being a devotee
would help establish a rapport with the persons I wanted to meet.
I took two years before I knew whether I had been right or not. My
field work generally went well. I had my setbacks, but in general, I
had little problems in meeting and speaking with Gau yas from
many different organisations and backgrounds. Working in the field
was a great adventure for me: I met many interesting people, saw
strange and enlivening places, and collected much new, previously
unrecorded material.
Still, I did not know whether I was particularly successful or not
working in India is certainly not as efficient as one would like until
I met another colleague who had tried to interview Vaiava gurus in
some of the places I had visited. This person told me how proud and
difficult these gurus were, how difficult it was to meet them and get
them to answer questions. I was surprised to hear this, since my own
experience had been so different. I realized that my own back-
ground was perhaps not only no problem, but actually an asset.
When doing my field work in India I have consistently dressed as a
Gau ya Vaiava, worn the tilaka mark on my forehead, and taken
great care to behave as a Gau ya is supposed to: bowing down to
temple images, touching the feet of persons considered saintly and
respectable, eating in the proper way. I have gladly taken part in
pilgrimages, festivals and daily life in ramas, carefully distancing
30
myself from ordinary western tourists. At the same time, especially
when I have wanted to interview someone, I have tried to explain
who I am and what my intentions are: to do research about guru-
tattva, the subject of the guru. I have endeavoured to make it clear
that I am a Gau ya Vaiava myself, but that I am now not primarily
interested in furthering my own spiritual life, but in doing my Ph.D.
Most had no problem understanding my dual roles. Why should
not one of our own men write our story? was a common sentiment.
No doubt some gurus wanted to give me religious teachings on the
side of helping out with my research, but I had no problem with that.
There were exceptions, of course. One guru called me a fool for try-
ing to understand spiritual matters academically. I could teach you
so many things, but first you must surrender and become my disci-
ple! Another refused to see me since he perceived me as belonging
to a rival Gau ya group.
While I have always been a respectful interviewer, I have not hesi-
tated to ask things a disciple would not. However, my authority (as a
convert and young man) was not always sufficient to get my inform-
ants to answer all my questions, for example, about their back-
ground. Usually they would humor me (letting me know that they
considered those things irrelevant), but not always. Furthermore,
dealing with a topic considered in some ways esoteric and mysteri-
ous, it is natural that my informants probably sometimes did not say
everything they knew.
1.6 Ethical considerations

All the gurus interviewed are, to a greater or lesser extent, public
persons, and they were all aware of the reason for my interviewing
them. All gave their consent to my interviewing them and mention-
ing their names, but a few did not let me record the interview on
tape/ minidisk. The reason for this was probably a nervousness about
their words being used against them in conflicts between different
Gau ya groups. Even these persons did, however, let me take down
31
notes (probably thinking that if trouble arises from a particular state-
ment, they could always deny having said that). For this reason, I
have not changed any of their names or in any other way tried to
conceal their identity.
Some did not want their name mentioned in connection with con-
troversial subjects. I have honoured this desire. Others wanted a
copy of the thesis when it is ready. Others expressed desires less
easy to fulfil, for example that I should realise the import of all the
topics before I write anything. Some may have had implicit expecta-
tions of being given a greater role than they have been assigned in
the final thesis, and some may upon reading the thesis think that I
have misunderstood them or lumped them together with the wrong
people. Others may disapprove of my methods or choice of inter-
viewees, not to speak of my conclusions. Still, I do not believe any-
one will feel cheated.
32
2. O V E R V I E W O F G A U YA V A I ± ¦ AV I S M
2.1 General characteristics

Gau ya Vaiavism is the name generally used for the devotional
(bhakti80 ) Hindu movement started by Ka Caitanya (1486-1533)
in what is today known as West Bengal. This movement has also
been characterised as a revival movement, since it revived interest
in Vaiavism (worship of Viu, or in this case Ka) a faith with a
much longer history. Similar revivals appeared all over northern India
during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. They all had some
common denominators, such as expressing themselves through the
vernaculars instead of Sanskrit; rejecting the religious monopoly of
the brhmaas; and encouraging an enthusiastic religion of congre-
gational singing and dancing as a way to reach communion with
God.81
The word Gau ya means Bengali. Some practitioners however
consider the word Gau ya not to refer so much to the geographi-
cal location of Gaua or Bengal, but to Gaua maala, the sacred
space of the same area. They derive the word Gau ya from gua,
sugarcane, implying that this is a particularly sweet form of
Vaiavism, where the sweetness rather than majesty of God is em-
phasised. A Gau ya Vaiava would then be a person who lives for
the sweetness associated with the love and worship of Rdh and
Ka.82 This definition is charming, but rather too wide, since there
are Vaiavas in other movements that would fit the description.
Some, again, argue that the appellation Gau ya Vaiavism is too
80 In keeping with common usage, I have translated bhakti as devotion. It should,

however, be kept in mind that the Gau ya conception of bhakti is not one of faith
alone as early scholars such as Otto and Söderblom envisaged it. Rather, bhakti is
defined as favourable service of Ka, unencumbered by knowledge (jñna) and
work (karman), etc, and free from the desire for anything else (BRS 1.1.11). See
Haberman (1988), 63-64.
81 Dimock (1989), 26-27
82 Rosen (1992), ii-iii
33
narrow, since the movement almost from the beginning spread be-
yond Bengal, and since there are also other forms of Vaiavism in
Bengal. Instead they propose the term Caitanya Vaiavism.83 I
have nevertheless opted to use the name Gau ya Vaiavism, since
it is the most widespread one.84
As mentioned above (1.1), a Gau ya Vaiava is usually defined
as a follower of Caitanya, or anyone who has taken shelter of
Caitanya.85 A more precise definition could be a person initiated
into the sapradya of Caitanya. In his dictionary, Sir Monier Monier-
Williams translates sapradya as a bestower, presenter; tradition,
established doctrine transmitted from one teacher to another; any
peculiar or sectarian system of religious teaching, sect.86 Sir Charles
Eliot, following in the same lines, writes that Sampradaya seems to
be the original Sanskrit word for sectarian doctrine. It means tradi-
tional teaching transmitted from one teacher to another.87 Others
have translated sapradya with the terms teaching tradition,88
religious sect,89 school of philosophy,90 school or church91 or
movement or denomination.92 Taken together, these definitions
give an idea of what is meant by sapradya: a particular religious
school passed down in disciplic successions. This means that it be-
gins from one guru or group of gurus, who teach the doctrines, rituals
and so on to the immediate disciples. In time, some of these disciples
themselves become gurus and teach their own disciples. Some of
83 E.g. Haberman (1988), 169

84 It is used by for example Chakrabarty (1985), Elkman (1986), Haberman (1988),
McDaniel (1989)
85 IF mgt 2002/12
86 Sir Monier Monier-Williams (1995), 1175
87 Quoted in Miller (1976-1977), 529
88 Miller (1976-77), 529
89 Kapoor (1976), 36
90 Narang (1984), x
91 Vasu (1979), iii
92 Joseph T. OConnell (1997), 45
34
the second generation of disciples also become gurus, and go on
spreading the teachings of the original guru/ gurus. And so on. In this
way a whole movement is gradually created.
Even though the word movement seems to be the one used
most often to denote the Gau ya Vaiava sapradya,93 that term
is not without its own problems, perhaps primarily since it is gener-
ally used for describing modern or pre-modern groups. Tradition,
again, sounds too static. As Joachim Wach points out, neither is the
term denomination suitable in this case, since a denomination im-
plies a secession from a larger body, and since a sapradya is not as
exclusive as a denomination.94 For these reasons, I will follow Wach
in retaining the word sapradya as a special kind of religious or-
ganisation falling between the mystery group and founded religion,
...implying a group with special concepts, forms of worship, and ad-

herence to exclusive leadership excercised by an outstanding reli-
gious personality or by his physical and spiritual descendant.95
Within one sapradya there will be many different parapars or

disciplic successions, chains of gurus and disciples all leading back to
the original guru/ gurus. While individual gurus may add to or modify
the teachings, as long as they and their disciples keep to some gen-
erally accepted common doctrinal and ritual principles, they are con-
sidered to be part of the same sapradya. Often the sapradyas
are very loosely organised: in terms of practical management, differ-
ent members of the same sapradya may have nothing at all to do
with each other.
In the case of the Gau ya Vaiava sapradya this is especially
true. While Caitanya is acknowledged by all Gau yas as the
founder of the movement, he does not seem to have formally ini-
93 It is used by for example De (1961), Elkman (1986) and Haberman (1988)

94 Wach (1967), 128
95 Ibid, 128
35
tiated anyone.96 Instead, the different parapars within the
Gau ya Vaiava sapradya begin from Caitanyas close compan-
ions. After Caitanya, there has never been any one person or institu-
tion with authority over the whole movement. The different
parapars have thus been able to develop in a kind of chaotic
democracy97 leaving them somewhat different theological concep-
tions, rituals and institutions. That is not to say that there are no com-
mon denominators, but rather that every rule will have its excep-
tions.
In relation to the normative writings of the Six Gosvmins,
Gau ya Vaiavas are often divided into two groups: the orthodox
and the heterodox. An incomplete list of heterodox Gau ya
Vaiava groups comprises 56 different movements.98 The main
heterodox groups are the Sahaj yas, who have incorporated many
elements of Tantra into their brand of Gau ya Vaiavism, and who
believe in unity between the souls and God;99 the Bauls, who beside
the Tantra have many Sufi influences;100 and the Kartbhjas, who
also believe in monism and who oppose the asceticism of orthodox
Gau ya Vaiavism.101 I follow historian Ramakanta Chakrabarty in
including the Gaurga-ngar s and some modern movements
within orthodox Gau ya Vaiavism.102 This thesis deals only with
96 The followers of Narottama Dsa maintain that he had one disciple: Lokantha
Gosvmin, Narottama Dsas guru (e.g. IF mgt 2002/10). Similarly, the followers of
Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin claim that he was Caitanyas only intiated disciple (e.g.
Case (2000), 75). The evidence presented for either claim is very flimsy.
97 Haberman (1994), 80
98 Chakrabarty (1985), 349. Swami Tattwananda (1984), 27-41, gives short (and of-
ten deprecative) descriptions of 76 Vaiava Subsects, most of which are subsects
of Gau ya Vaiavism.
99 See Dimock (1989)
100 See Sarkar (1990)
101 See Chakrabarty (1985), 346-384
102 Suhotra Swami (1997) includes the Gaurga-ngar s among the
apasapradyas or deviant Vaiava groups, but I do not find the doctrinal or
ritual differences great enough to warrant that.
36
orthodox Gau ya Vaiavism, of which I will later (2.3.4) present
three main divisions.
The Gau ya Vaiava sapradya prides itself on a very detailed
theology and philosophy, which has been elaborately described
elsewhere.103 For the purpose at hand only some basic information is
necessary. The bhakti movements of North India in the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries are usually divided into two clusters of often
internally bitterly fighting movements: the nirgua- and the
sagua-sapradyas. The first cluster consists of those movements
who believe in aniconic devotion, the second of those who believe
in iconic devotion.104 One sapradya in the first cluster is that of
the Sants of northern India,105 while the sapradyas of Vallabha
(1478-1530) and Caitanya are examples from the second cluster.
The Gau yas are Vaiavas, devotees of Viu. Their focus is on
Ka, popularly known as the eighth avatra or descent of Viu.
However, for the Gau yas, Ka is not an expansion or manifesta-
tion of Viu, but God himself in an almost monotheistic sense.106
Viu is but a part of Ka. The other gods of the Hindu pantheon
(such as ®iva, Brahm and so forth) are not done away with, but are
seen only as expansions or servants of Ka, and should therefore
generally not be offered separate worship.
Apart from this, some scholars have pointed out two distinguishing
factors in Gau ya Vaiava theology: the doctrines of acintya-
bhedbheda and bhaktirasa.107 Acintya-bhedbheda refers to the
doctrine of inconceivable simultaneous oneness and difference.
The individual souls (tmans) are considered identical with God,
Ka, in being eternal, joyful and full of knowledge, since they are
his energy, but they have their distinct personality and are thus sepa-
rate from him at all times. The favourite examples are fire and its
103 E.g. De (1961), Gupta [n.d.], Eidlitz (1968), Kapoor (1994).

104 Dalmia (2001), 129
105 See for example Gold (1987)
106 Brooks (1989), 5
107 Chatterjee (1992), 15-16
37
sparks, and the sun and the sunrays.108 However, how they can be
both identical and separate at the same time is acintya or beyond the
human intellect: a theological dogma pointing to the need of canoni-
cal authority to gain any understanding of these matters.
There is generally a much greater stress on the difference be-
tween God and the souls than on the oneness, no doubt as a reaction
to the monism of ®akaras advaita school of Vednta.109 As we shall
see, this stress on the dualism between God and the individual soul
makes it difficult to explain the traditional statements declaring the
guru to be identical with God.
The Gau ya Vaiava sapradya is, as already stated, a devo-
tional one. The stress is on bhakti, devotion, as the only practical way
for attaining the supreme goal which for Gau yas is not moka or
liberation, but preman, ecstatic love of God, of which moka is a
mere by-product. Bhakti is conceived of in terms borrowed from
classical Indian aesthetics. Bhakti itself is the ultimate rasa, or aes-
thetic rapture, and preman is entering into the eternal play (l l) of
God. All souls have a particular bhva, relationship to Ka, either as
a neutral worshipper, a servant, friend, elder or lover. This relation-
ship should be cultivated during this life, so that the devotee after
death can take up his role in the eternal play.110
Caitanya has sometimes been portrayed as a social reformer, even
though all contemporary sources make it clear that he was very little
concerned with such issues.111 Victor Turner points to Caitanyas
sapradya as an example of a communitas of withdrawal, with-
drawal in the sense of a total or partial withdrawal from the participa-
tion of the structural relations of a world that is seen as inherently
flawed. Turners analysis is, however, flawed by severe misunder-
108 Kapoor (1994), 132-137

109 ®akara lived most probably in the 9th century. See Malinar (2001). For a well-
written popular rendering of his life and teachings, see Madugala (2001).
110 Haberman (1988)
111 E.g. Chatterjee (1983), Sastri (1988)
38
standings of the relationships between Caitanya and followers of the
Sahaj ya school of thought.112 While Caitanya did encourage a
friendly, egalitarian mood amongst his disciples, in relation to outsid-
ers he generally asked them to respect the rules of the society. This
can be seen in the sapradya even today. Membership in the com-
munity is voluntary, and the primary religious concern of the com-
munity is devotion to Caitanya and Ka, but one is also supposed to
behave as a responsible citizen, regardless of who has the political
power. Except for some notable exceptions (especially in its early
stages) the sapradya can be said to match the common idea of
Vaiava sapradyas being socially conservative.113 Most
Gau yas thus differentiate between a realm of religious activities
and a realm of practical affairs, such as marriage, business or politics,
in which different rules apply. For a brhmaa Gaud ya Vaiava to
refuse to sit and eat beside a dra at a religious festival would be
wrong, but for him to make sure his daughter is wed to another
brhmaa would be seen as perfectly normal. The Gau ya Vaiava
sapradya can thus be characterised as denominational rather than
secterian.114
There is almost no evidence of conflicts between Gau yas and
the political powers, for example the Muslim rulers of mediaeval
Bengal. Rather, the relationship between Hindus and Muslims seems
to have been relatively good at that time.115 Many influential
Gau yas also supported the British rulers of Bengal before inde-
pendence.116
The main rituals in Gau ya Vaiavism are japa, repetion of Kas
name on a rosary; k rtana, congregational chanting of Kas names or
112 Turner (1991), 155-165. Turner bases his analysis on early writings by Edward C.
Dimock, some of which he himself later admitted as being wrong. See Dimock
(1989), preface.
113 As stated by for example Sanjukta Gupta (1989), 243
114 OConnell (1997), 47.
115 Eaton (1992), 167-177
116 Chakrabarty (1985), 396
39
songs about Ka or Caitanya, especially the mah-mantra;117 hearing
the scriptures, especially the Bhgavata Pura; and worshipping the
image of Ka.118
I have not been able to find any reliable statistical information about
Gau ya Vaiavas in India. W.J. Wilkins, writing in 1887, claims that the
greater part of the about 8 million Vaiavas of Bengal (one fifth of the
whole Hindu community) are Gau yas.119 However, according to the
census of 1881, only 568, 052 Bengalis were Vaiavas, while in 1901
they were calculated to be 391, 392.120 Unfortunately, since 1931 the
sects within religions have not been recorded. The census of 1991 gives
the total amount of Hindus for West Bengal as 50, 866, 624.121 Joseph T.
OConnell speaks about a few million Vaiava Bengalis.122
2.2 History of the sapradya
2.2.1 Caitanya and his contemporaries

What we know about Caitanyas life is mostly based on several near-con-
temporary hagiographies written by his followers. While they differ on
some details, the main facts are commonly accepted.123 Caitanya was
born 1486 as Vivambhara Mira in Navadv pa, a town famed for tradi-
tional learning, about 130 kms norths of Calcutta in modern West Ben-
gal. He spent his youth engrossed in study and teaching, apparently
not interested in religious issues. By sixteen he was already consid-
117 hare ka hare ka ka ka hare hare/ hare rma hare rma rma rma
hare hare//
118 BRS 1.2.91-93
119 Wilkins (1975), 323
121 www.censusindia.net
122 OConnell (1986), 51
123 Here I primarily follow the secondary sources Brooks (1989), 44-51, and De
(1961), 67-102. For good narrations by practitioners, see for example Ghose (1990),
Kapoor (1997), Sambidananda Das (1994) and T rtha (1947). For an study of one
such hagiography, see ®str (1992).
40
ered a great pundit and had his own school. A pilgrimage to sacred
Gay124 at the age of 22 changed everything. There Vivambhara
met the ascetic vara Pur and received from him initiation into the
Ka-mantra. Gone was the pedantic scholar now Vivambhara
(also known as N ma ) spent more and more time in ecstatic trances,
and in k rtana, congregational chanting of songs about Ka or just
his names. He quickly gathered a large following.
The k rtanas were in the beginning kept behind locked doors, but
soon became so popular that they upset the Muslim administrators of
the town, who tried to stop them. Vivambhara defied the prohibi-
tions and arranged huge, nightly ngara-k rtanas (congregational
chanting in the town streets) that apparently made the Muslims back
down and revoke their prohibitions. Vivambharas popularity grew,
and more and more people started to proclaim his divinity. How-
ever, only two years after his trip to Gay, he renounced his family
and accepted the renounced order of sannysa from one Keava
Bhrat . With the rod and saffron robes of the sannysin, he also re-
ceived a new name: ®r Ka Caitanya. The biographers give differ-
ent reasons for his taking of sannysa, but the one generally ac-
cepted is that he thought the position of a sannysin would be the
most favourable for spreading his message.
Caitanya had initially wanted to settle down in Vndvana after
accepting sannysa, but he was convinced instead to go to Puri in
Orissa, where his old mother could receive news from him more eas-
ily, and probably also since his followers in Navadv pa could more
conveniently visit him there. After just a few days in Puri, Caitanya
converted the court scholar Vsudeva Sarvabhauma Bhacrya and
received the favourable attention of the king. He did not linger for
long, however, but soon set out for a six-year pilgrimage to the south
of India and Vndvana. After he returned from Vndvana in 1515,
he did not again leave Puri, but spent his time there increasingly
absorbed in even violent religious trances. His passing in 1533 is
124 For more information on the pilgrimage centre at Gay, see Vidyarthi (1961)
41
shrouded in mystery: his followers say he merged with the image
of Jaganntha or Gop ntha,125 while others have suggested less
mystical versions: septic fever, drowning in the ocean while in a
trance, assassination by jealous temple priests/ royal officers,
etc.126
Already during his lifetime, Caitanya was deified. It appears
that at first he was seen as a descent of Ka, come for the pur-
pose of spreading devotion in the present degraded age of Kali,
but later the more esoteric doctrine of Caitanya being a dual incar-
nation of Rdh and Ka became the norm. Ritual worship of
Caitanya seems to have begun even before his death, though it
finds no mention in the writings of the Gosvmins of
Vndvana.127
While it seems unlikely that Caitanya conceived of himself as a
social reformer, his sapradya had several important effects on
particularly Bengali society. An emphasis on bhakti began to per-
meate also other sects; even non-Vaiavas accepted Caitanya as
an avatra; ritual sacrifices and drinking of wine as a religious
ritual was almost completely abolished; open drinking among
polished society became a matter of the past and instead came
to be seen as a vice; caste distinctions were lowered (especially at
religious occasions); education was spread to lower castes and
even women; and (according to some) widow remarriage be-
came more acceptable.128
Caitanyas main companions were Nitynanda and Advaita.
Nitynanda (1473-1545)129 was a Rah ya brhmaa who at an
early age took initiation from Mdhavendra Pur , the guru of vara
Pur , Caitanyas guru. Probably he also received sannysa-initia-
125 Kapoor (1997), 617

126 Acharya (1989), De (1961), 102, Sastri (1988), 62-63
127 De (1961), 421-422
128 Chatterjee (1983), 157-170. Widow remarriage has been practiced at least
amongst the jti vaiavas. See Kennedy (1925), 178.
129 The estimate of Sukhamaya Mukhopadhyaya, quoted in Chakrabarty (1985), 154
42
tion.130 He travelled between different holy places before meeting
Caitanya in Navadv pa 1509. Caitanya regarded him as his older
brother, and he soon became one of Caitanyas most charismatic and
enthusiastic followers. Nitynanda converted Jaga and Mdha , two
notorious ruffians, a feat that brought great fame to Caitanyas
sapradya. When Caitanya was awarded sannysa and left for
Puri, Nitynanda accompanied him and preached in Puri until
Caitanya sent him back to Bengal to spread the movement there.
Nitynandas style of propagation was highly unorthodox
he dressed in costly and colourful silks, wore expensive jewelry
and wielded an iron rod he would swing above his head while danc-
ing in k rtana. By all accounts he seems to have been extremely
charismatic. Moreover, he had no qualms about associating with and
initiating people from low castes, or in other ways breaking what he
conceived of as worldly social rules. He had many disciples, especially
from the mercantile classes. His most controversial act was, however,
that he married twice at a fairly advanced age, giving up his
sannysa.131
Advaita (1454-1550)132 was a Vrendra brhmaa from Sylhet,
who had moved to Navadv pa and become the leader of the small
Vaiava community there already before Caitanyas birth. Like
Nitynanda, he was a disciple of Mdhavendra Pur . He also had two
wives. He spoke furiously against the brhmiical reaction of the
age, and it is said that for years before the birth of Caitanya he prayed
to Viu that he would descend into the world. Later, he was the first
130 Some (e.g. Rosen (1991), 81) maintain that he never formally accepted
sannysa, while others hold that he did (e.g. Sasmal (2000), 146-150). The second
alternative seems more plausible.
131 Chakrabarty (1985), 133-158. Yati Maharaj (1998), 15-23 argues that Nitynandas
marriage is a later concoction, mainly on the basis of the silence of CB and CC in this
matter. There can be other reasons for that, and to uphold his theory he has to reject
practically all of later tradition.
132 According to Sukhamaya Mukhopadhyaya, quoted in Chakrabarty (1985), 123.
The apocryphical Advaitapraka gives the dates 1434-1559.
43
to publicly declare the divinity of Caitanya. He was an ardent fol-
lower of Caitanya, but seems to have had a much more intellectual
approach to bhakti than did Nitynanda, as well as (with a few ex-
ceptions) a more conservative opinion on social issues. His
headquarter was in ®ntipura near Navadv pa, a town that became
famous for its brhmiical orthodoxy. He had six sons, out of which
some were rejected for not accepting the divinity of Caitanya.133
Caitanya commissioned both Advaita and Nitynanda to spread
the faith in Bengal. The relationship between the two seems to have
been rather strained. The hagiographies contain several accounts of
love-quarrels between the two, where Advaita would accuse
Nitynanda of being a madman, whose caste and ancestors was un-
known, while Nitynanda would malign Advaita as being a greedy
brhmaa. These narrations have been interpreted by several schol-
ars to be an attempt at explaining away the bitter rivalry between the
two.134 However that may be, at least their followers have had sharp
disputes in the past centuries, especially in regard to social issues.
In the opinion of some scholars, Caitanya was much too preoccu-
pied with his devotional ecstasies to make any effort at organising or
spreading a movement.135 Later research has come to a different
conclusion. Not only did Caitanya depute Nitynanda and Advaita to
spread the faith in Bengal, he also sent a small group of renounciant
disciples to Vndvana, to there rediscover the holy places associ-
ated with the life of Ka, spread the movement and write theologi-
cal treatises on bhakti.136 These renunciants later became known as
the six Gosvmins of Vndvana137 . They developed Vndvana
into an important Gau ya Vaiava centre, with imposing temples
133 Chakrabarty (1985), 122-132

134 Ibid, 128; Dimock (1989), 88-89
135 E.g. De (1961), 103
136 Chatterjee (1983)
137 Gosvmin is within the tradition usually explained to mean master of the sense
faculties (e.g. Hawley (1992), 6).
44
staffed by Bengali devotees, pilgrimage routes and so on. They also
created a comprehensive theology around Caitanyas teachings.138
Apart from these three groups, there were many others, such as
that of Gaddhara Paita, another close associate of Caitanya;
Narahari Sarkra and others at ®r khaa; Nakula Brahmacrin in
Ambik; and Vakrevara Paita in Orissa. All these persons initiated
disciples, built temples and wrote songs (padas) and books.
2.2.2 Later developments

Very soon after the death of Caitanya two distinct branches of
Gau ya Vaiavism formed: a Bengali branch and a Vndvana
branch. The Bengali branch was by far the larger, but it comprised
many internally different groups (followers of Nitynanda,
Advaita and so on). It was characterised by a fervent belief in the
divinity of Caitanya, charismatic preachers and great emotions.
The Vndvana branch, again, grew up around the scholastic
teachings of the six Gosvmins and the temples they founded,
and was centred around Ka than Caitanya. The theology of the
Vndvana branch ultimately triumphed, and from the beginning
of the seventeenth century came to be the commonly accepted
dogma of the sapradya. However, a synthesis between the
Vndvana emphasis on Ka and the Bengal emphasis on
Caitanya was not reached until the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury.139
It appears that the sapradya in Bengal and Orissa suffered a
setback after the death of Caitanya and his close contemporaries,
but this was remedied by the efforts of ®r nivsa crya,
Narottama Dsa and ®ymnanda at the end of the sixteenth cen-
138 For elaborate descriptions of these remarkable men, see Kapoor (1995b), Rosen
(1991), or for a shorter summary, Brooks (1989), 47-52. For a comprehensive study on
the development of Vndvana, see Entwistle (1987).
45
tury and the beginning of the seventeenth.140 These three were dis-
ciples of the Gosvmins of Vndvana, charged with the task of
bringing the Vndvana dogma to Bengal and Orissa, and to spread
the faith there. This they did with so much success that historian A.N.
Chatterjee writes that Gau ya Vaiavism was the most popular
creed in Bengal in the 17th century. ®r nivsas most important ac-
complishment was converting the king of Vana Viupura in the
Bankura district of Bengal to Gau ya Vaiavism, thus giving the
movement enthusiastic royal patronage. Narottama Dsa is most fa-
mous for uniting the different Gau ya groups at a great festival in
Khetur and for his beautiful devotional songs in colloquial Bengali.141
®ymnanda and his disciple Rasiknanda spread the sapradya in
southern West Bengal and Orissa.
While these three were active mainly in Bengal and Orissa, disci-
ples of Narottama Dsa took the faith to Manipur on the border to
Burma, where Gau ya Vaiavism became the state religion.142
V rabhadra, the son of Nitynanda, continued his fathers work of
converting even the low castes into Vaiavism, and was particularly
successful around Dacca in modern Bangladesh.143
The ®r khaa group developed the Gaurga-ngara doctrine,
where Caitanya is regarded as a playful lover of the young girls of
Navadv pa, just like Ka is of the gop s or cowherdesses of
Vrindavan. This doctrine was considered unorthodox by most other
Gau ya Vaiavas, and some even considered it heretical.144
At the same time the development of Vndvana continued,
where the intensly religious life of the Gosvmins drew support from
many quarters. British Magistrate of Mathur F.S. Growse wrote:
140 Exactly dating these tree important persons is difficult. For an attempt, see
Chakrabarty (1985), 208-210.
141 These songs have been printed countless times. See e.g. Bhakti-r rpa
Siddhnt Gosvm Mahrja (1995), 48-112.
142 Chatterjee (1983), 59-67
143 Ibid, 55
144 For a modern apology of the Gaurga-ngara-doctrine, see Gaddhara Pra
Dsa (1999).
46
Their fame spread so rapidly that in 1570, the emperor Akbar was in-
duced to pay them a visit, and was taken blindfolded into the sacred
Nidhban, were such a marvellous vision was revealed to him, that he
was fain to acknowledge the place as indeed holy ground. Hence the
cordial support which he gave to the attendant Rajas, when they de-
clared their intention of erecting a series of buildings more worthy of
the local divinity.145
The date is contested by some,146 and the whole story may be fabri-
cated, but what is certain is that the Gosvmins did receive support
from Hindu kings (such as Mn Singh) without interference from the
muslim government. Large Ka-temples made of red sandstone
were erected: Santana Gosvmin s Madana-mohana around 1580;
Madhu Paitas Gop ntha ca 1585 and Rpa Gosvmins
Govindadeva in 1590. The last in this series of original temples of
Vndvana, Yugala-kiora, was completed in 1627.147 These temples
were remarkable accomplishments also in terms of architecture:
Growse remarked that the Govindadeva temple is the most im-
pressive religious edifice Hindu art has ever produced, at least in
Upper India.148 Many other temples were also built.
While Vndvana has from its beginnings/ renaissance in the six-
teenth century always contained other Vaiava groups than the
Gau yas,149 Raghuntha dsa and J va Gosvmins developed
Rdh-kua (a small pond 14 miles from Vndvana first identified
by Caitanya himself), the pond of Kas sweetheart Rdh, into an
exclusively Gau ya holy place considered to be the holiest of all
holy places.150 For the most part the Gosvmins entrusted the main-
tenance of the temples and the daily worship of their images to
householder disciples, probably thinking that family lines would be
145 Growse (1979), 241

146 Brooks (1989), 52 gives the year 1573
147 Ibid, 53
148 Growse (1979), 61
149 Hawley (1992) ,275
150 Haberman (1988), 116, Mukherjee & Wright [n.d], 314-317. For a detailed insider
view of Rdh-kua, see Mahnidhi Swami (1995).
47
the most efficient way to ensure the continued worship of the im-
ages. Rdh-kua, however, was mostly a place for renunciants.
However, this rapid development was not to last. Emperor
Aurangzeb, grandson of Akbar, was infamous as an iconoclast, and
Vndvana was uncomfortably close to his capital at Fatehpur Sikhri.
In connection with the Jt-rebellion he sent troops to the Mathur
area in 1669, and fearing that the soldiers would destroy or desecrate
the temples in Vndvana, the priests secretly moved almost all the
images of Ka to Jaipur, where the independent king Jai Singh of-
fered them his protection. With the images, most of the priests who
took care of them also left. While the political situation would even-
tually calm down, the images stayed in Jaipur, a city that thus became
an important Gau ya centre of its own.151
It appears that by the end of the seventeenth century, the
Gau ya Vaiava sapradya had lost some of its vitality. No doubt
many important saints, theologians and charismatic preachers ap-
peared after that (such as theologian Vivantha Chakravartin in the
early 18th century or the philosopher Baladeva Vidybhaa in the
late 18th century), but nobody was able to unify the different groups
as ®rinivsa, Narottama and ®ymnanda had done. The reasons for
this stagnation are several. Since the Gau ya Vaiava movement
failed to present a new economic organisation that could have chal-
lenged the economic base of the varrama system, the
brhmaas were able to retain their dominant position within it.152
Gau ya Vaiava scholars had done their best to equate their kind of
Vaiavism with brhmaism to get the support from the high and
influential classes. The success of this policy, however, undermined
the public support of the sapradya. Coupled with a growing pres-
sure to confirm to orthodox Hindu rules of caste this led the
sapradya to largely give up the character of castelessness.153
151 Chatterjee (1983), 76-77

153 Chatterjee (1983), 257, Sen (1992), 149
48
Gurus (with some exceptions) refused to accept disciples from
low castes, thinking that they would become contaminated by
their company.154 The creative power of the movement that had
manifested in a wealth of song, poetry and drama, also seemed to
be spent. More songs and poems were written, but they were
mostly little more than copies of the works of past masters.
Sukumar Sen blames this stagnation on the rigid dogma of the
Vndvana Gosvmins,155 but another possibility is that the rather
limited traditional Vaiava themes had simply become over-
worked.156
At the same time, Bengali society went through great changes.
After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the Moghul empire in only
a couple of years lost its hold over Bengal. The absence of any
other strong government before the British consolidated their
power in Bengal in 1757 made life difficult for the common peo-
ple. Especially the weavers and peasants were badly affected by
the influx of British mercantile capital. The Mrth raids, starting
in 1742, did not make things better. All these factors led to the
birth of a great number of unorthodox Gau ya Vaiava sects.
These groups simultaneously protested against the company
doing business in the name of religion157 or orthodox Gau ya
Vaiavism, and offered refuge to the lower castes.158
For Gau ya Vaiavism, the introduction of British law and or-
der was a happy event. While the petty kings, who for the most
part worshipped Kl , were ruined by the so-called Permanent
Settlement of land in 1793, the new rich of Calcutta prospered.
These people were for the most part Vaiavas or at least sup-
154 See Kapoor (1995a), 36-37 for the story (with a happy ending) of how one saint
was excommunicated for initating a cobbler.
155 Sen (1992), 98.
156 As Sen in fact acknowledges later in his book (Sen (1992), 159)
157 Suhotra Swami (1997), 46-47
49
porters of Vaiavism. Ramakanta Chakrabarty goes as far as claim-
ing that
...the popularity of Vaiavism at the end of the seventeenth century

and at the beginning of the eighteenth century was an indirect effect
of the consolidation of British power in Bengal, which put an end to
murder and plunder in the name of [Kl ] religion.159
With the introduction of the printing press in Bengal and through the
Bengali renaissance Gau ya Vaiavism was also infused with new
life. The classic texts were printed and widely distributed. Old manu-
scripts were found (and fabricated), edited and published. Also, a
new and clearly defined enemy was there to unify the separate
groups: of all Hindu gods, Ka was probably the one who drew the
strongest critique from the British and other westerners.
The whole history of this famous God is one of lust, robbery, deceit
and murder ... the history of the whole hierarchy of Hindooism is one
of shameful iniquity, too vile to be described.160
The conception of Gau ya Vaiavism was usually also not very

positive among learned society, even among the Bengalis them-
selves.
Starting from a basis of religious brotherhood and perfect equality,

they have developed distinctions and class barriers among them-
selves, almost as stringent as those among the general Hindu commu-
nity... The sect has degenerated from its former high standard of faith
and morals, and holds a very low place in popular estimation.161

160 Gogerly, quoted in Chakrabarty (1985), 412
161 Hunter (1886), 133
50
This sect, like so many others, began as a reform, only to become
worse than its rivals.162
Faced with such criticism, reformers such as Kedarntha Datta

Bhaktivinoda (1838-1914) and ® irkumar Ghoe (1840-1911) en-
deavoured to show how their religion was at the forefront, fully suit-
able for educated and intelligent gentlemen.163
Beside the traditional Gau ya Vaiava groups, several new
groups, often embedded with a specific social mission, were
founded by charismatic preachers such as Vijay Ka Goswami
(1841-1899), Rdhramaa Caraa Dsa Bbaj (1853-1905),
Jagadbandhu (1871-1921), Haribolnanda µhkura (?-1925) and
Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat (1874-1937), the son of Kedarntha
Datta.164
The twentieth century saw Gau ya Vaiavas attempting to
spread the faith to the west. Premnanda Bhrat (1857-1914) was
the first. He arrived (after a short stay in Paris and London) in New
York on October 15, 1902. He remained in the United States for five
years, starting a small society, publishing a book on Ka and a jour-
nal, and making several disciples. With six admirers, he returned to
India in 1907, making headlines especially in Madras. He returned
briefly to the United States in 1910, but left abruptly the next year,
apparently because of poor health. His influence faded quickly after
his death, and most of his disciples converted into various kinds of
Christianity.165
The next attempt came in 1933, when Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat
sent some of his most prominent disciples, led by Swami B.H. Bon
Maharaj (1901-1982) to London. Small monasteries were opened
162 Hopkins (1895), 57

163 Chakrabarty (1985), 394. For a valuable study of Kedarntha Datta and the
Bengali renaissance, see Shukavak Dasa (1999)
164 Ibid, 401, Kapoor (1995a)
165 Carney (1998). Haridsa dsa (1981), 326 claims that he would have had 5000
American disciples!
51
in London and Berlin, a few books published and some disciples
made. Also in this case little remained after the last missionary re-
turned to India in 1937, though a small temple in London is still
there.166 Not before Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda (1896-1977)
founded ISKCON in New York in 1966 did Gau ya Vaiavism acquire
a substantial footing in the West. In the wake of his success, several
other Gau ya groups have established themselves in the West, and
western Gau yas are now a common sight in the holy places of the
movement in India.167
Otherwise, the second part of the twentieth century has been a
period of decline for Gau ya Vaiavism, with the exception of
some of the modern groups. While probably more financial re-
sources than ever before are available, ramas and mahas all over
are lacking in manpower. A famous institution such as the
Gagamt Maha in Pur , which at times has housed hundreds of
renunciants, had in 2001 only 12 inmates. Many institutions are re-
cruiting their manpower mainly from Bangladesh, where the politi-
cally oppressed Hindus view going to India as a positive prospect in
life. With such a motivation, it is hardly surprising that these members
may not be up to the strict standards of orthodox Gau ya
Vaiavism.168 Not only that: it is no longer granted that the son of a
Vaiava will become a Vaiava. Practitioners offer several explana-
tions for these problems: the rampant materialism from abroad;169
the modern tendency of breaking the rules set down by the ancient
authorities;170 or the perversion of the present Kali-yuga, dark
age.171 Perhaps the comparatively strict rules Gau ya Vaiavas
166 Broo (1999). For more information about these missionaries, see Bhgumuni
Dsa (forthcoming)
167 See e.g. Brooks (1989)
168 IF mgt 2002/9b
169 IF mgt 2000/86
170 IF mgt 2002/12
171 IF mgt 2002/9b
52
have to abide by make the movement unattractive to modern
Bengalis, faced with so many more choices than their predecessors.
Whatever the reason, it is clear that in present Bengal, Vaiavism has
lost a lot of ground to ®ktism, the worship of Kl and Durg.
2.3 Institutions
2.3.1 Sapradya
Traditionally there are said to be four Vaiava sapradyas.172
Three verses attributed to the Padma Pura state:
Mantras without a sapradya are considered fruitless. Therefore, in

the age of Kali there will be four Vaiava founders of sapradyas:
®r , Brahm, Rudra and Sanaka: purifiers of the earth. In the Kali age,
these four will appear from the supreme person in Utkala.
®r claimed Rmnuja; fourfaced Brahm, Madhva; Rudra, the hon-
ourable Viusvmin; the four Sanas, Nimbditya.173
While historical persons are mentioned as the heads of these

sapradyas, they are all given a divine beginning.174 These four
sapradyas (in their modern forms) can be called the main
Vaiava sapradyas even today, but many more are found.
Wilson enumerates twenty,175 but there is no doubt that there are
many more. However, the concept of four sapradyas is well-
known, so most Vaiava groups will acknowledge a connection, at
least formally, with one of the four sapradyas listed above. The
Rmnand s, for example, are known as the northern ®r Vaiavas.
Where, then, do the Gau ya Vaiavas enter into this scheme?
172 Clémentin-Ohja (2001), 184

173 Quoted in Prameya Ratnval 1.5-6. These verses are not found in modern
editions of the Padma Pura.
174 These sapradyas are also known respectively as the Rmnuja-, Mdhva-,
Nimbrka- and Vallabha-sapradyas, according to their founder/ most prominent
theologian. In this thesis, I will generally use the names given above.
175 Wilson (1958), 15-16
53
The earliest Gau ya sources (such as the first hagiographies of
Caitanya) say nothing or very little about the sapradya of
Caitanya. It is obvious that his teachings do not exactly follow those
of any already established sapradya. Since the Gau yas regard
Caitanya as not only an avatra of the Lord but the avatrin, source
of all avatras, some also think that he could not be part of any
sapradya, but that his sapradya would include all others.176
His sapradya would thus be a new one, one outside the four
mentioned before, but also above them. Others argue that since
Caitanya, even though God himself, acted as a perfect devotee for
the sake of showing an example for others to follow, he would not
initiate a new sapradya but would connect himself to an already
existing one, at least in form.177
All sources agree on Caitanyas taking mantra-initiation from vara
Pur in Gay 1509. vara Pur gave him the ten-syllable mantra, after
which Caitanya started to exhibit ecstatic love for Krishna.178 About one
and a half years later, in January 1510, he took sannysa-initiation from
Keava Bhrat in Katwa. It was from him that he received the name ®r
Ka Caitanya, or simply Caitanya.179 The names Pur and Bhrat ,
and the fact that these two were sannysins, seem to indicate that these
gurus were members of two of the Daanmi orders instituted by
®akara. However, the teachings of these persons and that of ®akara
are radically different.180 Both, or at least Ivara Pur , were disciples of
one Mdhavendra Pur , whom later tradition connects through
Lakm pati T rtha with the Madhva- or Brahm-sapradya.181 There
are thus two main alternatives: that he belonged to the ®akara-
sapradya182 , or to the Madhva-sapradya.183
176 Sunderananda Vidyvinod, quoted in Kapoor (1976), 45

177 Yati Maharaj (1994b), 118
178 See for example CB 1.17.105-108
179 CB 2.28.101-181
180 For a summary, see Sambidnanda Das (1994), 47-48
181 E.g. Baladeva Vidybhaa in Prameya-ratnval 1.7
182 Argued by for example Elkman (1986)
183 Argued by for example Kapoor (1976), 36-52
54
The main reason for the desire of many Gau yas to connect their
sapradya with that of Madhva (referring to themselves as the
Brahm-Madhva-Gau ya sapradya) is probably to give it added
authority. The debate over this issue is an ongoing one, but one
somewhat irrelevant for the purpose of this thesis, since even if
Caitanya was affiliated with any previous sapradya, his
sapradya is for all practical purposes a new one. The teachings of
Madhva and especially those of ®akara are in many ways drastically
different from those of Caitanya and his followers. In describing
Caitanyas sapradya, little is gained by comparing it to that of
®akara or Madhva.
2.3.2 Early descriptions of Caitanyas sapradya

In describing the sapradya of Caitanya, the early writers within it
generally just list the prominent members. Kavi Karapras Gaura-
ganoddea-d pik (A lamp to see the associates of Caitanya) from
1576184 is perhaps the first work that tries to systematise the groups
within the Gau ya sapradya. Kavi Karapra basically divides the
leading devotees into two groups: goplas and mahantas.185
Gopla means cowherd. The idea is that just as Nitynanda is
Balarma in divine Vndvana, his band of followers in this world are
the cowherd boys there. Usually twelve goplas are mentioned.186
The goplas are said to be the first Gau ya organisation in Bengal,
since they were appointed already during the time of Caitanya.187
Later on, towards the end of the sixteenth century, another category,
184 De (1961), 45-46 argues for this date against another version (1544). He seems to
doubt the book a genuine work of Kavi Karnapura, but as he himself points out (p
46), it is quoted with approval by writers in the 18th century. I see little reason for
doubting the genuineness of this work.
185 GGD 13-17
186 But see Chakrabarty (1985), 160-161
187 Amulyadharan Rayabhatta, quoted in Chakrabarty (1985), 159
55
upa-goplas (subordinate cowherds) was added.188 In his Caitanya-
caritmta, Kadsa Kavirja mentions the names of these per-
sons, but does not specifically call them goplas.189
Most of these goplas were householders. They assisted
Nitynanda in his great campaigns, but gradually settled down and
established their r pats or headquarters in different parts of Bengal,
mainly in the Burdwan, Hoogly and Nadia districts. These r pats
could be just their own houses, or whole ramas with a big temple
of Rdh-Ka or Gaura-Nitynanda and endowed land. The
goplas had the right to preach Caitanyas doctrines within their own
areas, and collect donations for their r pats, gradually developing
them into centres of Vaiavism, even into holy places.190
The word mahanta (great) generally means the leader (ab-
bot) of a maha (and will be used in that sense elsewhere in this
thesis), but here it more generally refers to great devotees. Kavi
Karapra further divides the mahantas into those belonging to the
group of Caitanya, Advaita, Gaddhara and ®r vsa. It is clear that this
category is more artificial than the twelve goplas appointed by
Nitynanda: these persons had much less in common. As the
goplas, the mahntas were usually householders and had their own
r pats.
The number of these mahantas is not given by Kavi Karapra,
but it must have grown from year to year. By the time of
Devak nandana and Narahari Chakravartins Bhakti-ratnkara (18th
century) they had been fixed at 64, but Narahari admitted that there
was actually no end to their number.191 Some arrange them into eight
groups of eight.192 At some point, possibly towards the middle of the
sixteenth century, another category was added: upa- or secondary
188 These are mentioned already in GGD 14

189 CC 1.11
190 See the dictionary of t rthas (holy places) in Haridsa Dsa (1995)
191 BR 9.408
192 Radhanath Kabasi, quoted in Chakrabarty (1985), 187
56
mahantas. New mahantas and upa-mahantas were created until
the beginning of the 17th century.193
Another attempt at describing Caitanyas sapradya is found in
the Caitanya-caritmta. The sapradya is given the metaphori-
cal form of a tree of devotion. Kadsa Kavirja writes:
The Lord thought: I bear the name Vivambhara, the maintainer of

the world. My name will be successful if I fill the world with love.
Thinking like this, the Lord took up the duties of a gardener. In
Navadv pa he started growing a garden. The gardener ®r Caitanya
brought the desire tree of devotion to earth, planted the seed and
sprinkled it with the water of his desire.194
The author then proceeds to describe this tree of devotion. The

seed is devotion, the first two sprouts Mdhavendra Pur and vara
Pur , and the main trunk Caitanya himself. The tree is supported by
nine roots, one (Paramnanda Pur ) growing straight downward, and
eight (eight other sannysins) in all the directions and sub-direc-
tions. Out of the Caitanya tree grows three main branches: that of
Advaita, that of Nitynanda, and that of Gaddhara. Beside these
branches, 130 smaller branches spread out from the Caitanya tree.
Those are Caitanyas main followers in Bengal, Orissa and Vranas .
Then the three main branches are described. From the Nitynanda
branch 75 sub-branches spread out in all directions. The main sub-
branch is V rabhadra, Nitynandas son, who is declared to be the Lord
himself. From him unlimited further branches grow. The Advaita-
branch includes 38 sub-branches, foremost amongst whom is
Acyutnanda, one of Advaitas sons. However, because of severing
their connection with the main trunk (Caitanya) some of these
branches dried up and died. The Gaddhara-branch has 33 sub-
branches.
193 Chakrabarty (1985), 186-187

194 CC 1.9.7-9
57
This tree of devotion represents the Gau ya Vaiava movement
as known to Kadsa Kavirja. All the famous Vaiavas contempo-
rary with Caitanya and those in the first, and in some cases second,
generation after him are mentioned. It is interesting to see that
Mdhavendra Pur is the first sprout of the seed of devotion in this
world. The same idea is echoed elsewhere in Kadsas work:
Mdhavendra Puri is seen as the first who propagated the kind of
ecstatic love for Ka that Caitanya later would spread.195 This
Mdhavendra Pur was a Bengali ascetic who travelled widely and is
said to have rediscovered an old image of Gopla lifting the
Govardhana hill in Vndvana. He established worship of him with
Bengali priests, but later on the Vaiavas of the Vallabha
sapradya brought the image to Nathwar in Rajasthan where it is
known as ®r Nthaj and worshipped in great opulence. The follow-
ers of Vallabha also trace the beginning of their sapradya to
him.196 The next sprout is Mdhavendra Pur s favourite disciple
vara Pur , the guru of Caitanya. We can thus see that the picture of
the tree so far follows the parampar or disciplic succession
(Mdhavendra Pur vara Pur Caitanya).
The gurus of the nine sannysins that stayed with Caitanya in Pur
are not all known. In the few cases where they are known, he is
Mdhavendra Pur . Since they were senior to Caitanya, and since
they sometimes offered him advice, they are portrayed as the roots
of the tree, keeping it in place. About some of these we know noth-
ing, but since Caitanya regarded Paramnanda Pur as his superior
and as a manifestation of Mdhavendra Pur himself197 , Paramnanda
Pur is described as the main root. Here the relation is not so much
connected to parapar.
The main trunk of the tree is Caitanya himself. While Caitanya did
not begin this movement, he is the main part, and all subsequent
195 CC 3.8.36
196 Brooks (1989), 46
197 CB 3.3.172
58
persons are thought to derive their spiritual nourishment from him.
From the trunk branches grow out in different directions. Caitanya is
thus the guru of all in his sapradya but directly not of anyone.
There are no proofs that Caitanya himself would have ritually initi-
ated anyone.198 However, as Santana Gosvmin writes, comment-
ing on the statement by Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin that Caitanya is the
guru of the world,
Since he is the indwelling teacher [being God], and since he is the

highest authority, he personally is the guru of all living beings. Or
alternatively: because of the propagation of devotion, mainly consist-
ing of the congregational chanting of the names of the Lord
(sak rtana) everywhere, and especially by favouring even the
fallen with the full teachings, he is the guru of the world.199
Caitanya could thus be called either the guru of the heart (caitya-
guru) or the instructing guru (ik-guru) of everyone. These terms
will be analysed later (in 3.4).
What this tree thus tells us about the Gau ya sapradya in the
very beginning of the 17th century is that there existed four main
groups: that of Caitanya, that of Nitynanda, that of Advaita, and that
of Gaddhara. Membership in these groups did not necessarily de-
pend on initiation, particularly in the group of Caitanya (since he had
no initiated disciples). This group seems to be more or less artificial:
those that do not directly fit any of the other groups are placed in it.
There is some overlap: Gaddhara is a member of Caitanyas group
198 See for example Bhaktivednta Nryaa Mahrja (n.d.2), 52-53, or Dig-darin
commentary to HBV 2.1. Margaret Case (2000), 75, thinks that he made one exception
and initiated Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin. Gopla Bhaa himself, however, states that
his guru is Prabodhnanda Sarasvat in HBV 1.2.
199 Dig-darin commentary to HBV 2.1. cittdhihttvdin sarvem api
j vn parama-gurutaytmano pi sa eva gurur ity abhipretya likhati jagad-gurum
iti/ pake sarvatraiva bhagavan-nma-sak rtana-pradhna-bhakti-pracraj
jagat gurutvena vieato d na-jana-viayaka-samagropadenugrahea gurum
iti//
59
and has his own, Paramnanda Pur is a root and a branch of the
Caitanya group, Acyutnanda is a member of both Caitanyas and
Advaitas groups. The reason for this is found in what has already
been said: the groups are not exclusively groups of initiated disci-
ples, but more of followers and supporters. It is natural for
Acyutnanda to be part of Advaitas group since he is his son, but also
of Caitanyas group, since he was a staunch supporter of his and had
much more personal association with him than his brothers had. This
description also tells us that there was already at least one deviant
group: some of Advaitas sons had rejected Caitanya and thus sev-
ered themselves from his sapradya. It also lets us know that
Mdhavendra Pur was considered the first precursor to what
Caitanya would preach all over India.
2.3.3 Parivra and Vaa

What strikes one when reading these descriptions is their fluid and
improvised nature. There really seems to have been very little cen-
tral organisation, but rather many different groups of devotees estab-
lishing their own places of worship and residence. There were of
course not 64 mahantas in eight clusters of eight or twelve goplas
and as many upa-goplas. These categories were ways of trying to
organise and achieve an overview of a rather chaotic situation. It ap-
pears that since this system proved too unstable (since there was no
clear limit to the number of different mahantas), and since it failed in
routinising (see 8.2 for more about this concept) the personal cha-
risma of Caitanya and his followers so that it could be carried onwards
in an institutional form, it led to another: that of parivra and vaa.
Parivra means retinue. While one could say that all Gau ya
Vaiavas belong to the same camp, there are different subgroups
within it. Parivra could also be compared with the terms group or
branch in the above descriptions. Disciples of a guru from a particular
parivra become members of the same parivra. Vaa means
family or line of descent, and here refers to geneological descent, or
60
in other words, that persons born in a particular family become mem-
bers of the particular vaa the father belongs to. In other words, a
parivra is passed down by disciplic succession (iya-parapar),
and a vaa by seminal succession (bindu-parapar). This means
that every vaa will also have a parivra: someone born in the fam-
ily line of Advaita belongs to the Advaita vaa, while anyone who
has taken initiation from a guru in the Advaita vaa is a member of
the Advaita parivra.
The main vaas and parivras of the Gau ya Vaiava
sapradya are as follows.200 Gaddhara was a celibate, so no
vaa comes from him, but a parivra does. However, there is a
vaa called the Gaddhara vaa that stems from his nephew
Nayananda. From Gaddharas grand-disciple, the female ascetic
Gagamt Gosvmin , stems another parivra. From Advaita
comes a vaa. As already explained, Caitanya himself had no initi-
ated disciples, but Vakrevara Paita, Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin and
Lokantha Gosvmin were all his contemporaries and members of
his group. From Vakrevara stems the Vakrevara parivra. From
Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin, through his disciple Damodara, comes the
vaa of the Rdh-ramaa Goswamis. Another disciple of Gopla
Bhaas, Lalita Kiora, started another parivra. Yet another disciple,
®rinivsa crya, began his own vaa. Lokantha Gosvmins only
disciple Narottama began a parivra, and his disciple
Gaganryaa Cakravartin yet another.
From Nitynandas wife Jhnav comes one parivra, and from his
son (with his other wife, Vasudh) V rabhadra the Nitynanda vaa.
From his daughter Gagadev comes another vaa. From
Gauridsa Paita (one of the goplas) stems one parivra. From his
grand-disciple ®ymnanda comes the ®ymnanda parivra. From
Rasiknanda, ®ymnandas main disciple, comes a vaa.
200 Based on Entwistle [n.d.], IF mgt 2002/13 and Swami B.B. Tirtha (2001)
61
These are not all the vaas and parivras in existence today.
In fact, most of the mahantas mentioned in the Gaura-
gaoddea-d pik have their own vaas. There is one from
Narahari Sarkra, one from Murri Gupta, one from the k rtana-
singer Vsudeva Ghoa, etc. Most of the old temples of Vndvana
also have a vaa of their own, established for the maintenance
of the temple.
Important to note is that while it is generally thought that a
parivra or vaa has to begin from one of Caitanyas immediate
associates, the enumeration above shows that new ones have ap-
peared since then. Those branching out in second or third genera-
tion (for example ®ymnanda and Rasiknanda) are the last that
are accepted by all Gau yas.201 Kennedy writes (in the begin-
ning of the last century) that new vaas are created all the
time,202 but I have not noticed any such tendency today. Such a
practice would require a general growth of the Gau ya
sapradya, something that is not seen outside the modern
groups.
While most of the teachings of the different groups are the
same, they all have some peculiarities, and usually do not mingle
much with each other. One member of the Jhnav parivra told
me that esoteric teachings, such as knowledge of ones own spir-
itual identity, should never be revealed outside ones own
parivra.203 Members of different vaas rarely mix.204 On the
other hand, at the time of festivals one can see members of differ-
ent parivras come together and freely associate with each other.
There are several examples of persons taking initiation from a
guru in one parivra, and then vea-initiation (see 6.2.3) from a
guru from another parivra.205 Some gurus wanted to play down
201 Field notes, Navadvip, December 2000

202 Kennedy (1925), 153
203 IF 2000/14a
204 Sardella (2002), 31
205 E.g. Nityananda Das Babaji (2) in Kapoor (1999)
62
the differences between the parivras, and instead focus on the
common heritage from Caitanya.206
Most groups have a tilaka (sectarian mark) of their own, usually a
slight variation of the basic two thin vertical lines running across the
forehead and a triangular mark on the nose looking something like a
tulas leaf. Entwistle has listed and illustrated the tilakas of the differ-
ent parivras, but even a little field experience reveals that persons
of a particular parivra do not always use the right tilaka.207
The development of the Gau ya Vaiava sapradya into a
loose cluster of vaas and parivras can, for the sake of contrast, be
compared with the growth of another contemporary guru-centered
movement: the Sikhs. While Sikhism today is regarded as a religion in
its own right, that has not always been the case: from its beginnings in
the late fifteenth century until the last part of the nineteenth century,
when it had to distance itself from resurgent Hinduism, it was largely
perceived as yet another Hindu guru-cult.
The movement we today know as Sikhism was begun by Guru
Nanak (1469-1539) in the Punjab. Until the fourth guru, succession
was by appointment, but the fifth, Arjan Das (1563-1606) was the
youngest son of the fourth, and from there on succession became he-
reditary. This led to conflicts and rival gurus, especially when the eldest
son was overstepped for some reason. When the eighth guru,
Harkrishnan (1656-1664), died at the tender age of eight, as many as
22 different persons set themselves up as his successor. One of his
uncles, Tegh Bahadur eventually emerged as the ninth guru. His son
Gobind Singh (1666-1708) terminated the line of gurus by appointing
the book Guru Granth Sahib (a collection of hymns by the gurus and
others) as the guru for all time to come, and by forming the Khalsa, a
kind of inner circle of strict Sikhs, wearing distinctive attributes and
forming a tight-knit, martial society.
206 E.g. IF mgt 2000/85

207 Entwistle (n.d.)
63
Gobind Singh had many reasons for taking such a radical step.
From the time of the sixth guru, the Sikhs suffered great persecution
at the hands of the Muslim rulers of North India and became increas-
ingly martially focused. Gobind Singh did not have the option to give
over the position to his offspring, since they had all been killed, and
no doubt feared that the situation after the eighth guru would be re-
peated. Not everyone accepted his decision: Banda Singh (d. 1716),
one of Gobind Singhs officers, became the next leader and also pro-
claimed himself the guru. After him, the political role of the guru was
taken over by the meetings of the whole Khalsa (Sarbat Khalsa)
until the independence of the Punjab under Ranjit Singh, who ruled
autocratically, without however proclaiming himself guru. The Pun-
jab was annexed by the British after his death in 1839, and since then
there has been no real Sikh political power. The focus has been on
the Guru Granth Sahib, honoured in ways very similar to how a liv-
ing guru is honoured.208
The difference between the development of the guru institution
in Gau ya Vaiavism and that in Sikhism can be attributed to many
factors. The sources of the two movements, for example, are very
different. Probably most important, however, is that since Gau ya
Vaiavism never became persecuted as Sikhism was, it was not uni-
fied in the same way. There has not really been a need for a single
political leader of the sapradya. Moreover, since Caitanya did not
appoint any one successor, the movement has been divided into dif-
ferent groups from the beginning, so that there has not been any one
line of gurus to fall back on. While the doctrines of the Gosvmins of
Vndvana eventually did unify the theology of the sapradya,
without political power, the Vndvana group was not able to unify
the different factions when it came to organisation. Persons such as
®r nivsa and Narottama who perhaps tried to do so merely ended up
as founders of their own vaas and parivras.
208 Cole (1982), Duggal (1980).
64
2.3.4 Classes of Gau ya Vaiavas
While modern Gau yas do identify themselves as belonging to
some parivra or vaa, it is in many cases useful to divide Gau ya
Vaiavism into three divisions: the goswamis and their followers, the
bbj s and their followers, and the modern groups. The first two di-
visions consist of four classes of Gau ya Vaiavas.
The first class is the goswami, a guru born in one of the vaas of
the Gau ya Vaiava movement.209 He is in almost all cases a
brhmaa, and he has gained his guruship by inheriting it from his
father or mother. These families of gurus are connected with families
of disciples as well, where all the members accept initiation from the
current head of the goswami family. Kennedy writes that goswamis
inherit the disciples of their predecessor,210 but that is strictly
speaking not true. Disciples of a previous head of the goswami fam-
ily will not become disciples of the new one; they will, however, usu-
ally support the current head, financially and otherwise.211
The ghasthas (householders) are the second class. They are the
laity of the movement and thus comprise the greatest part of it. They
belong to different castes and communities, and are usually disciples
of some goswami. As observed already by Kennedy, they are not
always exclusively Vaiava, but may also worship ®iva and
Durg.212
The third class or the bbj s (respected fathers) are those who
have received vea, the simple loincloth that is the mark of the ascet-
ics of the sapradya. Vea-initiation (see 6.2.3) is sometimes
called Vaiava-sannysa.213 As other sannysis, bbj s take vows
209 To distinguish this term from the title Gosvmin (e.g. Rpa Gosvmin) I use the
colloquial spelling goswami, as well as italics. When the term is used as a surname
by goswamis, I spell it Goswami.
210 Kennedy (1925), 153
211 IF mgt 2000/68
212 Kennedy (1925), 160
213 E.g. Kapoor (1993), 141
65
of life-long celibacy and poverty. However, instead of saffron, they
dress in white, and they do not carry a rod. Ideally, they are to live by
madhukri, begging a little from several houses, and devote all their
time to rgnug-sdhana-bhakti, internal spiritual culture.214 Un-
like sannysa, also non-brhmaas can recieve vea, even women,
who are then known as mtj s (respected mothers). Rather than
forming an organised order of monastics, they are individuals subser-
vient only to their own gurus and the institutions where they stay,
and their standards of renunciation, learning and so forth vary a great
deal. The origin of the vea-institution is unknown, but it is believed
by some that it was introduced by Nitynandas son V rabhadra.215 It
appears that at the beginning of the twentieth century, the repute of
the bbj s and especially mtj s was very low. It was common for
bbj s (who were supposed to live in celibacy) to openly live to-
gether with mtj s.216
While some hold that originally the goswamis were the only initiat-
ing (d k) gurus of the movement,217 nowadays bbj s also accept
disciples. This is probably one of the reasons for the conflict between
the bbj s and the goswamis that sometimes can be seen.218
The jti vaiavas comprise the fourth class of Gau ya
Vaiavas. Kennedy writes that it consists of the offspring of bbj s
and mtj s, and others who have become Vaiavas after being re-
jected by their own community for some reason.219 The jti
vaiavas consider themselves for religious reasons as voluntarily
standing outside the varrama system. This community remained
more or less unknown until 1901, when the Census of Bengal for the
first and last time included a hierarchy of castes, placing the jti
214 For an excellent study of rgnug-sdhana-bhakti, see Haberman (1988)

215 Kennedy (1925), 162
216 Ibid, 171. I have not seen such things going on today at for example Rdh-
kua, where many bbj s live.
217 E.g. IF 2000/14d, Kennedy (1925), 169
218 IF 2000/14d
219 Kennedy (1926), 178
66
vaiavas very low. However, no less than about 500,000 Hindus
claimed to belong to this jti. The religious rites of this community
were exclusively Vaiava, even though much more simple than
those of the ghasthas. Marriage, for example, comprised of no more
than a change of garlands in front of the guru. The minimal other
saskras that are followed also do not follow the brhmaical
standard, but are adaptations of devotional rituals. The low place
given to this group in the census of 1901 led to a gradual
sanskritisation220 of it, so that it today appears to have in many
places lost its distinctive character, its members being similar to the
ghasthas described above.221 Some classify the jti vaiavas as
heterodox Gau ya Vaiavas.222
2.3.5 Modern groups

There are some Gau ya groups whose teachings do not differ so
much from the norm that they could be called heterodox, but that are
hard to fit into the above scheme of parivras and vaas. Moreo-
ver, these groups are so successful that other Gau yas cannot just
ignore them. There have always been independent saintly persons,
greatly respected for their spriitual qualities and realisations, but
whose guru was unknown.223 Generally, such persons would not
give initiation to disciples, though they could function as instructing
gurus.224 Not all followed this rule, however, and instead started line-
ages of their own. Such groups are sometimes denounced by schol-
220 This term was introduced by M.N. Srinivas to indicate the historical process by
which the beliefs and practices of lower castes tend to converge with those of higher
groups, as the former try to emulate the latter in order to raise their social status. My
usage of this standard term does not indicate that I believe that there is any one
Sanskritic Hinduism or clearly distinguishable higher and lower strata of Hinduism.
221 OConnell (1986), 51-53
222 E.g. Kedarntha Datta Bhaktivinoda. See Shukavak Dasa (1999), 124.
223 See for example Chota Baba and Gvariya Baba in Kapoor (1999)
224 Brzeszinsky (1996), 176
67
arly members of the established parivras and vaas, especially if
their doctrines and/ or practices also differ from what is generally
conceived as the Gau ya norm, and if they are perceived as a threat.
Usually such groups (e.g. the ®ymnanda parivra) have with time
become integrated into the Gau ya tradition, but the groups below
are too recent for that. For this reason I call them modern groups.
What is common for these groups (and which justifies combining
them into a third division of contemporary Gau ya Vaiavism even
though they are internally very different) is that they are not part of
any of the generally recognized parivras described above, and that
they have some peculiar teachings. I have listed three of the most
important in an order of general acceptance the Rma Dsa
parivra is the least controversial of the three, the Mahnma
sapradya the most. The name of that group even seems to indi-
cate a desire to separate themselves from the whole Gau ya
sapradya.225
The Rma Dsa Bbj parivra stems from a person by that name
who was the main disciple of Rdh-ramaa Caraa Dsa Bbj
(1853-1905), a very influential guru of the latter part of the nine-
teenth century. Some of the reasons for why this group is considered
unorthodox is that the name of the guru of Rdh-ramaa Caraa
Dsa Bbj is not known, and that he is said to have mystically re-
ceived a Gaura-mantra which he delivered to his disciples.226 He also
encouraged some of his male followers to dress as gop s, told them to
publicly chant another mantra instead of the mah-mantra and cre-
ated a new kind of tilaka. Members of this group can be found in all
the main Gau ya centres of India.
The Gau ya Maha was founded by Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat
(1874-1937), the son of Gau ya Vaiava reformer Kedarntha
225 This tendency can also be seen in biographies of Mahanambrata Brahmacari.

See http://home.att.net/~pbdas/www.Prabhu-Jagadbandhu.org/HTML-Texts/
mahanambrata.htm
226 Kapoor (1995), 104-106, 108
68
Datta Bhaktivinoda. Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat also wanted to reform
or revitalise Gau ya Vaiavism. Drawing inspiration from the ®r
Vaiava sampradya and (in terms of organisation) the
Ramakrishna Mission, he instituted several innovations. To show
common people that Vaiavas are as good as brhmaas, in fact
even better, he gave upanayana (the sacred thread of the
brhmaas) to qualified disciples, even if they were not from
brhmaa families. These disciples were given the right to perform
religious duties ordinarily open only to (hereditary) brhmaas.
While the ordinary Gau ya ideal was the bbj who has turned
away from the world, Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat introduced the order
of sannysa for Gau yas, and these sannysins were to travel and
propagate the message of Caitanya.227 These innovations were
aimed at establishing Daiv -varrama, a divine social system,
while Gau yas generally have either cooperated with secular soci-
ety or left it altogether.
Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat is said to have been initiated by one
Gaurakiora Dsa Bbj of the Advaita parivra, but he passed on
mantras and a tilaka different from that parivra. He spoke against
hereditary guruship, and while perhaps trying to break down the
sectarian differences between different parivras, for all practical
purposes he established his own.228
After his death his institution broke into many factions which have
spread all around India and abroad, especially in the form of ISKCON,
the International Society for Krishna Consciousness. ISKCON was
founded in New York in 1966 by a disciple of Bhaktisiddhnta
Sarasvat , A.C. Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda (1896-1977). With
ISKCON and its branches Gau ya Vaiavism has become an inter-
national religion. After the death of the founder, many small splinter
groups have appeared from this movement. All-in-all, ISKCON has
227 Shraman (1983)

228 Brzeszinsky (1996), 166
69
over 400 centres, about 6000 full-time members and a congregation
of about 190 000 worldwide.229 With its Western members, elaborate
altar worship and beautiful temples, ISKCON is a visible part of
Gau ya Vaiavism in India as well.230
The Mahnma sapradya consists of followers of Prabhu
Jagadbandhu (1871-1921). Jagadbandhu was a very powerful and
charismatic preacher, who after a youth of vigorous activity with-
drew into a small hut in 1902. There he remained in silence without
almost any connection to the outside world for seventeen years. He
had no guru and followed no other rituals than chanting the names of
Ka, but had many disciples. He declared himself a combined
avatra of Caitanya and Nitynanda, and his followers believe that
his death is only apparent: he will soon rise again and liberate the
world.231 The headquarters of the Mahnma sapradya is in north
Calcutta, but it has a large following also in Vndvana and Bangla-
desh. Many of the teachings, rituals and so forth differ from the norm
of Gau ya Vaiavism, so much so that many declare this move-
ment to be heterodox.232
229 Sardella (2000), 38

230 Brooks (1989)
231 McDaniel (1989), 69-75
232 E.g. IF mgt 2002/13 (Gopal Ghosh). He thought that Haridsa Dsa had made a
mistake by including Jagadbandhu in his collection of Gau ya Vaiava hagiogra-
phies.
70
I I T H E G U R U D O C T R I N E I N G A U YA
VA I ± ¦ AV I S M
After the overview of Gau ya Vaiavism given in the last chapter,

we are now ready to approach the main topic, the guru. In this sec-
ond part of my thesis I will examine what the movement itself has to
say about the guru, disciple and initiation. There are several advan-
tages in including this material. The categories the thinkers within
the movement have come up with are in many cases useful, espe-
cially when they are compared with findings of fieldwork, and criti-
cally analysed. Theological ideas on, for example, the ontological
position of the guru form the basis of many things we will encounter
in the next part, and thus give us a good starting point for the next
part of the thesis, where I will examine the guru through the roles he
takes on in relation to the disciples and society at large. Thus, this is
not a part that one can skip when reading the thesis, but rather a basis
for the next.
A problem with using extensive written primary material, espe-
cially when it originates in the elite of a particular society, is that it
may say more about the ideals of the elite than about empirical real-
ity. As we shall see, this is true in many cases here. However, it is of-
ten (as when describing the medieval situation) the only material we
have. Despite the drawbacks of the normative texts, they can be
revealing, especially in the possibly verifiable cases.
My method in compiling this part has been as follows. I have first
gone through the canonical medieval writings of the Gau ya
Vaiava sapradya (see 1.3.1), noting the places where issues
relating to the guru have been dealt with, as well as the passages on
disciple and initiation, since the two latter topics are intimately con-
nected with the guru. Finding these places has not been particularly
difficult, since modern editions of these books contain elaborate ta-
bles of contents and indices, and since modern practitioners gener-
ally refer to the same passages.
71
After locating the relevant passages I have translated them and ar-
ranged them according to topic (e.g. qualifications of a real guru),
rather than according to author or book. In this second part of the
thesis, each such topic is usually given a separate chapter. For each
topic, I have then presented the texts in a chronological order. I have
also added modern texts and material gleaned from my interviews so
as to give a picture of how the sapradya views these topics today.
In the cases that I have been able to find material from the time be-
tween the medieval and comparative texts, I have utilised that also.
In this way I will also shed some light upon the historical develop-
ment of the guru doctrine within Gau ya Vaiavism.
There is a steadily growing amount of contemporary Gau ya
Vaiava texts dealing with these issues. I cannot by any means claim
to have read or even seen everything, but I have made a great effort
to locate as much as possible, until I reached a satiation of opinions,
i.e. that all new texts repeated what I had already read. It is of course
possible that I have missed something, but any such missing opin-
ions are likely to be very marginal, not having even been refuted in
any of the texts I have seen.
Besides being thus chronologically presented, all this material has
then been analysed by using several of the tools mentioned in the
introduction (1.2). These include source criticism, Roy Rappaports
hierarchy of understandings and R.M. Steinmanns typology of gurus.
In some cases, I have through my fieldwork tried to see whether the
ideals described in the texts have any foundation in contemporary
Gau ya Vaiava reality. I have also compared the Gau ya
Vaiava situation with that in other Indian contexts, notably other
Vaiava groups and for contrast the Sikhs.
This approach means that the choice of topics has been dictated
by what the scriptures of the tradition find important enough to dis-
cuss. This leads to the exclusion of some important and interesting
issues, such as succession. They will instead be discussed in the third
part of the thesis.
72
3. General characteristics of the guru
This chapter examines the ontological position of the guru given
within the tradition itself, and after that the kinds of gurus mentioned
in the tradition, leading us on to a general definition of the Gau ya
Vaiava guru. But first a general description of the Hindu guru.
3.1 The Hindu guru

The guru institution is a pan-Indian one, even though it does find
somewhat differing forms within different Hindu groups. Based on
the findings of Weber,233 Ralph Marc Steinmann has presented a use-
ful short history of the Hindu guru-disciple relationship divided into
five roughly chronological stages.234 I have modified his scheme a
little by reversing his stage three/ stage four sequence. As always, it
must be kept in mind that in India older traditions are not fully re-
placed by new, but rather co-exist with the newer version. These
stages do not thus completely supercede each other.
Steinmann calls the first stage the Vedic foundation and the classi-
cal brhmaic forms. While the word crya is mentioned in the old-
est texts, as an institution of the highest importance, the crya-
brahmcarin system is first mentioned in the Atharva Veda (11.5).
The crya would generally be a brhmaa householder, and the
brahmacrin his pupil, who would live with him in his rama, usu-
ally a rural dwelling free from the distractions of city life. The
brahmacrin had to belong to one of the three upper varas. He
would come to the rama at a young age (as young as five, accord-
ing to some), undergo the upanayana-saskra (the sacrament of
receiving the upav ta or sacred thread), do menial service for the
guru and his family and receive teachings. When fully taught (which
could take as long as 24 years according to some authorities!), he
233 Weber (1963), 350pp

234 Steinmann (1986), 278-281
73
would undergo the samavartana-saskra (the sacrament of
graduation), after which he would return to normal society as a full-
fledged member of one of the three higher varas.
Although upanayana is thought of as a kind of rebirth and even
though there is a close relationship between guru and disciple during
the years in the rama, Steinmann argues that the relationship is
mainly determined by the transmission of knowledge, Vedic and
secular. The main function of the whole institution was to pass on
the Vedic canon. Different families passed on different parts of the
Vedas, using complicated mnemo-systems to insure that the texts
would remain unchanged. The qualification of a Vedic guru would
thus be twofold: to belong to the right family, and to know the par-
ticular text or texts by heart.235
The next stage is the Upaniadic time (800-400 BC). The this-
worldly aims of the Vedas were now seen as temporary and thus illu-
sory. It was not enough to know the words of the Vedas or the rituals,
one had to have realised, otherwordly, mystic, knowledge. This
knowledge particularly concerned the self, tman, and how the self
was identical with the divine, brahman, and the method for realising
that identity.236 The ideal human life changed from the householder
brhmaa to the ascetic who had given up all worldly enjoyments
and entanglements. Recognising a real guru was also now much
more difficult, since realisation is hard to judge. At the same time, the
subtlety of the perilous path and the esoteric and mystic quality of
the metaphysical knowledge endowed the Upaniadic guru with
much greater authority than the Vedic guru had.
Before moving on, it must be pointed out that Steinmann has
made a mistake by treating Hinduism as completely isolated from
outside influence. This Upaniadic time is especially characterised
by the so-called ramaa-movement, an ascetic movement that
235 For a description of contemporary gurus of this kind, see Brent (1972), 32-51
236 Gansten (2001), 16-17
74
spawned both Buddhism and Jainism, both of which eventually
came to be seen as wholly separate religions. However, both influ-
enced what came to be known as Hinduism greatly (so much so that
some scholars provokingly say that Hinduism is a Buddhist off-
shoot!237 ), and also the bhakti movements.238 In many ways, Buddha
and Mahav ra can be seen as typical Upaniadic gurus.
The third stage is the Jñna-tradition, pre-eminently exemplified
by ®akara (9th century CE). There is an affinity to the upaniads, but
added emphasis on sannysa for both guru and disciple. Also, in-
stead of ramas, ®akara (probably inspired by Buddhist exam-
ples) founded mahas, monastic communities usually located within
the cities. The ideal guru was the jagadguru, guru of the world, who,
besides a small inner circle to whom he would teach otherworldly
knowledge, could have thousands of lay disciples and even influ-
ence political events.239
The fourth stage is the Bhakti tradition, beginning with the
Bhagavad-g t. Instead of oneself striving to transcend the world, the
idea here is to draw down the mercy (prasda) of a personal God.
This is done through taking refuge in him (aragati) and bhakti.
Here also a guru is needed, someone who has attained the mercy of
God, and who can act as an intermediary between the disciple and
God. Steinmann points out two conceptions of the guru during this
stage: during the epic period (500 BC-400 CE) the guru is adored like
237 Jacobsen & Smart (forthcoming)

238 See Cort (2002). Cort convincingly argues against the common notion that Jain
laity borrowed bhakti practices from Hinduism. While not going as far as to say that
bhakti originates in Jainism or even in the ramaa sphere, he does argue that Jain
bhakti and here bhakti must be taken as a practice or style of practice rather than
as a theology likely originates in guru-vandana, reverence of the guru, a reverence
extended to deceased gurus, eventually leading to a deification of the founder, and
that it cannot be ignored in tracing the history of bhakti (82-82). For Buddhism, a
similar case was made by Har Dayal (1932).
239 See Cenkner (1984). A contemporary example of this could be the present
®akarcrya of Kanchi, who during my stay in India in March 2002 tried to broker
a deal in the conflict around Rmas birthsite in Ayodhya.
75
god, but in the Puric and medieval times (400-1500 CE) he is com-
pletely identified with ones personal deity (iadevat). Here the main
qualification of the guru is his often ecstatic devotion, a qualification that
can override birth in a low caste, illiteracy or other things that would dis-
qualify a guru of the earlier types.
The fifth stage is the Tantric tradition, which, besides being a separate
tradition, has modified both Bhakti and Jñna traditions.240 Here we find
a climax of the deification of the guru. The guru is seen as completely
identical with God, or as even more important. Detailed criteria are also
listed for both guru and disciple criteria that in practice are ideals much
more than actual necessities. Very little emphasis is placed on Vedic
knowledge. In keeping with the ritual orientation of Tantrism, the guru
should rather know various magical mantras, rituals and so forth.
To sum up, one can discern two parallel lines of development in this
admittedly very simplified scheme. On one hand, the importance of the
guru grows from stage to stage: from teacher to metaphysical teacher,
representative of God and finally God himself. On the other hand the
criteria for determining who is a competent guru become progressively
more elusive. As we shall see, the Gau ya Vaiava guru contains ele-
ments from all these stages, making him a particularly interesting object
of closer study.
3.2 Ontological position of the guru

The ontological position assigned to the guru within Gau ya
Vaiavism is rather complicated, but it is essential for an understand-
ing of the cult centered on him. In order to understand it, we need to
240 Defining Tantrism is rather problematic. According to Blichfeldt (1983),

Tantrism is goddess-worship combined with the philosophy of the Upaniads (7-8).
I rather agree with Kinsley (1995) in seeing Tantrism as more of a ritual style. He
writes that by means of various rituals (exterior and interior), the Tantric practitioner
seeks to gain moka. A consistent theme in this endeavour is uniting different oppo-
sites, chief of which is male-female (111). Many Tantric rituals (e.g. repeating b ja-
mantras, nysa or calling gods into the body of the practitioner, or mudras, mystical
hand-signs) are used also in Gau ya Vaiava rituals.
76
look at how it has developed and which factors have influenced this
development.
In connection with describing the worship of the guru, the fourth
Vilsa of the Hari-bhakti-vilsa contains a passage describing the
greatness (mhtmya) of the guru241 . Such descriptions are a com-
mon Puric device for attracting people to a particular observance,
worshipping a particular god, visiting a particular holy place and so
forth. These descriptions have much in common, the most notewor-
thy feature being perhaps that everything is described in very hy-
perbolic terms, so that whatever is being eulogized in a particular
passage is the highest, purest and best in every way. While these
descriptions thus tend to become tedious and repetitive, they often
contain a great deal of information of the worship procedure or ob-
ject of worship described. In this context, describing the greatness of
the guru says much about the ontological position assigned to the
guru, even leaving out the routine hyperbole.
This whole section consists of quotations not one word is written
by Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin himself. Still, the choice of what to cite is
telling. He begins with a traditional quote from the Upaniads, mov-
ing on to the Bhgavata Pura and other Puric texts. In several
of these texts the guru is identified with Ka himself. Know Me to
be the guru,242 The guru is Viu,243 He who is the guru is known
as Hari.244 These are clear words. On the other hand, Ka is also
quoted saying that he is more pleased by reverence to the guru
than by sacrifices to himself.245 It is also said that he is pleased by
one whom the guru is pleased with.246 These statements imply a
difference between the two. This difference is also obvious in the
rituals described elsewhere: first one should worship the guru,
241 HBV 4.346-365

242 BP 11.17.27, quoted in HBV 4.347
243 Unidentified popular verse, quoted in HBV 4.352.
244 Vmana-kalpa, quoted in HBV 4.353
245 BP 10.80.34, quoted in HBV 4.348
246 Vmana-kalpa, quoted in HBV 4.353
77
and then Ka.247 Were they absolutely identical, there would be
no reason for worshipping them separately.
The Hari-bhakti-vilsa does not systematically reconcile these
two views. However, when writing about the worship of the guru,
it is said that one should worship the guru with the sentiment that
he is Ka (ka-bhvena).248 This will be elaborated on by
J va Gosvmin and Kadsa Kavirja.
J va Gosvmins Bhakti-sandarbha also contains many state-
ments equating the guru with God.249 How is this equation to be
understood? Obviously the guru does not share many of the quali-
ties of God, such as being the creator of all, being smaller than the
smallest or being greater than the greatest. While the advaitins
could understand the statements equating the guru with God to
teach the actual oneness of all (a oneness realised by a true guru),
such a teaching does not fit well into Gau ya Vaiavism, where
Ka is held to be the only God and all others his servants. Since
these texts are part of the scriptural canon, they can not just be
ignored. Instead, J va Gosvmin tries to find other explanations
for them. He comes up with three, of which the first is as follows:
Sometimes even materialists should see the Lord in the guru. This the
blessed Lord explains (BP 11.17.27): The crya should be under-
stood as Me, and never disrespected. The guru, abode of all gods,
should not be displeased by thinking that he is a human being. This is
mentioned as far as the duty of a brahmacrin is considered.250
The duty of even a materialist is to serve his guru like God some-
times: during his life as a brahmacrin, celibate student in the house
247 HBV 4.342-345

248 Ibid, 4.371
249 Eg. BS 202
250 BS 211. anyad svagurau karmibhir api bhagavad-di kartavyety ha (bh.
11.17.27) crya m vijn yn nvamanyeta karhicit/ na martya-
buddhysyeta sarva-deva-mayo guru// brahmacr -dharmnta pahitam
idam//
78
of the guru. The equation between guru and God is thus not a theologi-
cal one here, but we could rather call it a practical one. As one would
respect God, one should respect the guru, just as the wife should serve
the husband like God. In other words, the guru is as good as God, but
not God himself.
The second reason concerns understanding otherworldly knowl-
edge.251 More important than the attitude of reverence of materialists
is for persons trying to understand divine knowledge to consider the
person who gives it as the Lord himself. When they see the guru in this
way, they will also consider his teachings to be otherworldly. In order
to understand the secret things the guru will impart to his disciples,
they will have to have implicit faith in him and not view him as an ordi-
nary, limited mortal being. The guru also shares some very important
qualities with God: the desire and ability to liberate from ignorance,
mercifulness, and so on. This reason for equating God and the guru
could be called an intellectual one, in contrast with the earlier practical
reason.
In addition to the practical and intellectual interpretations, J va
Gosvmin offers a third one:
The pure devotees consider both the revered guru and Lord ®iva to be
nondifferent from the Lord, because they are so dear to Him. This the
Pracetasas explain to the blessed eight-armed Lord (BP 4.30.38): By a
moment of direct association with your dear friend Bhava [®iva], we
have today gained You, who are the true physician for the difficult to
cure disease of birth and death.
The guru of these speakers is Lord ®iva.252
251 BS 212
252 BS 213. uddhabhakts tv eke r guro r ivasya ca r bhagavat sahbheda-
di tat-priyatamatvenaiva manyante, yath (bh. 4.30.38) vayan tu skd
bhagavat bhavasya priyas sakhya kaa-sagamena/ suducikitsyasya bhavasya
mtyor bhiaktama tvdya gati gat sma// k ca tava ya priya sakh
tasya bhavasya, atyantam acikitsyasya bhavasya janmano mtyo ca
bhiaktama sadvaidya tva gati prpt ity e/ r ivo hy e vakt
guru// r pracetasa r mad aabhuja purusam//
79
The first interpretation concerned materialists, the second persons
trying to understand transcendental knowledge, and this third expla-
nation concerns devotees of the Lord. There is an implicit gradation
here, progressing from action (karman) to knowledge (jñna) and
to devotion (bhakti). Devotees view the guru (and ®iva) as non-dif-
ferent from the Lord because of the great love between them. In this
way there is a union in love between them. This third reason could
thus be said to be a devotional one.
Apart from these explanations, in the context of describing wor-
ship of the Lords seat in his spiritual abode, J va Gosvmin writes that
the Lord stays on earth as a bhaktvatra, descent as a devotee, in
the form of the localised (vyai) guru, while at the same time re-
maining as the aggregate (samai) guru in his own abode as a direct
avatra.253 All gurus on earth are thus localised manifestations of the
one divine guru. This idea will be developed by Kadsa Kavirja
below.
The need for many reasons why the guru is the same as Ka
points to the uneasiness felt by J va Gosvmin when faced with such
statements. The Gau ya theology J va Gosvmin was so instrumen-
tal in creating as indeed common sense tells us that the person
acting as a guru is not Ka but a human being. The theologian J va
Gosvmin could not, as Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin, be content with
merely repeating the statements of the old scriptures. Still, the au-
thority of the canon is too great for it to be completely rejected. Prac-
tically all the bhakti movements have placed great emphasis on the
need for a guru, and J va Gosvmin no doubt saw the same need for
maintaining strong respect for the guru.
Continuing along the same lines, Kadsa Kavirja writes
the following in his Caitanya-caritmta, while explaining the con-
cept of guru:
253 BS 286
80
Although my guru is Caitanyas servant, still I know him to be His
manifestation. Scripture says that the guru is the form of Ka. In the
form of the guru, Ka shows mercy to the devotees. The crya
should be understood as Me, and never disrespected. The guru,
abode of all gods, should not be displeased by thinking that he is a
human being. (BP 11.17.27) 254
In other words, Kadsa Kavirja considers the guru to have a dual

nature, and interprets the famous verse of the Bhgavata (also cited
by J va Gosvmin above) in that light. While it seems to indicate an
absolute identity between the guru and Caitanya (and thus Ka),
that is not how Kadsa understands it. A modern guru clarifies:
while the guru himself is a servant of Ka like anyone else, at the
time of initiation, Ka enters his heart and makes him a manifesta-
tion of himself to the disciple.255 In the eyes of the disciple, the guru
is God; in his own eyes, a servant of God. This correlates with what
Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin writes about the disciple worshipping the
guru thinking that he is Ka, or the first explanation given by J va
Gosvmin.
It could be argued that the word manifestation (praka) used in
Kadsas verse above is defined later in the book as an expansion
of Ka that is completely identical to Ka himself.256 That mean-
ing can not be accepted here, since the guru will not look exactly like
Ka, who is blue, clad in a yellow dhot , threefold bending and so
forth. The word must therefore here be taken in a more general
sense.
Thus, the idea is that the guru does not belong to the ontological
category of ordinary j vas or individual souls (j va-tattva), and also
not fully to that of Ka (Ka-tattva); rather, he is assigned to a
254 CC 1.1.44-46. yadyapi mra guru caitanyera dsa/ tathpi jniye mi
thra praka// guru ka-rpa hana strera prame/ guru-rpe ka kp
karena bhakta-gae// crya m vijn yn nvamanyeta karhicit/ na martya-
buddhysyeta sarva-deva-mayo guru//
255 Bon Maharaj (1974), 2. The same idea is expressed by Anantadsa Bbj in
Mahaya (1997), 29 using J va Gosvmins terms vyai and samai-guru.
256 CC 1.1.69-70
81
category of his own, guru-tattva. While there are many persons who
act as gurus, it is the same Ka who speaks through them all. In this
way, the guru is God, and there is only one guru.257 Ka will how-
ever only fully enter the heart of a person who is extremely pure.258
Later theologians have elaborated on this concept. Of what form
of Ka is the guru a manifestation? The realisation of that depends
on the advancement of the disciple. First the disciple simply thinks
that the guru is a manifestation of Ka, then of Balarma or
Nitynanda, since Nitynanda is the one who leads the way to
Caitanya. To see the guru as Balarma or Nitynanda is the limit of
realisation for those who aspire after dsya-, sakhya- and vatsalya-
bhva or a relationship as servant, friend or parent in the eternal play
of Ka and Caitanya, respectively. Those who aspire to madhurya-
bhva or an amorous relationship will next realise the guru as one of
the leaders of the gop s (milkmaids) serving Rdh and Ka in
Vndvana, and finally as Rdh herself. To see the guru as the del-
egate or manifestation of Rdh is thus the highest realisation.259
That such a complex theological understanding is beyond the
comprehension of many ordinary devotees is obvious. Some inter-
viewees tried to explain the guru along these lines, but had not fully
grasped the idea.260 Others prefer to stress the identity between
guru and God,261 while yet others consider the guru different from
Ka, but his best servant and representative.262 However, as we
shall see in part three, the notion of the gurus twofold nature is the
one that best accounts for the sometimes seemingly contradictory
behaviour of the guru and of the disciple towards him.
257 Letter from Swami B.G. Narasimha to author, 29.8.1998

258 IF mgt 2000/69
259 Letter from Swami B.G. Narasimha to author, 29.8.1998
260 E.g. IF mgt 2000/72
261 Field notes, Navadvip, January 2001. The same verse is quoted in HBV 4.352
262 This is the official doctrine of ISKCON. See Ketola (2002), 76-81, Ravindra
Svarupa Das (1994), 89-90. Some other Gau yas also subscribe to this view. See e.g.
IF mgt 2000/71.
82
3.3 The necessity of having a guru
The need of a guru is universally accepted within Vaiavism, and
Gau ya Vaiavism is no exception. Today no Gau yas even in the
West admit the possibility of advanced spiritual life without a guru.263
In this section I will look at the main arguments the theologians have
advanced throughout the history of Gau ya Vaiavism for the ne-
cessity of having a guru. These arguments also say much about how
the role of the guru is conceived, a topic that will be developed in
part III of the thesis.
3.3.1 Guide
The first and most common argument is the guide-argument. The
idea is that one needs a guide on the spiritual path. On their own,
human beings are seen as too foolish and weak to be able to make
their way to the goal. This is clearly expressed by two quotations
from the Upaniads given in the Hari-bhakti-vilsa.
And in the ®ruti: (Muaka Up. 1.2.12): In order to understand this,
one should, carrying firewood in his hands, indeed approach a true
guru, who is learned in the Veda and who has faith in Brahman. And
(Chndogya Up. 6.14.2): One with an crya understands.264
What is expressed here is one of the main Upaniadic teachings: that

brahman or God is something one cannot understand by intellect,
mind or senses. Brahman can only be understood through mystical
knowledge. Materially bound living entities have no access to this
263 The ¬tvik-goups within ISKCON could be given as an exception. They belive
that since the movements founder, Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda (1896-1977)
did not appoint a successor, everyone should in his absence be initiated by him
through a representative priest (tvik). Even though not present, Prabhupda would
still be the guru, and all necessary knowledge would be gained through his books,
collected lectures and so on. See The Final Order.
264 HBV 1.35. rutv api (mu. 1.2.12, ch. 6.14.2) tad-vijñrtha sad-guru
evbhigacchet samit-pi rotriya brahma-niham/ cryavn puruo veda//
83
knowledge, and it cannot be gained through simply reading the re-
vealed scriptures. It must be imparted through a guru.265 The first
quotation, from the Muaka Upaniad, comes after a passage re-
vealing the futility of the Vedic sacrifices, how they are difficult to
perform, uncertain and temporary. Therefore, a wise person should
give them up and approach a guru. A guru here means a guru of the
Upaniadic type (see 3.1), not the person who teaches the Vedic
hymns and rituals. Carrying firewood in his hands means that one
should be humble and ready to attend to the needs of the guru by
such menial service as collecting firewood for his sacred fire. The
next verse, after the one cited, says that to such a person the guru will
reveal knowledge of brahman.266
The Upaniads are full of stories about gurus and disciples. The
quotation from the Chndogya Upaniad is taken from the well-
known dialogue between ®vetaketu and his father. The father gives
the example of a person who has been kidnapped from the town
Gandhra, bound up, blindfolded and left alone in a desolate place.
He would call out for help, and his only hope is that someone will
hear him, release him from his bonds and show him the way back to
Gandhra. In the same way one who has an crya or guru under-
stands and is freed from his material bondage.267
Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin provides two more statements from the
scriptures on this topic.
In the prayers of the ®ruti in the tenth canto of the Bhgavata

(10.87.33): They who here struggle to restrain the unsubdued horse
of the inconsistent mind by controlled senses and breaths are tor-
mented by their methods. Having abandoned the feet of the guru they
are surrounded by hundreds of calamities! O unborn one, they are
like a merchant on the ocean without a captain. And in ®ruti (Kaha
265 See for example Kaha Upaniad 2.3.12, Muaka Upaniad 3.2.3-4
266 Muaka Upaniad 1.2.1-13
267 Chndogya Upaniad 7.14.1-2
84
Up. 1.2.9): Dear one, this doctrine can not be approached through
logic. For real knowledge it is indeed explained in another way.268
Without a guru, spiritual life is thought to be very difficult, practically

impossible. Trying through different means (such as penance, sacrifices
or meditation) to control the senses and mind without a guru is simply
torturing oneself. The lines from the Kaha Upaniad are spoken by
Yama to Naciketas. Yama explains that there are two paths: that of sense
enjoyment and that of otherworldly knowledge. The path of
otherwordly knowledge can not be understood by ordinary logic, it has
to be mystically realised with the help of a guru.
J va Gosvmin continues on the same lines in his Bhakti-sandarbha.
For him, accepting a guru is the first step on the spiritual path. He argues
that just as knowledge is gained by association with persons possessing
knowledge, bhakti or devotion to the Lord is awakened in the pupil by
association with a saint, and that bhakti thus gained will be of a similar sort
as that experienced by the particular saint. J va Gosvmin opines that
taste is the beginning of the religious journey. For one to embark on this
arduous journey, some preliminary taste or interest in some school or
faith is needed, a taste which is then transformed into a taste for the par-
ticular form of the Lord and way of devotion preferred by the school of
choice. Only then does one approach a guru (or several gurus) to learn
more by listening to their teachings.269
In order to learn the basic rules for worship, one has to hear the instruc-
tions of one or several elders in the group one has joined. Such persons
naturally attain the status of instructors or gurus, and one of these persons
will become most dear to the listener. From that person one should also
268 HBV 1.36-37. r bhgavate daama-skandhe (87.33) ruti-stutau viji-h ka-

vyubhir adnta-manas-turaga ya iha yatanti yantum atilolam upyakhida/
vyasana-atnvit samavahya guro caraa vaija ivja santy akta-
karadhar jaladhau// rutau ca (kah. 1.2.9) nai tarkea matir paney
proktnyenaiva sujñnya preh//
269 BS 202
85
take formal initiation.270 In this way, J va Gosvmin sees the guru mainly
as a teacher: one who guides the disciple on the spiritual path. The im-
plied rhethorical question is: who can possibly learn anything without a
teacher? This argument is also very common with modern Gau yas.271
Anantadsa Bbj , mahnta of Rdhkua, writes that just as one
needs a teacher for anything one wants to learn even in this world, so
one also needs a guru to learn devotion, the highest science. 272
For a modern Gau ya the guide argument may not be so con-
vincing. Why is it not enough to just read the books? Previous gurus
have already written so much that a physical, living guru would ap-
pear unnecessary. Such a guru might also make mistakes, fall into sin-
ful life, or otherwise act improperly things that a book will never do.
One answer to this is that the main task of the guru is to teach the
disciple to surrender, to give up trusting only his intellect, mind and
senses. Without a living guru, one can always pit different authorities
against each other, making choices only on the basis of what is pleas-
ing to ones own mind and senses. This is the reason for having only
one initiating guru.273 Another common argument is that a book is
not able to judge changes in time, place and circumstances.274
3.3.2 Giver of eligibility

The second argument is that without a guru, and more specifically
the mantra he gives, nobody is eligible to worship Ka. This could
be called the giver of eligibility-argument. In the second Vilsa of
the Hari-bhakti-vilsa the topic is initiation, something that will be
discussed at length below (chapter six). Accepting a guru means also
270 BS 202
271 See for example Bhakti Siddhanta Saraswati Goswami Maharaj (1989), 205, B.R.
®r dhar (n.d.), 2-3, Gour Govinda Swami Mahrja (1996), 1-2, Raghava Chaitanya
Das (www.angelfire.com/realm/bvpuri/books/guru_and_atma_nivedanam.html)
272 Anantadsa Bbj (n.d.), 4
273 K rtannanda Swami Bhaktipda (1987), 41
274 IF mgt 2000/91
86
accepting initiation, so the latter topic is relevant also here. Why does
one need initiation?
In the gama: Twiceborn without the sacred thread do not have the
eligibility to engage in their own duties, such as study. It is gained
through upanayana. In the same way, those who are not initiated do
not have the eligibility for mantras, worshipping God, etc. Therefore,
make yourself praised by ®iva! In the Skanda Pura, in connection
with Krtika, in the holy discussion between Brahm and Nrada
(5.2.5.39): Those men who have not attained Haris initiation and
who do not worship Janrdana are animals in this world. What is the
use of their life?275
The commentator, Santana Gosvmin, writes that praised by ®iva

means initiated. Since according to Gau ya theology, Viu is superior
to ®iva, one who has accepted Vaiava initiation is the object of the full
praise of even ®iva.276 Initiation can thus be seen as a kind of purifica-
tion, a rite that cleanses the disciple and makes him ritually eligible for
worshipping Ka. Since attaining love of Ka is considered the goal
of human life, someone without that eligibility is not considered a real
human being.
3.3.3 Mandated by scripture

Another argument presented by Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin is that one
has to have a guru since it is mandated by scripture. To the rather
extreme quotation above about nobody being a human without initia-
tion, the commentator adds another even more graphic (unidentified)
statement: one who eats something without worshipping the
lagrma stone, becomes a worm in the excrement of dog-eaters for
275 HBV 2.3-5. game dvijnm upetn svakarmdhyayandiu/

yathdhikro nst ha syc copanayand anu// tathtrd kitnn tu mantra-
devrcandiu/ ndhikro sty ata kuryd tmana iva-sastutam// sknde
krttika-prasage r -brahma-nrada-savde te nar paavo loke ki te
j vane phalam/ yair na labdh harer d k nrcito v janrdana//
276 Dig-darin commentary to HBV 2.3-5
87
a kalpa (4 320 000 000 years)!277 The lagrma is Viu in the form of
a stone. The implied meaning is that if one eats before worshipping
Viu, one attains such a terrible destination. Since one cannot worship
without initiation one must accept initiation if one wants to eat.
The same kind of warnings are issued in the two following verses:
In the same book, in the discussion between Rukmgada and

Mohin : Beautiful one, all that the uninitiated does is useless. Anyone
without initiation is reborn as an animal. Specifics are given in the
Viu-ymala: The curse of the gods strikes that guru who through
attachment or greed accepts a disciple without initiation, and also his
disciple.278
The first verse speaks of the mandatoriness of initiation by pointing

out the dire consequences for neglecting it, while the second clarifies
that it is not enough to just accept a guru, one must also accept formal
initiation. The commentator understands without initiation to
mean breaking the rules for initiation.279
This argument is not echoed by later writers, probably for different
reasons. That it is not used today is obvious: it can be effective only in
an environment were people have faith in such statements of scrip-
ture, and where the majority are initiated, rendering the non-intiate
socially deviant.
3.3.4 Saviour
The first argument for accepting a guru was that the guru is a guide
on the path of devotion. A further argument is that the power of the
guru goes far beyond mere guidance. He is not only a teacher, but a

278 HBV 2.6-7. tatraiva r rukmgada-mohin -savde ad kitasya vmoru
kta sarva nirarthakam/ pau-yonim avpnoti d k-vihito jana// vieato
viu-ymale snehd v lobhd vpi yo gh yd ad kay/ tasmin gurau saiye
tu devat-pa patet//
88
saviour in his own right. J va Gosvmin writes in his Bhakti-
sandarbha:
The necessity for a mantra-guru is even greater [than the necessity for
a ik-guru]. That one should approach a guru of the highest truth and
give up worldly gurus, etc, is the thought behind this statement of
Lord ¬abhadeva to his sons (BP 5.5.18): He is not a guru, he is not a
relative, he is not a father, she is not a mother, that is not a divinity, and
he is not a husband who cannot free [his or her dependent] from
death. From death means from the repetition of birth and death.280
The words worldly guru refer to common authority persons like

ones father, mother, elderly relatives and so forth. The mantra-guru
should be able to release the disciple from the cycle of birth and
death. If he does not, he is not a real (sat) guru but a worldly guru.
Such a guru should be given up. This will be dealt with in more detail
later (5.2).
But how can the guru be a saviour? Kadsa Kavirja Gosvmin
offers an explanation. He has Caitanya explain a cosmological axiom
to Santana Gosvmin: there are two kinds of souls - those who are
eternally liberated and those eternally bound. Those who are bound
have forgotten that their nature is to serve Ka, and instead they
wander in the material world from one bodily form to another, trying
to gratify their senses, but actually suffering under the influence of
my, illusion. However, if they happen to meet a saint, they may
become enlightened by his association and take up the process of
devotion. If they start worshipping Ka and serving the guru, they
can be freed from the web of my.281
280 BS 210. ata r mantra-guror avayakatva sutarm eva/ tad etat paramrtha-
gurvrayo vyavahrika-gurvdi-paritygenpi kartavya ity ayenha (bh.
5.5.18) gurur na sa syt svajano na sa syt pit na sa syj janan na s syt/
daiva na tat syn na pati ca sa syt na mocayed ya samupeta-mtyum//
samupeta saprpto mtyu sasro yena tam [...] r abhadeva svaputrn//
281 CC 2.22.10-17, 25
89
Why, then, do some persons meet saints while others do not?
Kadsa Kavirja Gosvmin simply says because of fortune or
some kind of fortune.282 This fortune depends on the mercy of
Ka:
When Ka shows his mercy to some fortunate person, he personally

instructs him as the guru and as the indwelling monitor. O Lord, poets
are not able to express their gratitude, even if endowed with a life-
time of enjoyment as long as that of Brahm. Dissipating the misfor-
tune of embodied beings You appear internally and externally as the
Supersoul and as the crya to show the path to Yourself. (BP
11.29.6) If there is association with saints and faith in devotion to
Ka, then preman, the fruit of devotion appears, and material bond-
age is destroyed.283
In other words, it is Ka who is speaking through the guru to a per-

son who is sufficiently fortunate to receive his mercy. The result of
meeting a saint or guru for even a split second can give the greatest
fruit.284 Kadsa Kavirja Gosvmin says nothing more about this
fortune, leaving something for later theologians to ponder over. In
any case, the reason for why the guru can act as a saviour is that Ka
is acting through him.
This saviour-argument is very common among modern Gau yas.
One guru writes that the guru is the gate through which to enter the
path of devotion since Kas grace reaches us through the saints.285
Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda writes that Ka is the power-
house and the guru is the contact through which we can access the
electric current of love for Ka.286 Despite the modern example,
282 CC 2.22.43, 45
283 Ibid, 2.22.47-49. ka yadi kp kare kona bhgyavne/ guru-antarymi-rpe
ikhaya pane// naivopayanty apaciti kavayas tavea brahmyupo ktam
ddha-muda smaranta/ ya ntar bahis tanu-bhtm aubha vidhunvann
crya-caittya-vapu sva-gati vyanakti// sdhu-sage ka-bhaktye raddh
yadi haya/ bhakti-phala prema haya, sasra yya kaya//
284 CC 2.22.54
285 Anantadsa Bbj (n.d.), 4
286 Lecture on the Nectar of Devotion 10/29/72, quoted in V rabhu Dsa (1988), 38
90
the idea is the same. The example, however, hints at something that
soon came to be considered essential for the guru: that he is con-
nected with an unbroken disciplic succession. This will be dealt with
later (4.2).
3.3.5 Practice Ka

Satyanryaa Dsa Bbaj , a leading disciple of Haridsa ®str of the
Gaddhara parivra, offered a new reason for the need of a guru.
The way you will treat [the guru], that is the bhva you will have to
Ka. It is not that you will die and then get something else. Ka
says [in BG 8.6] that whatever bhva you have at the time of death,
you will attain the same body in your next life. Bhva is to be acquired
here, not that death will give you something. Death is just a change of
body, not of bhva. Bhva you have to have with your guru. The way
you want to treat Ka, that way you have to treat the guru.287
In other words, in the relationship with the guru one practises serv-
ing and being devoted to Ka. As devoted as one is to the guru, that
devoted one will be to Ka. If one wants a relationship with Ka,
one has to have a guru, who will function as a practice Ka for the
disciple. There are examples of devotees who had a friendly
(sakhya) mood (bhva) to Ka, and exhibited this mood also in
relationship with the guru.288 But how does one exhibit the amorous
mood (madhurya bhva), the most popular bhva in modern
Gau ya Vaiavism, with regard to the guru? The bbj chided me
for such a stupid question.
-This is all misconceptions. You have to study the Sandarbhas [of J va

Gosvmin] to know what is madhurya. What amorous? Ka is a
sexual being?
-No, no, but...
287 IF mgt 2000/70

288 For example Govinda Dsa Bbj in Kapoor (1995), 222-229
91
-All it means is surrender. It is a bhva of surrender. Just like if a
woman is completely in love with a person, she surrenders every-
thing to him, fully, including her body. She does not keep anything.
The same surrender has to be shown. It is the height of surrender, the
ultimate limit of dsya [service]. Therefore Rdhari is also a devo-
tee. When surrender is there in love, there is pleasure, naturally. So
you have to surrender like that to guru. Not that you have to perform
rsa-l l [the circular pleasure dance of Ka and the
cowherdesses]!289
Others strongly maintain that this is an improper understanding, and

that one should always behave like a humble servant towards the
guru, and separately cultivate ones bhva towards Ka.290
3.3.6 Dependence on Kas grace

Faced with the postmodern society of the western world, Gau yas
have had to rethink the arguments for why one needs a guru. Vows
to the guru go against the grain of Western culture, admits one con-
temporary Western Gau ya guru, Swami B.V. Tripurri. He argues
that a guide is definitely needed, since spiritual life is about radical
change, implying that one is unable to change enough on ones own.
However, the relationship between the disciple and guru should be
one of affectionate intimacy, not so much one of awe and reverence.
Love of Ka is not a product of devotional practice. The relation-
ship must be initiated by Ka. Since he is the personification of af-
fection and love, he wants to initiate a relationship. For this reason he
commissions his agents, the gurus.291
But still, why the need for an intermediary? Another Western guru
put it like this, when answering the question whether he really ac-
cepts the physical offerings made by disciples from a distance:
289 IF mgt 2000/70

290 Bhaktivednta Araya Mahrja. Field notes, November 2000, Vndvana
291 Swami B.V. Tripurri (1998b), 180-181
92
[My guru] accepts [the offering] through me, and Ka through him.
This is the point. It is not me and Ka, but the guru and the other
devotees are also there. [To think that there is only me and Ka] is
spiritual arrogance, and that is my [illusion]. Since they pray to me,
Ka accepts the offering. Not because I hear it, but since they show
the right attitude.292
The attitude of a Vaiava should always be that he is a humble serv-

ant. Having a guru thus instills the spirit of humble dependence on
Gods grace which decends to the disciple through the guru.293
3.3.7 Exceptions
In the terms of Roy Rappaport (see 1.3.2), we have so far seen that
the need for a guru in Gau ya Vaiavism can be considered a rule of
conduct based on the cosmological axiom of liberated and fallen
souls, where the fallen need help from the liberated. As Rappaport
writes, these rules can be changed, even drastically, without affect-
ing the oppositions they make material.294 In the writings of J va
Gosvmin, we find two exceptions to the rule of conduct of every-
one having to accept a guru.
As mentioned before, for J va Gosvmin, the Bhgavata Pura is
the highest scriptural authority, and it extols spontaneous, ecstatic
devotion as the highest ideal. Is there really a need for formal initia-
tion? He writes the following in the context of altar worship:
Although in the opinion of the sacred Bhgavata the altar worship of

the Pañcartrins and others is not compulsory, and even though one
may attain the goal of life by engaging in but one of the processes that
begin with surrender [the nine paths of bhakti] without it; still, in the
opinion of those who follow the path of reverend Nrada and others,
292 IF mgt 2000/92

293 Swami B.V. Tripurri, Sanga online questions & answers, Vol III, no. 38
294 Rappaport (1999), 265-266
93
those who strive after a specific relationship with the Lord, established
through the feet of the reverend guru through the method of initia-
tion, when thus initiated, must certainly perform altar worship.295
In other words, it is possible at least in exceptional cases to achieve the

goal of life, love of Ka, without a guru. The gop s of the Bhgavata
had no gurus! Still, if one is attracted by the specific relationship to the
Lord that a particular guru embodies, one should associate with him
and become established in the same relationship through formal initia-
tion. When thus initiated, one must perform altar worship. J va
Gosvmin thus turns the argument of Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin
around. Altar worship is not absolutely necessary, but it is necessary for
those who are initiated, and initiation is necessary for those who wish
to attain the same relationship with the Lord as a specific saint whose
devotion to the Lord one feels attracted to.
J va Gosvmin does not elaborate on this alternative of having no
guru, obviously considering it an uncommon exception. Still, he does
leave the door open, perhaps to acknowledge the devotion of saints
such as M rb (who is not known to have had any guru), whom some
authors believe he personally met.296 Later Gau ya tradition recog-
nizes several saints who are known to have had no guru, or whose guru
is unknown, but who still attained spiritual perfection.297 In their cases,
they achieved perfection in uncommon ways, something that does
not change the cosmological axiom of liberated and bound souls.
Elsewhere in his Bhakti-sandarbha, J va Gosvmin gives another
exception to the rule of accepting a guru. After writing about the quali-
fications of a real guru (see chapter four), he states:
295 BS 283. yady api ribhgavata-mate pañcartrdi-vad arcana-

mrgasyvayakatva nsti, tad-vinpi arapattyd nm ekatarepi pururtha-
siddher abhihitatvt, tathpi r nraddi-vartmnusaradbhi r bhagavat saha
sambandha-viea d k-vidhnena r guru-caraa-sapdita cik radbhi
kty d kym arcanam avaya kriyetiva/
296 E.g. Kapoor (1995), 265. For more about M rbh , see e.g. Martin (1999),
Schelling (1999).
297 E.g. Gull Sakhi, Gvriya Bb in Kapoor (1999)
94
In the absence of such a guru, some curious to know different opin-
ions take shelter of many teachers. As is said by the reverend
Datttreya to Yadu (BP 11.9.31): For firm, many-faceted knowledge
is not imparted by only one guru. This nondual Brahman is glorified
by many sages. The meaning is clear.298
In connection with the quotation above, the Bhgavata Pura tells

the story of the mendicant Datttreya who had 24 gurus, such as
the wind, a prostitute and a river, from each of whom he learned
something. After he had gathered knowledge from all of them just by
observation and contemplation, he became fully self-realised.299
Steinmann refers to this story as one of only two in the Puras where
an alternative to the standard pan-Indian process of turning to a guru
is presented, calling its doctrine sarvtm-guru, the guru embodied
in all living beings.300 J va Gosvmin writes some, so it is unclear
how much he endorses this idea, but he does not refute it either. Later
theologian Vivantha Cakravartin interprets the above verse from
the Bhgavata to refer to only ik- or instructing gurus (see below)
an interpretation that is in line with orthodox Gau ya Vaiavism,
but which does not fit the context very well.301
3.4 Types of gurus

Gau ya Vaiavas distinguish between several types of gurus, hav-
ing different functions and roles in the life of the disciple. Before ar-
riving at a general definition of the guru, we must be able to distin-
guish between these types.
298 BS 203. evambhta-guror abhvd yukti-bheda-bubhutsay bahnapy

rayante kecit, yath (bh. 11.9.31) na hy ekasmd guror jñna susthira
syt su-pukalam/ brahmaitad advit ya vai g yate bahudharibhi// spaam//
r datttreyo yadum//
299 BP 11.7.32-11.9.31. For a modern commentary of this episode (which curiously
enough completely overlooks the radical nature of the story), see cryadeva (1986)
300 Steinmann (1986), 282
301 Srrtha-darin commentary to BP 11.9.31.
95
While Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin does not explicitly distinguish be-
tween different kinds of gurus, J va Gosvmin introduces three impor-
tant categories: the ravaa-, ik and d k-gurus. The ravaa -guru
(guru from whom one hears) is defined as the the guru one listens to in
order to achieve scriptural knowledge, the ik-guru (instructing guru)
as the one who gives more detailed knowledge of worship and spiritual
life, and the d k- or mantra-guru (initiating guru) as the guru who initi-
ates one with a mantra. J va Gosvmin further adds that the ravaa-
guru will usually also be the ik-guru, and that while one may have
several such gurus, one can have only one d k-guru.302 Kadsa
Kavirja Gosvmin adds the caitya-guru (indwelling guru), Ka in the
heart of the devotee.303
Further categories can be found in modern publications. The vartma-
or patha-pradaraka-guru (guru who shows the way) is the one who
originally points the disciple to Gau ya Vaiavism.304 As in modern
Gau ya Vaiavism there are usually two initiations (see 6.2.1), the
d k-guru can be divided into two types: the nma-guru, who gives
first initiation and the mantra-guru who gives second initiation.305 The
vea- or sannysa-guru is the guru who awards the disciple vea- or
sannysa-initiation (see 6.2.3, 6.2.4). He can be the same person as the
ik-guru or someone else. He could even be from another parivra, as
mentioned above (2.3.3), so his function seems to be more formal or
perhaps temporary. This is also how the sub-category sannysa-guru is
perceived: he awards sannysa, but the relationship need not go any
further.
The dhman- or t rtha-guru is the one who introduces someone to a
holy place and functions as a guide there. His relationship with the disci-
ple is limited to only the duration of the pilgrimage.306 Since all these
302 BS 202, 206-209

303 CC 1.1.47
304 Sivarama Swami (1999), 5
305 Swami B.R. Sr dhar [n.d.], 85.
306 Haberman (1994), 10
96
categories are concerned with the function of the guru in the life of the
disciple they may be called functional gurus.
The di-guru (original guru) is the founder of a particular sapradya
(e.g. Brahm), whose teachings all later followers of the sapradya are
to follow.307 Within ISKCON, some further differentiate the
sasthpaka-crya (founding guru) from the di-guru, holding that
the founding guru (as Madhva, Rmnuja or the founder of ISKCON,
Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda) is an especially empowered person
who, while not exactly beginning a new sapradya, revitalises it and
corrects any faults in it.308 Others have introduced two terms from the ®r -
and Brahm-sapradyas: the uddhraka- or saviour-guru, and the
upakraka- or assisting guru.309 These types indicate the relative posi-
tion of the guru within the sapradya, and most of these terms are only
used within ISKCON and related groups in the ongoing politically
heated debate about the position of Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda
in relation to the gurus who are his disciples.
Now, let us try to sort out these terms. To reduce the number of cat-
egories, I have regarded the dhma- and ravaa-gurus as
subcategories of the ik-guru, in common with modern Gau ya
Vaiava usage.310 The sannysa-guru can best be seen as a modern
variant of the vea-guru. Thus, the functional gurus can be divided into
three classes.
Qualified/
Non-qualified human Qualified human Krishna himself
vartmapradaraka ik caitya
d k
vea
307 ®ivarma Swami (1999), 20

308 ®ivarma Swami (1999), 20
309 See for example Swami B.G. Narasimha in http://www.vnn.org/editorials/
ET9901/ET05-2792.html
310 As suggested by Atula Ka Dsa in an e-letter 9.11.2001.
97
The vartmapradaraka-guru is special since very little is demanded of
him: Ka is thought to also speak through him, but he has no special
own qualifications. In other words, he need not have any of the quali-
fications mentioned in chapter 4 below. On the other hand, his func-
tion and the respect shown to him is very limited: he only shows the
way (knowingly or unknowingly), and has then fulfilled his purpose.
The person who was guided should remember him with gratitude,
but that is more or less all. An example of such a person is given later
(5.1.1). The caitya-guru is on the other side of the spectrum, since he
is Ka himself, not speaking through any qualified or non-qualified
human, but directly to the disciple from the heart. The other gurus
all have the dual nature described above. In other words they are
Ka speaking and acting through an especially qualified devotee.
The relationship between the remaining types is somewhat un-
clear. J va Gosvmin does not differentiate between the qualifica-
tions of the ravaa, ik- and d k-gurus (and does not mention
the vea-guru). Some contemporary Gau yas hold the d k-guru to
be the most important of them all, since he takes the greatest re-
sponsibility for the disciple, and since he is his highest authority.311
By giving the disciple mantras and by (in some cases) revealing his
so-called spiritual identity he is of utmost importance to the disci-
ple.312 Kadsa Kavirja, however, holds the ik-guru (obviously
in the case that he is separate from the d k-guru) to be more impor-
tant,313 probably since he is the one who practically guides the disci-
ple. Kadsa calls the d k-guru bhagavad-rpa or the form of the
Lord,314 and the ik-guru the bhagavat-svarpa or internal mood of
the Lord,315 implying that the sik-guru is more intimate with Ka,
311 ®ivarma Swami (1999), 43-44, K rtannanda Swami Bhaktipda (1987), 41

312 Haberman (1988), 117
313 CC 1.1.58
314 CC 1.1.45
315 CC 1.1.47
98
and provides the disciple with more esoteric knowledge. Others
downplay the difference, just as there is no difference between the
inside and outside of Ka.316
If one examines the hagiographies of Gau ya saints, one quickly
notices that in many cases they have been initiated by a goswami
guru in their childhood or youth, but the actual instructions on wor-
ship and internal spiritual life they have received later from a ik-
guru, usually a bbj . In this way, their ik-gurus are much more
prominent in their lives. While there may be many such gurus, there
is usually one who is the most important. The stories also make it
clear that Gau yas have treated the ik-guru with the reverence
due to the guru. Sometimes, as in the case of Kadsa Kavirja
himself, the d k-guru is not even known.317
The reason for this lies in the way the Gau ya sapradya came
to be organised. The goswamis became the ones who gave large
numbers of initiations, and who were responsible for the religious life
of the ordinary lay disciples, visiting them, giving short talks, accept-
ing donations and so forth. Those who wanted to embark on a more
intensive religious journey would be sent to a holy place like
Vndvana, where they would seek out a ik-guru, who could give
more detailed instruction.
The idea behind these two main types of gurus is probably quite
simple: many disciples are needed to spread the movement, to
maintain temples and so forth. They all need a guru to receive the
mantra and basic teachings, but few will dedicate their whole life to
pursue the higher goals of the religion. Caitanya and his associates
strongly discouraged ascetics from accepting many disciples since
that would entangle them in material affairs,318 so a better idea is to
have a class of householders who would take care of householder
316 E.g. Bhaktivednta Vana Maharja in www.vnn.org/editorials/ET0208/ET05-

7483.html
317 E.g. Caitanya Dsa Bbaj in Kapoor (1995), 31-44
318 E.g. CC 3.20.30
99
disciples, and ascetics who would give further guidance for those
who want to themselves become ascetics. Similar systems are found
in the Kumra and ®r sapradyas. The terms ik- and d k-guru
have been taken up also by the Sahaj yas and the Bauls.319
The problem with this arrangement is that the function of the
d k-guru tended to become completely formal, as described in
section 4.3. Having the d k-gurus associate with worldly disciples
and accept their worship also appears to have led to a degradation of
many of the d k-gurus to mere initiators, offering very little or no
spiritual instruction, and sometimes having only the qualification of
being born in the right family.320 Serious disciples would have little to
learn from them, and instead have to accept another person as a
ik-guru. This does not mean that the importance of the d k-guru
should be neglected: the parapar or disciplic succession is always
traced through the d k-guru, and respect is always shown to the
d k-guru, at least from a distance (see 5.2).321 For lay members,
he may be their only guru.
One way of reforming this system was attempted by
Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat (1874-1937). While his own guru was a
member of the Advaita parivra, the parapar that
Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat presented to his disciples is not a line of
d k-gurus, but mostly of ik-gurus. One of his disciples has said
that
... the very gist of the guru parapar, the disciplic succession, is
ik, the spiritual teaching, and wherever it is to be traced, there is
guru. [...] Otherwise the guru parapar is only a body parapar:
a succession of bodies. Then the caste brhmaas, the caste goswamis,
will continue with their trade, because body after body they are get-
ting the mantra. But their mantra is dead.322
319 Dimock (1989), 120-122, Sarkar (1990), 73

320 See for example Kennedy (1925), 1565-160
321 Haberman (1988), 117 argues that the d k-guru is obviously the most impor-
tant, but he seens to base his argument only on the practice of the bbj -community
at Rdh-kua.
322 Swami B.R. ®r dhar [n.d], 22
100
Better than following such a succession of bodies, goswami
gurus perceived as unqualified, would be to follow a line of great
teachers, whatever their parivra or vaa, and begin a new line
of d k-gurus coming from Bhaktisiddhnta himself. Some other
Gau yas take strong exception to this and claim that because of
this the Gau ya Mahas (and its offshoot, ISKCON) have no un-
broken parapar, and thus the mantras they receive are worth-
less.323
Instead of having formal d k-gurus and ik-gurus giving the
actual teachings, Bhaktisiddhnta wanted to join the two. The
new type of guru could be called the crya-guru.324 He would
be a renounced and learned sannysin, but actively travel,
preach and widely accept disciples. He and a spiritual elite of
brahmacrins and sannysins would live in mahas which would
provide spiritual guidance to society at large. Bhaktisiddhnta
exemplified this himself. He had several tens of thousands of dis-
ciples and founded over sixty mahas, but himself led a very re-
nounced life.325 This is similar to the position of the jagad-gurus in
the ®akara-sapradya326 or the cryas in the ®r - and Brahm-
sapradyas, but new to the Gau ya Vaiava sapradya.
The history of the Gau ya Mahas and ISKCON has shown that
the problem with this system, as we shall see later (8.2.2) is that it
demands very much of the crya, and that it creates great prob-
lems with succession.
323 E.g. IF 2000/14a

324 When used separately (generally in quotations), the word crya does not
denote this type of guru, but is rather simply a synonym for the word guru. My use
of the term crya-guru is completely opposite to that of Steinmann (1986), 288-289.
He contrasts the householder crya with the sannys guru. Sardella (2002), 36-37
uses the term as I do.
325 For his life see Bhaktikusum Sraman (1983) and Prabhupada Saraswati Thakur.
For a description of his movement see Madsen (2001).
326 See Cenkner (1984)
101
Summarising all this, we could modify the diagram above.
vartmapradaraka d k vea ik crya caitya

a b
The line a-b representing individual qualification, a meaning little and b

great. The vartmapradaraka-guru need not have any personal qualifi-
cation, while the caitya-guru (being Ka himself) has all.
3.5 Defining the guru

The several types of gurus mentioned above makes comprehensive
definition difficult. A definition of guru that would cover them all will
likely be too broad and hence vague. ®ivarma Swami in ISKCON
proposes the following: Anyone who gives instructions on the basis
of revealed scripture is a guru.327 This definition has several prob-
lems. What about the seventeen gurus of Datttreya (see 3.3.7) who
indirectly instructed him? Or the vartmapradaraka guru? Shorten-
ing down the definition to anyone who gives spiritual instruction
includes them all. This is probably what Narahari Sarakra has in mind
when he writes that all Vaiavas are gurus.328
While such definitions may be theologically correct, they do not
correspond very well with reality. Gau yas simply do not offer the
reverence and worship due to the guru to everyone that has at
some point given them some spiritual advice or instruction. Rather,
they have one or a few persons that they consider their gurus in their
practical life. These will be the d k-guru and perhaps some ik-
gurus. I have therefore opted to retain the different categories pre-
sented above (crya-,caitya-, d k-, ik-, vartmapradaraka-
and vea-guru) with one exception: if the word guru is not qualified
327 ®ivarma Swami (1999), 33

328 KB, p 8
102
by any other word, such as instructing, it refers to the d k-guru,
since he is usually considered the most important guru.
What about the definition of Jan Gonda, quoted in the first chapter?
The man who on account of his special knowledge and function was
held to be a bearer of power conspicious by his prestige, weight and
influence. This is still rather too vague. What kind of function is it
that makes him a bearer of power? And who was it that held him to be
such a person? Not necessarily the general populace some gurus
are considered complete frauds except by a few disciples. All this
considered, I would define the Gau ya Vaiava guru as a charis-
matic person who is offered special reverence by one or several
persons on account of his awarding him/ them initiation and/ or
especially important spiritual advice. In the next chapter, the quali-
fications of the guru will be examined, giving us a clearer understand-
ing of the kind of charisma the guru is supposed to have.
103
4 . Q U A L I F I C AT I O N S O F T H E G U R U
This chapter examines the qualifications given for a sad-guru or real guru
within the Gau ya Vaiava movement. Through this, I will try to locate
the Gau ya Vaiava guru within the framework provided by Stein-
mann (3.1). Moreover, we will achieve a preliminary view of the cha-
risma the guru is supposed to have, a theme that will be more fully
elaborated on in part III. After this, I will try to see whether such qualifica-
tions can be found in modern Gau ya gurus, and, as a contrast, look
briefly at the qualifications expected of the disciple.
4.1 Personal qualifications

I base my description of the personal qualifications of the guru on the
Hari-bhakti-vilsa. While it might be argued that this particular book is
not widely studied or read in Gau ya circles nowadays, many gurus
spontaneously referred to the Hari-bhakti-vilsa when questioned
about this topic. As already mentioned, when explaining words such as
guru, and characteristics of the guru, Haridsa Dsa refers almost
only to the Hari-bhakti-vilsa. That is easy to understand: nowhere else
in the books of the Gosvmins of Vndvana is this subject given as
much treatment.
4.1.1 Primary qualifications

The Hari-bhakti-vilsa gives two lists of qualifications of the guru. The
first contains the primary qualifications.
There (BP 11.3.21) it is also said by Yogevara Prabuddha: Therefore,

one who is desirous of the ultimate good should turn to a guru who is
deeply learned in scripture and the highest, and detachedly sheltered in
brahman. The Lord himself says (BP 11.10.5): One should turn to a
guru who knows Me, is calm and whose mind is in Me.329
329 HBV 1.32, 33. tatraiva (r bh. 11.3.21) r prabuddha-yogevaroktau tasmd
guru prapadyeta jijñsu reya uttamam/ bde pare ca nita brahmay
upaamrayam// svaya ribhagavad-uktau (r bh. 11.10.5) mad-abhijñ
guru ntam ups ta mad-tmakam//
104
The commentator, Santana Gosvmin, explains that scripture means
the Vedas (to be taken in the broad meaning of the term), and that the
reason for this is that without scriptural knowledge the guru would not
be able to remove the doubts of the disciple. The highest he explains
as God, and that deep learning in this case means that he is able to ex-
plain what he has perceived, for otherwise he would not be able to trans-
mit knowledge. In other words, the guru needs to have both theoretical
and realised, mystical, knowledge. The commentator also explains de-
tachedly sheltered in brahman as the best of Vaiavas, since only such
a person can find shelter in the highest brahman, Ka.330 The second
quotation reflects the same idea. The commentator glosses knows Me
with who knows Me fully, beginning with understanding the greatness
of My love for My devotees.331 These elaborations aside, in the scheme
of Steinmann the first verse describes a guru of a decidedly Upaniadic
type, while the second more of a Bhakti type.
The first verse is well-known by modern Gauiyas, and Smita Ka
Swami of ISKCON gave a lengthy explanation of it when I interviewed
him on this subject. He thought that this verse was a fully sufficient de-
scription of a real spiritual master. He interpreted the main point of the
verse to be that the guru should be situated in the sattva-gua, the high-
est of the three modalities of material nature.
Have a brahmiical nature, be well-versed in the scriptures. That is

the mode of goodness [sattva-gua]. In the mode of goodness one can
better hear what the text actually teaches, while one in the mode of
passion is more inclined to insert ones own opinions in the text. Pro-
jecting ones own ideas rather than taking it as it is. Therefore, [he]
must be in goodness.
Well-versed in the scriptures. In my own case, my ability to
quote verses is highly limited. But it does not say memorised the
330 Dig-darin commentary to HBV 1.32

331 Ibid, 1.33. mm abhito bhakta-vtsalydi-mhtmynubhava-prvaka
jnt ti tam/ This commentary follows closely that of ®r dhara Svmin in his com-
mentary on the Bhgavata Pura.
105
whole Bhagavad-g t, rather [my guru] Prabhupda explains the
conclusion. Such a person, I think, should also naturally be able to
pass on and convince other persons about these things. Convince is
more a question of passing on, whether others start chanting Hare
Ka or not is up to them. If they are smart they understand that they
have to surrender to Ka.332
He also interpreted detachedly sheltered in brahman to mean that

the guru should not have any managerial responsibilities, a perennial
topic of controversy in ISKCON, where some, along with this guru,
think that this impedes their ability to think of the welfare of indi-
vidual disciples, while others think that the gurus by dint of their spir-
itual advancement and authority are also best suited for managing
the movement.
Ananta Dsa Bbj , commenting on the same verse, extracts four
definitions of a bona fide guru: 1) that he is filled with realisations about
Ka due to his firm faith and his firm adherence to the worship of the
Lord, 2) that he is very learned in the Vedas and devotional scriptures
such as the Bhgavata Pura, so that he can destroy the doubts of his
disciples, 3) that he has attained the mercy-potency or guru-potency
of Ka by his otherworldly realisations, and thus he is able to bring dis-
ciples to the path of bhakti and infuse this power into them also, and 4)
that he is not overcome by vices such as lust or greed.333
Bhaktivednta Nryaa Mahrja, a popular guru of the Gau ya
Vednta Samiti and grand-disciple of Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat , follows
the same verse in explaining the qualifications of the guru, but adds also
that the guru must be at least of intermediate faith. The Bhgavata
Pura explains that devotees can be classified into three groups ac-
cording to their degree of faith: small, intermediate and great. The guru
should ideally be of the best group (one that sees everything in relation
to Ka), but he may also belong to the intermediate group. The follow-
ing four qualities are found in such a devotee: 1) he has love and affec-
332 IF mgt 2000/92

333 Ananta Dsa Bbj [nd], 6
106
tion for Ka, 2) he behaves properly to other Vaiavas in that he hon-
ours and obeys those more advanced, cultivates friendship with his
equals, and is friendly and compassionate to those less advanced, 3) he
is merciful to persons interested in Vaiavism even if they are ignorant,
and 4) he avoids inimical persons. To be at least on the intermediate
stage of faith, the guru must have these qualifications.334
Returning to the Hari-bhakti-vilsa, after these passages from the
Bhgavata follows another general text, but this one with more details:
And in the Krama-d pik (4.2): One who is really desirous of knowl-
edge should with a humble body and mind surrender to a guide who is a
brhmaa; who has destroyed the enemies of lust, etc; who has faultless
limbs; is venerable; devoted; hankering after carrying the dust of the two
lotus feet of Ka; who knows the pure paths of the Vedas, ®stras and
gamas; whose opinion is consistent with that of the saints; who is re-
strained and knowledgeable.335
This passage is taken from the Krama-d pik, a book written by Keava
crya, a famous Vaiava teacher and prolific author from the Kumra-
sapradya.336 It gives more information about the guru. The com-
mentator interprets faultless limbs as free from disease,337 no doubt
334 Bhaktivednta Nryaa Mahrja (2000), 23. He refers to BP 11.2.45-48

335 HBV 1.34. krama-d pikyñ ca vipra pradhvasta-kma-prabhti-ripu-
ghata nirmalga garih bhakti kghri-pakeruha-yugalarajo-
rgi m udvahantam/ vettra veda-strgama-vimala-path sammata satsu
dnta vidy ya savivitsu praata-numaa deik sarayeta//
336 Some (e.g. Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat in his Anubhya commentary to CB
1.13.177) think that this author is identical with the Keava from Kashmir that
Caitanya vanquished in a debate in his youth. The episode is narrated in CB 1.13.19-
199 and CC 1.16.25-108. For its historicity, see De, 73-74. It is noteworthy that Gopla
Bhaa does not hesitate to quote persons from other Vaiava groups, something
that is practically unheard of nowadays. Bhaktisiddhnta Srasvat thought that the
Krama-d pik was written after the meeting with Caitanya. However, only after the
time of writing the Hari-bhakti-vilsa, Keava crya joined the Kumra
sapradya, for otherwise he would not have been so much quoted! (Anubhya
commentary to CB 1.13.177)
107
including that he should not be physically crippled in any way. This is
also the interpretation of Ananta Dsa Bbj .338 The guru described
in this passage is clearly of the Bhakti type, though not of a radical
sort. Traditional considerations such as caste, orthodoxy and health
are retained.
In his Bhakti-sandarbha, J va Gosvmin begins his explanation
of the qualifications of the guru with the same verse of the
Bhgavata Pura that Gopla Bhaa first quotes, explaining it in
a way similar to that of Santana Gosvmin.339 More details of the
guru follow in the next Anuccheda, where the main point is that the
true guru should be dispassionate and that he should teach only
what he has himself deeply deliberated on. More important than
character, conduct and good ancestry (this-wordly qualities), is that
the guru is radiant or that he possesses otherwordly qualities, es-
pecially what we are calling charisma.340
The idea that the guru should teach only what he himself has un-
derstood is a classic one. The very word crya is often translated as
one who teaches by his own example341 . Many modern gurus
emphasise this.342 Ananta Dsa Bbj quotes an unidentified verse
defining the crya: He who speaks the dharma explained in the
scriptures, himself always follows it and also teaches it to others, he
is known as an crya.343
One of the qualifications repeated many times is that the guru
should have knowledge. What kind of knowledge? Elaborating on a
338 Ananta Dsa Bbaj [nd], 6

339 BS 202
340 BS 203
341 E.g. Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda (1974a), 865
342 E.g. IF mgt 2000/68
343 strokta dharmam uccrya svayam carate sad/ anyebhya ikayed yas
tu sa caryo nigadyate// Ananta Dsa Bbaj [nd], 6-7. A different verse with the same
meaning is given in the Gau ya Kahahra (1.23). It is ascribed to the Vyu
Pura, but cannot be found in the printed edition.
108
verse of the Bhagavad-g t describing the process of turning to a
guru (4.3), Bhakti Prajñna Yati Mahrja of ®r Caitanya Gau ya
Maha said:
Who then is guru? Jñnina, who is well versed in divine wisdom.

Knowledge is material, wisdom is spiritual. Only a person well-
versed in spiritual wisdom should one put questions to. Should one
then ask priests or professors of philosophy? No, he should be tattva-
darina, have a vision of truth. Spiritual truth means ®r -bhagavn,
the Lord, not the nirgua of the myavdins. He is full of all
opulences. Vision means that he not only sees Him, but lives with
Him, moves with Him, is dedicated to His service. All that he does
should be Hari-toaam, for the pleasure of God. Such a person
should be approached by an aspirant soul. When such a guru finds that
the disciple has these qualities [submission, enquiry and service], only
then should he enlighten him.344
Yati Mahrja here makes the common distinction between mate-

rial knowledge and spiritual wisdom. The guru has to have spiritual
knowledge. Describing this spiritual wisdom, he then went on to
explain the theology of the three aspects of Ka, and then
summed it all up:
One who has got full knowledge, or I should say realisation, of these
three - Brahman, Paramtma and Bhagavn which are actually one
object, one divine personality and His two aspects, is known as
brhmaa, who is fully dovetailed for His service, who is tmrmin,
without any other desire, he is a guru.345
Again, the stress is on realised knowledge leading to tangible results

in the life of the knower. This came out also when I asked what this
realisation actually is.
344 IF mgt 2000/81

345 Ibid
109
-How can a disciple know whether the guru is actually realised or not?
-No, practically it is not possible. At the same time, from the negative
side, he can understand. Positively he cannot understand until he ar-
rives at the plane of transcendence. But because he has got certain
knowledge, like I have got a certain eligibility for which I am admit-
ted in a college. After getting admission in college I can actually un-
derstand who is a good professor and who is not competent. If I am
really sincere for my divine attainment [I can understand], because it
is God who actually provides me with such knowledge for the under-
standing to know the divine characteristic to a certain extent of my
divine guru. Do you follow? Or at least that he is not aguru. Means a
worldly man. From that aspect only I can understand. From his acts
also, from that aspect.346
In other words, one cannot fully understand a transcendentalist until

one reaches that plane oneself, but by the mercy of God it is possi-
ble. Even if one does not attain such a level of realisation, at least one
can see whether the guru is unqualified. Returning to the idea of be-
haviour reflecting teachings (crya), the external acts of the guru
are strong indicators of internal realisation. Still, in explanations such
as this one can see the problem inherent in regarding something as
abstract as realisation as one of the main qualifications of the guru:
it is very difficult to judge. More about this below (4.3).
4.1.2 Secondary qualifications

After the primary qualifications, Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin discusses
the secondary characteristics of the guru.
In the Mantra-muktval : Of pure descent, clean, devoted to con-

duct suitable for him, situated in his rama, without anger, who
knows the Veda and the ®stras, faithful and nonenvious, nicely speak-
ing, of nice appearance, pure, beautifully clothed, young, pleased by
the happiness of all beings, thoughtful, humbleminded, complete,
346 IF mgt 2000/81
110
nonviolent, reflective, having good qualities, determined and knowl-
edgeable in worship, affectionate to his disciples, equal when con-
fronted with praise or criticism, devoted to sacrifices and mantras,
expert in logic and debate, pure in heart and a receptacle of mercy. A
guru with these and other qualities is an ocean of venerableness
[guru-ness].347
Here we see a curious mix of the perfect teacher, the saint and the
perfect gentleman. The guru should know the scriptures, how to
conduct worship and utter mantras, but he should also be humble,
non-envious and equally disposed towards praise or criticism, and be
beautiful, young and well-dressed! Pure descent means, according
to the commentator, that he comes from a good family (sadvaa),
in which there has been no degradation or that the ritual purity of
none of the ancestors has been compromised. Clean is similarly
interpreted as himself not subject to any such faults.
Situated in his rama is generally interpreted as being a house-
holder,348 something that has stirred up some controversy in the
movement. Some hold this to be very important, referring to the fact
that almost all of Caitanyas companions who took disciples were
householders and claiming that a bbj or sannysin is forbidden
from making disciples.349 However, Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin him-
self was not a householder, and he accepted many disciples. Gopal
Ghosh, head librarian of the Vrindvana Research Institute, sug-
gested that Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin included this statement as a
concession to the majority of gurus, who at this time already were
347 HBV 1.38-41. mantra-muktvalym avadtnvaya uddha svocitcra-

tatpara/ ram krodha-rahito vedavit sarva-stravit// raddhnanasya ca
priyavk priya-darana/ uci suveas tarua sarva-bhta-hite rata// dh mn
anuddhata-mati pro hant vimaraka/ saguo rcsu ktadh ktajña
iya-vatsala// nigrahnugrahe akto homa-mantra-paryaa/ hpoha-
prakra-jña uddhtm ya kplaya// itydi-lakaair yukto guru syd
garim-nidhi//
348 For example by Haridsa Dsa (1995), 240
349 IF 2000/14d
111
householders. There were exceptions already at that time, such as
the followers of Vakrevara Paita in Orissa.350 At any rate, this is
only one word in a verse giving secondary qualifications. From
Vedic times onwards, gurus have usually been householders, with
renunciants being a minority. So also in the Kumra-sapradya,
from which the text at hand originates.
Good qualities refer to being parentally affectionate to his
disciples.351 Padmanbha Goswami of the Rdh-ramaa temple
vaa, interpreted of pure descent to mean that the guru either
belongs to a pure succession of gurus (guru-parapar) or to a
pure family line (vaa-parapar) stemming from one of the
close associates of Caitanya. Another guru belonging to the same
vaa, Puruottama Goswami, interprets pure descent to mean
that the guru must come in a family line of gurus.352 More about
this below. Instead of young Padmanbha Goswami read ma-
ture, and interpreted that to mean older than 25 or 30 years.353
Now, lists such as this must be seen as giving a picture of the
ideal guru rather than as presenting an inviolable norm: for that
reason, this and the following texts are labelled by the author as
giving secondary qualifications of the guru. As far as known,
Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin himself continued taking disciples up
until his last years, and we know nothing of his looks or manner of
speaking. Since he was a renunciant he certainly did not dress
nicely! The type of guru described here is similar to that in the last
text: a socially acceptable Bhakti type guru.
The following text contains many of the same elements, but
adds quite a bit:
350 IF mgt 2002/13

352 Case (2000), 47
353 IF mgt 2000/68
112
And in the Agastya Sahit: One who is a worshiper of the gods, calm,
not touched by the sense objects, who knows the inner self, is a student of
the Vedas, learned in the meaning of the Vedas and ®stras, competent to
deliver and indeed to destroy, highest of the brhmaas, knower of the
truth, cutter of doubts in yantras and mantras, knower of secrets, per-
former of introductory rites, perfected in homas and mantras, knower of
means, austere, speaker of the truth and a householder, is called a
guru.354
This quotation ascribes even more divine qualities to the guru. He is still
the perfect teacher and saint, but now he is also endowed with the
power to deliver or destroy. The type of guru here, while not rejecting
brhmiical orthodoxy, has obvious influences from the Tantric type. Of
a similar strain is the popular etymology of the word guru: The syl-
lable gu means darkness, ru protection from that. Because he is the ces-
sation of darkness, he is known as guru.355
As interesting as the qualifications of the guru are the disqualifications
he should be without. Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin supplies the following
list:
In the Tattva-sgara: Who eats much, is slow, addicted to sense objects,

fond of disputation, evil, who talks nonsense, is a scorner of good quali-
ties, who is hairless or very hairy, serves in a despicable rama, has
black teeth and lips and bad breath: an crya with these bad qualities,
even be he a lord himself, is a destoyer of fortune even if able to give
plenty of alms.356
354 HBV 1.42-44. agastya-sahityñ ca devatopsaka ntao viayev api

nispha/ adhytmavid brahmavd veda-strrtha-kovida// uddhrtu caiva
sahartu samrtho brahmaottama/ tattvajño yantra-mantr marma-
bhett rahasyavit// puracaraa-kd dhoma-mantra-siddha prayogavit/ tapasv
satyavd ca ghastho gurur ucyate//
355 gu-abdas tv andhakrasya ru-abdas tan-nivraka/ andhakra-
nirodhatvd gurur ity abhidh yate// Ascribed to the Skanda Pura in Swami B.P.
Puri [nd], 105
356 HBV 1.56-58. tattva-sgare bahv d rgha-str ca viaydiu lolupa/
hetuvda-rato duo vgvd gua-nindaka// arom bahurom ca ninditrama-
sevaka/ kla-danto sitauha ca durgandhi-vsavhaka// dua-lakaa-
sampanno yady api svayam vara/ bahu-pratigrahsakta crya r -
ksayvaha//
113
This is all that is said of the non-guru in the whole book, and remark-
able is the great emphasis on purely external factors such as too
much or too little hair and bad teeth. The commentator interprets the
last words as meaning that even if he is able to give many alms, he is
unable to give any (real) blessings. One cannot help but wonder
whether the author of the Tattva-sgara (Ocean of Truths) had
someone particular in mind. Since many Gau ya gurus have had
long hair or a clean-shaven head, it is hard to see hairless or very
hairy as anything other than (in Rappaports terms) an importation.
4.1.3 Vednta Deika

The qualifications Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin expects from a real guru
may be compared to those mentioned by Vednta Deika (1268-
1369), an important theologian of the ®r -sapradya. Elsewhere in
the Hari-bhakti-vilsa, Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin refers to him, so he
may have been aware of his opinion also in this matter.357 Vednta
Deika mentions the following fourteen qualifications: perfect
membership of a true sapradya; possession of undisputed, clear
knowledge; freedom from sin; deep knowledge of the scriptures;
firm faith in the Lord; being established in sattva-gua; truthfulness;
living according to the customs laid down by the saints; freedom
from deceit, jealousy, etc; control of the senses; friendliness; com-
passion; helping erring disciples follow the right track and wishing
the welfare of oneself and others.358 Apart from omitting the Tantric
elements, this is similar to the most common picture drawn in the
Hari-bhakti-vilsa: the socially orthodox Bhakti-guru with one ex-
ception: Vednta Deika does not insist that the guru be a brhmaa.
357 HBV 15.68

358 Nyya-viati 1. Quoted in Chari (2000), 304-305.
114
4.2 Institutional qualifications
The Hari-bhakti-vilsa does not stress institutional qualifications.
However, it does state several times that the guru should be a
brhmaa, even amongst the primary qualifications. What about the
other varas? Quoting the Nrada-pañcartra, Gopla Bhaa
Gosvmin thinks the brhmaa guru the best, but in the absence of
such a guru, persons of other varas may function as gurus, if they
have been properly consecrated by their own gurus, are devoted to
the Lord, know the scriptures and the rituals of initiation. However, it
is forbidden to initiate persons of a higher vara, just as it is forbidden
to marry such a girl. Both are called pratiloma (contrary, reverse),
and pratiloma initiation is explicitly forbidden. If a guru of a higher
class is available, it is also forbidden to approach one of a lower
class.359
Still, there is one consideration even more important than vara,
and that is demonstrated with a verse from the Padma Pura:
A non-Vaiava who is born in a great family, initiated into all sacri-

fices, and a student of the thousand branches of knowledge cannot be
a guru.360
The commentator adds a well-known verse from the Pañcartra stat-

ing that a mantra received from a non-Vaiava guru leads one to hell,
and that one therefore should give up such a guru and accept a new
mantra (or the same anew) from a Vaiava guru.361 In the following
verse by Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin himself a Vaiava is defined as
one who has taken Viu-initiation and is devoted to the worship of
Viu. Others are non-Vaiavas.362 Such a broad definition of
Vaiavism of course leaves the door open for many different kinds
359 HBV 1.45-52

360 HBV 1.54. mah-kula-prasto pi sarva-yajñeu d kita/ sahasra-khdhyy
ca na guru syd avaiava//
362 HBV 1.55
115
of sapradyas, well in keeping with the catholic nature of the
Hari-bhakti-vilsa.
Since Caitanya himself is quoted as saying that whoever knows the
subject of Ka is a guru, no matter whether he is a brhmaa,
sannysin or dra,363 the above consideration of vara has been
questioned by many in the later tradition. Some think that Caitanya
speaks about gurus in a broad sense, not about d k-gurus, while
others take him more to the word and think that what Gopla Bhaa
Gosvmin writes is meant for those overly dependent on the mun-
dane social order and is suitable for those who want to remain in
mundane life.364 Others hold the texts mentioning brhmaa gurus
overruled by the one above, in which any vara qualification is over-
ruled by ones devotional qualifications.365 Still, the gurus of the later
tradition would usually be brhmaas, though there were important
exceptions. Not surprisingly. the brhmaa goswami gurus take
Gopla Bhaa to the letter.366
Noteworthy is that in none of the works of the Gosvmins of
Vndvana anything is said about something that modern Gau yas
say is a qualification of paramount importance: that the guru should
belong to a parapar or disciplic succession. The idea is that no
guru can be a guru simply in his own right. He has to come in an un-
broken succession of gurus stemming from Caitanya or his associ-
ates. Jan Brzezinski has argued that both Gopla Bhaa and J va
Gosvmins, even though not directly mentioning the need for a
parapar, take it for granted.367 Since it is mandatory for everyone
desiring to perfect himself spiritually to turn to a guru, naturally the
363 CC 2.8.128
364 Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda (1975), 163
365 Chatterjee (1988), 138-139
366 E.g. IF mgt 2000/68. Another brhmaa guru, Ka Balarm Swami, makes birth
in a brhmaa family the prime requisite of a guru, even though his own guru
(Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda) did not have that qualification and spoke
strongly against its necessity. See http://www.krsna.org/Guru1.html
367 Brzezinski (1996), 167
116
guru would also have a guru. Also, Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin does
mention that one should follow the custom of the particular
sapradya in numerous ritual observances, such as applying tilaka
markings to ones body,368 so the notion of different disciplic
successions is certainly known to him. Later in his book he quotes a
verse saying that even the vultures do not eat the dead bodies of
those ungrateful persons who give up a traditional (mnaygata)
guru. The commentator glosses mnaygata with coming in a fam-
ily line or enjoined in the Veda.369 This seems to imply the two
kinds of gurus one can find in the present day Gau ya sapradya:
those coming in a family line of gurus, and those who have been
appointed by their guru (see 2.3.3).
Still, why does he not say that one has to belong to a parapar in
the context of describing the qualifications of the guru? I think the
answer is found in the catholic spirit of the Hari-bhakti-vilsa. At a
time when there were very few Gau ya Vaiavas in Vndvana, the
author sees no need for creating a new distinct group of Vaiavas.
Instead he desires to integrate the Bengali Vaiavas into the greater
community of Vaiavas in the Mathur area. This is quite evident
from the very broad definition of who is a Vaiava that he uses fre-
quently in the book370 and from the fact that he cites Vaiavas from
the ®r - and Kumra-sapradyas. Whether this catholicity was be-
cause of pragmatic necessity or ideological reasons is another matter,
and one that I will not enter into here.371 Another reason is offered by
David Haberman: there were no long successions of gurus at this
time. The authors were all disciples or granddisciples of the compan-
ions of Caitanya himself, and could thus consider themselves as liv-
ing in the immediate presence of revelation.372
368 HBV 2.129

369 HBV 4.363
370 For example HBV 1.55, 12.338
371 For a longer discussion on this, see Bhgumuni Dsa (2001), xvii.
372 Haberman (1989), 119
117
Whatever the reason for Gopla Bhaas silence, modern gurus
often strongly stress the importance of the parapar.
Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda, the founder of ISKCON, writes:
No one can be a bona fide spiritual master without following this prin-
ciple of disciplic succession. [Ka] is the original spiritual master, and
a person in the disciplic succession can convey the message of the
Lord as it is to his disciple. No one can be spiritually realized by manu-
facturing his own process, as is the fashion of foolish pretenders.373
His followers express similar views, often even downplaying the

need for personal qualifications. One guru in ISKCON said that the
main qualification of a guru is that he is faithful to his own guru.374
Smita Ka Swami put it even more clearly:
Now, whether we fully meet these qualifications is another thing, in

my opinion. Maybe we, that is I, meet at least an institutional function.
It is not on our own authority that we dare initiate, it is on
Prabhupdas indirect blessing through the GBC [Governing Body
Commission, the managerial head of ISKCON], that we have the au-
dacity to initiate disciples on behalf of this tradition. It is not exactly
our own qualification that qualifies us, but we have been given an
order or assignment, or at least a blessing.375
In other words, the personal shortcomings of a particular guru can be

outweighed by the status of his own guru. The idea of parapar
has obvious secterian consequenses, something that will be dis-
cussed further on (8.2.2). For the time being, it is enough to know
that most modern Gau yas strongly emphasise the need for the
guru to come in a proper disciplic succession. This added emphasis
on institutional charisma can be seen as sign of a successful
routinisation (see 8.2) of the personal charisma of the earliest gurus.
For goswami gurus, birth in the right family is the one qualification
373 Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda (1974a), 259-260

374 IF 2000/14c
375 IF mgt 2000/92
118
overriding everything else. While goswamis often emphasise that sons
of a previous goswami do not automatically become gurus them-
selves,376 failure to become so would be the result of serious disqualifica-
tions, rather than the lack of certain personal qualifications.
4.3 Standard of modern gurus

Reading all this, one naturally wants to know what things look like in the
real world, outside books and the theories of theologians. Are there per-
sons with all the above-mentioned qualities? Is everything that has been
said really followed, or are such statements more of ideals, or something
found only in a glorious past, mercifully shrouded by the fog of forgetful-
ness? Researchers, especially in the colonial time, did not have to think
twice before giving an answer.
As a rule, however, they are ignorant and selfish, their chief object in vis-
iting their disciples being to obtain the customary fee.377
For spiritual guidance and any real moral and social leadership in all that
makes for the progress and well-being of society, the goswamis as a
whole are not qualified. The principle by which they function in
Vaishnava society is thoroughly vicious, the basis of their guruship being
inheritance rather than qualifications for leadership. No matter how
worthless, ignorant and good-for-nothing a goswamis son may be, he
becomes the object of the same reverence which his father received.378
Some modern scholars also agree with this pessimistic view.
Formerly the guru was the wisest and most learned person in the group
and the head of the kh [monastery] but after some time, guruship be-
came hereditary and became confined to one family. The son of a
goswami must be a goswami even if he was licentious. The guru cared
very little for the spiritual condition of the iya (disciple) which was
usually enjoined as the most noble task of the preceptor. He initiated
376 E.g. IF mgt 2000/85

377 Wilkins (1975), 27-28
378 Kennedy (1925), 158
119
a large number of disciples not with a view of imparting them reli-
gious teaching, but only to extract money, which served to meet his
family expenses.379
Other scholars, notably Ramakanta Chakrabarty, strongly disagree,

and point out that the organisations of every faith are dependent on
the financial assistance of the believers. To think that the goswamis
were parasites just because they were supported by their disciples is
oversimplifying.380
In making any kind of judgement in this matter, the problem is
that most of the qualifications mentioned above are very hard to
judge. The guru should know Ka, but how do we know whether
he does that or not, or even if there is any such god to know? Other
qualifications allow much interpretation. How much does one have
to know to know the scriptures? With these questions in mind, I
ventured to check one influential and widely respected present
day Gau ya Vaiava guru, Bhaktivednta Nryaa Mahrja
(1921-),381 against the lists of qualifications given in the Hari-bhakti-
vilsa. I have spoken only once with this guru, but I have read sev-
eral of his books and know some of his disciples, so what I know
about him is at least as much as a prospective disciple.
If one point was to be given for each of the verifiable qualities
found (e.g. well-dressed, austere), he would score 22 out of 35
(63%). He loses points especially by being old and a sannysin,
but then again his austerity earns him some points that householder
gurus would not get. However, if we just look at the main qualifica-
tions given in the Bhgavata Pura, he scores full points (2/2),
but we also notice that those qualifications contain three that are
very difficult to judge and therefore left out in this test. These are,
of course, the most important ones.
379 Bhattacharya (1981), 38-39

380 Chakrabarty (1985), 338-339
381 For a brief biography, see Anon in www.gaudiya.net/narayanamaharaja.htm
120
The point I want to make here is that prospective disciples do
not go through such lists when they judge whether the guru they
are considering is a true guru or not. If I would tell a disciple of
Nryaa Mahrja that his guru scored 63% in the perfect guru-
test, he would think that I did something wrong or even become
offended. One cannot understand the guru by just observing him
from a distance, they might say, but that brings up the same prob-
lem mentioned above: how is one then to choose a guru? This will
be one of the subjects of the next chapter.
All in all, the charisma of the Gau ya Vaiava guru is hardly sev-
ered from the canon. For a goswami guru, the main qualification is
birth in a specific family tradition and allegiance to it. While this is
not seen in the Hari-bhakti-vilsa, we find knowledge of the scrip-
tures repeated again and again both among the primary and the
secondary qualifications of the guru. Of Webers charismatic per-
sonages, the magician can thus safely be left out when speaking
about the Gau ya Vaiava guru. The interplay between canon
and charisma within the person of the guru will be dealt with at
length in part III.
4.4 Qualifications of the disciple

Before moving on to the next chapter, let us, as a contrast, look
briefly at the qualifications demanded of the disciple. The sources
maintain that while there are no restrictions with regard to age (as
long as one is over five382 ) family and sex,383 not everyone is quali-
fied to become the disciple of a Gau ya Vaiava guru. The Hari-
bhakti-vilsa contains the following descriptions of the character of
the disciple.
382 SD p 13
383 HBV 1.194
121
In the Mantra-muktval : From a good family; fortunate; humble; good-
looking; speaking the truth; of pious behaviour; greatly intelligent;
prideless; giving up lust and anger; devoted to the feet of the guru; day or
night bowing to the gods with body, mind, words, etc; healthy; conquer-
ing all sin; faithful; always devoted to the worship of brhmaas, gods,
ancestors, etc; youthful; restrained in all deeds; a receptacle of mercy: a
disciple with characteristics such as these is eligible for initiation.384
Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin then offers a list of disqualifications of persons

not to be initiated from the Agastya Sahit, where opposites of the
above positive qualities are given.385 Reading such descriptions, one is
struck by a paradox. If really only such outstanding students can be
given initiation, why has it elsewhere been declared mandatory for eve-
ryone?386 One answer could be that while not everyone can become
young or beautiful, the main qualities can be aquired by training. Other-
wise, it is obvious that these lists present ideals rather than strict criteria.
J va Gosvmin approaches the issue from another angle. He has the
following to say about worship of the guru:
Now, if one should ask whether one lacking in any specific attribute is
able [to approach a guru], the answer is that he should indeed always
render specific service to the feet of the gurus, either those who teach the
scriptures about the Lord or those who teach the mantra of the Lord. The
grace of the guru is firstly the root of the destruction of each and every
ones different unwanted habits, which are difficult to give up and seem-
ingly do not admit any remedy, and secondly of the attainment of the
grace of the Highest Lord.387
384 HBV 1.59-62. mantra-muktvalym iya uddhnvaya r mn vin ta

priya-darana/ satyavk puya-carito dabhra-dh r adambha-varjitah// kma-
krodha-parityg bhakta ca guru-pdayo/ devat-pravaa kya-mano-vgbhir
div-niam// n rujo nirjitea-ptaka raddhaynvita/ dvija-veda-pitñ ca
nityam arca-parya// yuv viniyatea-karaa karulaya/ itydi-
lakaair yukta iyo d kdhikravn//
385 HBV 1.64-70
386 HBV 1.36-37
387 BS 237. tathpi vaiihya-lipsu akta cet tato bhagavac-chstropade
bhagavan-mantropade v r guru-cara nityam eva vieata sev
kryt/ tat-prasdo hi sva-sva-nn-prat kra-dustyajnartha-hnau parama-
bhagavat-prasda-siddhau ca mlam/
122
Even unqualified persons should render service to a real ik- or
d k-guru, since the grace of such a person can remove his disquali-
fications, however great they seem. The gurus grace will finally lead
to the attainment of the Lords mercy.
These texts are generally not well known nowadays. When I ques-
tioned gurus about the qualifications of a disciple, the answers were
much more general. Sincerity, surrender to Ka and the guru, faith
in the line of gurus and in Ka, were the qualities usually men-
tioned. Only one guru read me the list from the Agastya Sahit
referred to above and commented upon it, but while evidently re-
garding it as correct, he admitted that he did not understand some
things, for example why poor persons should not be given initia-
tion.388
Another guru gave a longer description of the disciple. He ex-
plained that the disciple should first of all be spiritually dedicated. He
should accept things conducive for divine culture, and reject detri-
mental things at all cost. He should have firm faith in Ka as the
protector. He should not be an opportunist. He should know Ka
alone as the master. He must have self-consciousness, be responsi-
ble for himself and for others. He should make sure that his body,
mind and soul acts in accordance to devotion. He should be fully
dedicated, not foster separate ideas, and only desire the fulfillment of
his guru. Also he should feel himself humbler than a blade of grass.
He should have no material ego, but also not spiritual ego (thinking
that he is a great devotee), and feel himself as an instrument of guru
and God. Still, after enumerating these ideal qualities, he felt that
nowadays most disciples are after their own self-agrandizement.389
The hagiographical literature of the movement is full of examples
of ideal disciples. vara Pur s exemplary menial service of his bed-
ridden guru, Mdhavendra Pur , gained him the gurus full bless-
388 IF mgt 2000/68

389 IF mgt 2000/81. The first part of this explanation is based on two well-known
verses teaching aragati or surrender, quoted for example in B.R. Sridhar (1987),
9-10.
123
ings.390 Raghuntha Dsa Gosvmin exemplify the ideals of renun-
ciation and humility.391 Narottama Dsa shows the example of deter-
mination in getting initiation.392 Bhondu (simpleton), the boy-serv-
ant of Nandakiora Dsa Goswami (18th century) exemplifies sim-
plicity,393 while the story of Bihr , the disciple of Jaganntha Dsa
Bbj , a well-known saint of the 19th century who is said to have
lived 147 years, illustrates the virtues of obediance.
Bihr was a Vrajavs . He did not know Bengali. But Bb [his guru]
asked him to read Caitanya-caritmta everyday so that he might lis-
ten. He said, Bb, I do not know Bengali. But Bb asked him to
purchase a copy of Caitanya-caritmta, which he did. He then asked
him to read. Bihr only looked vacantly at his face. Bb said angrily,
Dont look at me. Look at the book. Bihr began to look at the book
and found that he was able to read Caitanya-caritmta like one who
had already learnt Bengali and studied Caritmta well.394
In this way Bihr s obediance to the order of his guru miraculously

gave him the power to read Bengali, a language that uses a different
type of script than Hindi, the language Bihr would have known
from before, in the rather unlikely case that he was able to read at all.
Another similar anecdote narrates how Bihr in the same way
learned to play the khola, oblong clay drum.395
It can thus clearly be seen that in keeping with the denominational
nature of the Gau ya Vaiava movement, individual commitment
is a factor for discipleship. However, in most cases birth is even more
so. That children were initiated seems to have been common already
in Caitanyas time (as, for example, in the case of Raghuntha Dsa
Gosvmin), but it became standard in the generations after Caitanya.
The goswamis would have families of disciples, where every child
390 CC 3.8.28-32
391 CC 3.6
392 Bhakti-ratnkara 1.278-350.
393 Kapoor (1999), 3-7.
394 Kapoor (1995), 3.
395 Ibid
124
would be initiated at a tender age. Obviously, in these cases it is rare
that anyone is turned down for not fulfilling the ideals. Still, disciples
may later be rejected by the guru if they prove incorigible, for exam-
ple by arguing against the guru or Ka.396
396 IF mgt 2000/71
125
5 . F I N D I N G A N D L E AV I N G A G U R U
This chapter explores some of the dynamics behind finding and

leaving a guru. Questions such as why someone ends up with a par-
ticular guru and when it is permissable or even recommended that
one should leave a guru are examined. These are questions of great
importance for understanding the guru institution as a social phe-
nomenon. However, while I do make some observations based on
my interviews and observations, this chapter should not be seen as
providing a comprehensive social or psychological study of why and
how people find and leave gurus; rather, it is meant to serve as a
broad outline of the issues involved.397
5.1 Finding a guru

What the canonical scriptures have to say on this subject has already
been covered above (3.3) in connection with the necessity of turn-
ing to a guru. The writings of modern Gau yas, however, elaborate
on this theme, and will thus here be used as a starting point. I will then
compare that with my own observations and interviews.
5.1.1 The classic way

Reading the descriptions of what kind of a person a true guru should
be like, one gets the impression that the duty of a prospective disci-
ple would be to go out in search for a guru who fulfills all these quali-
fications. This is what I call the classic way of chosing a guru. But
before starting to search for a guru, there must be some impetus.
There are many stories about this.
Hayagr va Prabhu, who was previously Herambo Banerjee, related

that he had been working in a private European company when sud-
397 For a good summary of various conversion theories, see Robbins (1988), 63-99
127
denly by reading a book of ®akarcrya he felt some intense indiffer-
ence to worldly life. He then ran away to Hardwar and went far up
into the hills where he stayed for three days and three nights under a
tree, eating only some bael fruit. Then, as he told me, I heard a
sound: leave here now, you will find a real Guru, a sad-Guru. You
will find him, so now you leave. He came back down, and conse-
quently to the Gau ya [Maha]. That was Herambo Banerjee, who
was later called Ganea, then Hayagr va Brahmacr , and finally
Mdhava Mahrja.398
This account contains many typical elements that are found in many
such stories: the sudden, intense desire to get free of material life,
running away from home and society, fasting and doing penance in
the jungle for three days and nights, and the divine voice. The theme
of young boys running off to the Himalayas in search of a romantic
ideal of spiritual life is common in Bengali biographies.399 Other sto-
ries are less dramatic.
One morning we were going to the jungle to collect twigs in order to

cleanse our teeth when in the course of our talk he said suddenly
about his father. He referred to him as, That gentleman. I protested
that it was disrespectful to use such a term, for his respectable father.
Then he said, Yes, I should not have mentioned in that way in your
presence, but ultimately it is really so. Where was I in my previous
lives? Only he is a gentleman to me because it is only in this life that
I have come in his house.
Somehow that touched a fine chord in me and I began to think,
Yes it is right. Nobody can stay here; not the father, the mother, the
brothers or even this house. Everything is temporarily connected and
I am wandering in eternity. That sort of impression came in me in a
very, very intense form, and the entire world became as if it was just
empty fully empty. At that time that boy anyhow connected me with
the life of Mahprabhu.400
398 Swami B.R. Sridhar (1999), 26

399 See for example Yogananda (2001), 28-41 for a typical (aborted) flight to the
Himalayas.
400 Swami B.R. Sridhar (1999), 13-14
128
This story is also typical: seemingly commonplace spiritual advice
that effects a sudden enlightenment to the follies of this tempory
material world. The boy who uttered these words is a good example
of a vartmapradaraka guru (see 3.4). One guru told me how a scrap
of paper lying on a Calcutta pavement totally changed his life. It con-
tained only two words: asat-saga tygo, give up the company of
untruth/ bad people.401
How do disciples then, after developing a desire to find a guru,
find one? The classic model entails examining many different gurus
before settling for the real one. Many disciples mention mystical ex-
periences as the deciding factor.
I had been searching for a suitable guru for a long time, but had not
found one, so I was feeling disturbed. Whenever I met someone who
inspired my devotion, when I studied his character, I became disap-
pointed and lost faith. I was anxious to find a guru so I prayed to God.
One night in a dream the Lord indicated that soon I would receive
initiation. The next morning I felt relieved. In a few days Gurudeva
finally wrote a letter saying, I will come soon and give you initia-
tion. When Gurudeva finally came both my wife and I received ini-
tiation and we were pleased. From that day on I felt compassion to-
wards all beings and the sin of meat eating vanished from my heart
and compassion arose towards living beings.402
The need for a long search after the true guru is dependent on the
common Indian idea of the rarity of real gurus.403 What most disciples
will say is that while there are indeed many false gurus out there,
their own guru is a real one, since he fulfills the qualifications given in
the scriptures.404 The secterian consequences of this idea will be
explored later (8.2). For an outsider, as we have seen (4.3), there
sometimes seems to be quite a bit of wishful thinking and selective
perception involved. One guru said:
401 IF mgt 2002/10
402 Kedarantha Datta Bhaktivinoda quoted in Shukavak Dasa (1999), 92
403 Mentioned for example in Kulrava Tantra 13.98-111, quoted in Bay-Schmidt
(1984), 32.
404 E.g. IF 2000/14b
129
-Most gurus are not actually bona fide in the true sense of the word,
cent percent devoted to Ka, cent percent surrendered to Ka.
They dont know anything except Ka, they are on the level of
bhva, you know.
-Thats a sad-guru?
-Yeah. How many ... actually, these people who take up the position
of guru these days, none of them practically are on the level of bhva.
Bhva is a very, very high stage. How many devotees have bhva? I
dont know any, but I know many who are in the role of guru.405
Bhva, the half-way point to preman, full-fledged ecstatic love of

God, is declared to be very rare by Rpa Gosvmin.406 Even though
the guru here said he knows nobody that advanced, later on he made
an exception for his d k- and ik-gurus.407 A dialogue with a
bbj in Vndvana, however, revealed that some disciples go even
further. After he had explained to me that practically all gurus are
only on the stage of devotional practice (sdhana-bhakti), I put the
natural question.
-But what about your own guru?
-Aha! What can I say? I am sorry to tell you his position is like that.
Please excuse me, I dont tell it otherwise, dont take it otherwise.
Because actually it is ... But if anyone attains the highest position in
sdhana, we can also take him as our teacher, our guru. Because it is
not possible for all persons to attain the reality. That is why we can
take initiation from that person who has some qualification. In some
small grade he has Ka-preman, austerity, conviction. We can see
him as our guru. And who has no possibility of ptana, falldown. As a
saint, he can not be fallen down. Then he can be a guru in this time.408
This is a remarkable statement, especially since it comes from a per-

son that is seen by many as the most qualified disciple of his own
405 IF mgt 2000/86

406 BRS 1.3.6
407 IF mgt 2000/86
408 IF mgt 2000/69
130
guru, and his most probable successor, not from a disgruntled ex-fol-
lower.409
5.1.2 Predestination
The theme of examining many gurus and finally chosing the right
one is very common, especially in the West. Still, as one female
Gau ya Vaiava pointed out, it is not without its problems. It is very
difficult for a neophyte aspirant to arrive at an objective view of even
the external spiritual life of the guru. One is often encouraged to be
a little critical before accepting a guru, but that is not so easy. First of
all, the aspirant may not have enough knowledge to know what to
look out for, and even if he does have it, how far will that help him?
What does an actually spiritually advanced person behave like? If the
aspirant furthermore does not live in the rama or is female, there is
very little practical possiblity to actually spy on the guru. The
choice thus becomes quite subjective, she thought.410
One answer to this problem is that ultimately, the prospective dis-
ciple does not really choose.
It is my accumulated spiritual virtue that leads me to a particular per-

son. It is not that after examining the guru I come to know. So if I have
a good disposition, I will be guided by God to the guru, preceptor. If
I dont have such merit, I will be lead to the wrong man. So two things.
When a disciple is properly guided by caitya-guru, then he will not go
to the wrong person.411
The belief expressed here is that the choice of ones guru is pre-
destined by previous devotional merit. This kind of merit is not ex-
actly the same as karman, which pertains to material actions and
which is spent after receiving the good or bad result, but a merit
that is gained by serving Ka or his devotees even unknowingly.
409 Field notes, Vrindavan, November 2000.

410 IF mgt 2001/78
411 IF mgt 2000/81
131
This kind of merit is considered eternal and cumulative, and identi-
fied with what Kadsa Kavirja calls fortune (see 3.3.4).412 Does
the aspirant then have no freedom or personal responsibility in this
life? No, Yati Mahrja does not want to go that far:
You have to crave! The disciple, before approaching the divine mas-
ter, must crave, lament. He Prabho [Lord]! God is all-knower, omnis-
cient. Therefore, if I sincerely pray My Lord, give me a proper
guide, then if I am not a pretender, sincerely, then accordingly I will
be led.413
However, some do take this idea to its logical end and say that the
guru is entirely predestined. This notion seems to hold especially for
those whose guru seems less qualified than they had hoped he
would be. One person explained how he had three times ap-
proached a well-known guru for initiation, but every time been
asked to wait a little longer. The guru then passed away, and the as-
pirant took initiation from the gurus successor. To get initiation from
the famous one, he said, was not destined for him.414
5.1.3 Social reasons

Besides Westerners, most of the Gau yas I spoke to referred to nei-
ther of the above models. Rather, they said that the main reason why
they chose a particular guru was that someone else recommended
that guru to them. It could be ones parents,415 a neighbor,416 the
neighbor of a friend,417 senior disciples of the guru418 or someone
412 B.R. Sridhar Maharaj (1999) 58-60, referring mainly to Bhan-nrad ya Pura
4.33 and Bhagavad-g t 2.40
413 IF mgt 2000/81
414 IF mgt 2000/90. A similar thought is expressed in IF mgt 2000/76.
415 IF mgt 2000/82
416 IF mgt 2000/78
417 IF mgt 2000/74
418 IF mgt 2000/77
132
else: the point is that it was someone these people had faith in and
whose judgement they accepted. In one case I personally witnessed
a woman accepted initiation from a guru she had been recom-
mended without even knowing his name!419
In these cases clearly what is important is to have a guru who is
respected by others important to oneself. The particular personal
traits of the guru do not matter so much, as long as they are not too
idiosyncratic. This is also the case with many of the hereditary gurus
(the goswamis), where children of particular families are initiated by
gurus of a particular family since many generations, or when a person
becomes attracted to an organisation or rama where there is only
one person who initiates everyone. In these cases there is no indi-
vidual search for a guru involved. Everything is predestined, whether
by chance or by merit. Still, if the disciple later on finds that the guru
he has had from childhood is not so inspiring, he can set out in search
for a ik-guru. Whether or not such an uninspiring guru can be re-
jected is the next subject.
5.2 Rejecting the guru
5.2.1 The viewpoint of the scriptures

Earlier on (4.2) a quotation from the Hari-bhakti-vilsa was pre-
sented which said that if one has accepted initiation from a non-
Vaiava, one should again take initiation from a Vaiava guru. But
what if the guru is a Vaiava, yet somehow becomes deviated from
the straight and narrow path? The answer of the Hari-bhakti-vilsa is
clear. In connection with the greatness of serving the guru, the fol-
lowing verses are cited:
419 At the Bhajan Kutir, Vndvana, 24.11.2000.
133
In the ditya Pura: Whether knowledgeable or ignorant, the guru
is Janrdana [Ka]. Situated on the path or not, the guru is indeed
always the goal. And elsewhere: When Hari is angry, the guru can
save, when the guru is angry, nobody. Therefore, with all efforts the
guru should certainly be pleased!
In the Brahma-vaivarta Pura: Even striking or cursing,
illusioned or angry, the gurus are worshippable. Having bowed, one
should lead them home.420
In this context, the word guru can also mean elder or authority.
The commentator provides two lists from the Krma Pura that
enumerate the most significant gurus. The five most important are
the father, mother, teacher, elder brother and husband. Amongst
these, the first three are more important than the last two, and most
important is the mother. At any rate, the point is that no matter how
these elders behave, one has to serve them.
The two first verses deal particularly with the crya or guru in the
ordinary sense of this thesis. The idea seems to be that just as Ka
sometimes seems to act against the rules of dharma (such as when he
steals butter or sports with the milkmaids in Vndvana), the guru
also may act strangely. But he is not only on the same level as Ka,
he is even higher, since he can save the disciple from Kas wrath,
but Ka cannot save the disciple from the gurus anger. This is a
notion characteristic of the Tantric type of guru in Steinmanns typol-
ogy.
The point of these verses is further emphasised a little later in the
Hari-bhakti-vilsa:
And also: Even the vultures do not eat the dead bodies of those un-
grateful persons who give up a traditional teacher. Their intellect is
420 HBV 4.359-361. ditya-pure avidyo v savidyo v guru eva janrdana/

mrgastho vpy amrgastho gurur eva sad gati// anyatra ca harau rue gurus
trt gurau rue na kacana/ tasmt sarva-prayatnena gurum eva prasdayet//
brahma-vaivarte api ghanta apanto v viruddh api ye krudh/ gurava
pjan ys te gha natv nayeta tn//
134
foul, their degradation manifest. One who rejects the guru also rejects
Hari. And elsewhere: That lowest of men who having attained a
guru gives him up through ignorance will boil in hell during ten mil-
lion kalpas.421
The commentator writes that with these verses the author de-
scribes devotion to the guru by stating the great offence of giving
up the guru. He glosses traditional (mnygata) with coming
in a family line or enjoined in the Vedas.422 Haridsa ®str s
Hindi translation explains coming in a family line as a teacher
who knows the scriptures and who comes in disciplic succession
enjoined by the scriptures, and further as a reverend gurudeva
of a true (sat) sapradya, who knows the scriptures and whose
behaviour is perfect.423 But this interpretation is taking a step
back from the extremely orthodox stance of the book itself, that
not even an unqualified guru should ever be rejected. The ration-
ale behind Gopla Bhaas viewpoint is best understood in con-
nection with the saviour (3.3.4) and dependence on Kas
grace (3.3.6) arguments for the need for a guru. In both of
these cases, the personal qualifications of the guru are not so im-
portant.
In the commentary to the next verse, Santana Gosvmin writes:
With the verses Situated on the path or not... (3.359) and Even the
vultures do not eat... (3.363) it has been stated that no kind of guru
should be given up. Now, what if one through ignorance has accepted
421 HBV 4.363-365. kiñ ca upaderam mnygata pariharanti ye/ tn mtn
api kravyd kta-ghnn nopabhuñjate// bodha kulaitas tena daurtmya
praka -ktam/ gurur yena parityaktas tena tyakta pur hari// anyatra ca
pratipadya guru yas tu mohd vipratipadyate/ sa kalpa-koti narake pacyate
purudhama//
422 Dig-darin commentary to HBV 4.364. mnygata kula-kramyta veda-
vihita v/
423 Hindi translation of HBV 4.364. kula-parampargata artht stra-vihita
parampargata strajña upade ko artht caraa la strajña sat
saprady r gurudeva [...]
135
a non-Vaiava guru? He should be given up. For this reason he gives
the above exception. Take means accept a mantra. From a
Vaiava means as a general rule from a brhmaa, as was explained
earlier on in the description of the qualities of the guru.424
Here we find an exception to the above rule, namely one who has,
out of ignorance (for example in childhood), accepted initiation from
a non-Vaiava guru. The reason a non-Vaiava guru should be re-
jected is that uttering the mantra he has given will not lead one to
Ka, but rather to hell!425
J va Gosvmin also thinks that if one has accepted a non-Vaiava
guru that guru should be rejected and a Vaiava guru be selected
instead.426 Unlike Gopla Bhaa, J va Gosvmin opines that worldly
gurus such as the mother and father also must be given up if one
desires to attain the shelter of a real guru, one who can save one from
repeated birth and death.427 This is not as great a difference between
the two as it might seem, since there have always been persons who
give up the conventional duty of serving the parents for some
higher good, such as taking sannysa.
However, a big difference is that J va Gosvmin leaves some
scope for rejecting a Vaiava guru. In the context of describing the
benefits of serving a guru, he writes that it is good to serve other ad-
vanced Vaiavas, unless it interferes with the order of ones own
guru. That would be a great offense. However:
424 Dig-darin commentary to HBV 4.366. mrgastho vpy amrgastha ity

anena upaderam ity din ca kathañcid api guru na tyjya iti likhitam,
adhun tatra mohd avaiavo guru kta cet tarhi sa parityjya iti prasagt
prvtrpavda likhati avaiaveti. grhayed iti svrthe in mantra gh yd
ity atha; yad v, sdhu-janas tda jana kpay mantra grhayed ity
artha/ vaiavt pryo brhmad eveti jñeya, prva guru-lakae tath
likhant//
425 HBV 4.366
426 BS 207
427 BS 210
136
One who has taken shelter of a guru who does not possess the quali-
ties described in the verse deeply learned in scripture and the
higher (BP 11.3.21), and then cannot get permission from him to
serve great devotees due to his enviousness [mtsarya], etc, is not
considered in this injunction because he had abandoned scripture to
begin with. The disciple will be caught in a dilemma, incurring fault
both by acting against the wishes of his guru and by not serving great
devotees. This is the meaning of this statement of the Nrada
Pañcartra: Both one who speaks without discernment and one who
listens without discernment go to a horrible hell for undecaying time.
Therefore such a guru should be served from a distance.
But what if he is hateful towards the Vaiavas [vaiava-vidvein] ?
He should certainly be rejected. Smti says: A guru who is arrogant,
who does not know what should be done and what not, and who is
addicted to evils, should be rejected. So also because he is the subject
of utterances such as through the mantra taught by a non-Vaiava
[one goes to hell], by his being a non-Vaiava by not possessing the
mood of a Vaiava.428
From this it seems that the normal procedure in J va Gosvmins time

was that if a guru was unable to guide the disciple, the disciple would
seek out a ik-guru who would guide him further. Jan Brzezinski
observes that this is the common practice also today: if a disciple
feels that his d k-guru is not sufficiently qualified, he will take his
permission to study with someone more qualified, such as a
renunciant at Rdh-kua.429 If the guru is competent, he does not
have to give permission for a disciple to go elsewhere, since there
really is no need for it. However, if he is unqualified, he must allow
428 BS 238. ya prathama (bh. 11.3.12) bde pare ca nitam ity dy ukta-
lakaa guru nritavn, tdaguru ca matsardito mah-bhgavata-
satkrdv anumati na labhate, sa prathamam eva tyakta-stro na vicryate/
ubhaya-sakaa-pto hi tasmin bhavaty eva/ evam dikbhipryeaiva yo vakti
nyya-rahitam anyyena oti ya/ tv ubhau naraka ghora vrajata klam
akayam// iti r nrada-pañcartre/ ata eva drata evrdhyas tdo guru,
vaiava-vidve cet parityjya eva guror apy avaliptasya krykaryam
ajnata/ utpatha-pratipannasya paritygo vidh yate// iti smarat, tasya
vaiava-bhva-rhityenvaiavavatay avaiavopadiena ity-di-vacana-
viayatvc ca/
429 Brzezinski (1996), 172
137
the disciple to seek guidance elsewhere. The standard verse from
the eleventh canto of the Bhgavata Pura is used as a yard-
stick.430 Otherwise, the disciple should do so anyway, since other-
wise his chances to achieve perfection are in jeopardy. He should
still not formally reject his guru, continuing to serve him from a dis-
tance. This is in contrast with Tantric tradition, which allows for reject-
ing an unqualified guru.431
What does this from a distance mean? A scholarly devotee in
Vndvana explained it as not following his orders, but also not
disrespecting him, having at one point accepted him as an author-
ity.432 Distance implies also a physical distance. The disciple
should avoid meeting and listening to the guru, so that he wouldnt
have to act against his orders, if he for example asked the disciple to
stop listening to the more advanced devotee.
Even an unqualified, envious guru should not be rejected, just as
was said in the Hari-bhakti-vilsa, but if he becomes hateful to-
wards the Vaiavas he should certainly be rejected. This is be-
cause he does not have the mood of a Vaiava (to be more humble
than a blade of grass, etc), and because he does not behave like a
Vaiava (by being addicted to sinful acts such as meat-eating, for
example). Thus he comes under the jurisdiction of the verse stating
that a non-Vaiava guru should be rejected.
Much of the modern debate (see 5.2.3) around what kind of a guru
should be rejected hinges on the compound word vaiava-
vidvein, that I have translated as hateful towards the Vaiavas. As
we shall see, some take it more mildly. I think that the term is in-
tended to be strong, to contrast it with the envy (mtsarya) of the
type of guru that is to be served from a distance.
This assumption is corroborated by examining the way the word is
used elsewhere. J va Gosvmin uses the word vidvein only a few
430 BP 11.3.12
431 Kulrava Tantra 13.133, quoted in Bay-Schmidt (1984), 65
432 IF mgt 2000/ 70
138
times in his ±ad-sandarbha, to describe demons trying to kill Ka433 ,
the boy-saint Dhruvas evil stepmother;434 as a contrast to people sim-
ply not interested in Ka435 and to describe what devotees are not,
even towards the demons.436 Rpa Gosvmin uses the noun vidvea
(enmity) once in the Bhakti-rasmta-sindhu, mentioning it together
with vininda (abuse) as things a devotee should not tolerate towards
the Lord.437 Kadsa Kavirja uses the word vaiava-vidvein once in
the Caitanya-caritmta,438 describing the landowner Rmacandra
Khn. He is also called paa-pradhna (greatest of heretics),439
ajña mrkha (ignorant fool)440 and sahajei avaiava (naturally non-
Vaiava), so it is certainly a strong term also here.441
The difference between a guru who is envious of the Vaiavas and
one who is hateful towards the Vaiavas thus seems to be that the
envious guru does not have the mood of a Vaiava when he does not
realise his lower position, while the hateful one also does not behave
like a Vaiava. According to J va Gosvmin, for a guru to be rejected, he
must have both of these disqualifications.
The book Ka-bhajanmta by Narahari Sarakra442 offers some
additional considerations on the same lines. After stating that one always
should side with the guru in the case of arguments, the author writes:
433 BS 111, 286

434 BS 131
435 Pr ti-sandarbha 7
436 Paramtma-sandarbha 94
437 BRS 1.2.82
438 CC 3.3.102
439 Ibid
440 CC 3.3.134
441 CC 3.3.146
442 It is by no means certain that the book is a genuine product of Narahari Sarakra,
the close associate of Caitanya. Many modern Vaiavas consider it genuine, but for
example De (1961, p. 231) thinks that since there in the book is no trace of the Gaura-
ngara doctrine so characteristic of Narahari Sarakra, but rather obvious influences
from the Gosvmins of Vndvana (as in the case at hand), it is unlikely that it is
genuine. Gaddhara Pra Dsa, a follower of the Gaura-ngara doctrine (Field
notes, December 2000, Mypura), claims that it can be found in the book if one
looks closely enough. I tend to think the book a later product.
139
But if the guru does something improper, then by suitable arguments and
conclusions he should be punished in a secluded place, but not given up.
If someone says that the guru cannot be punished, the answer is no, for it
is said: A guru who is arrogant, who does not know what should be done
and what should not, and who is addicted to evils, should be punished by
the club of logic443 . By this everything becomes auspicious.444
This is a remarkable statement. The disciple privately correcting the

guru is a far cry from the whether situated on the path or not... verse
quoted in the Hari-bhakti-vilsa above. How is the disciple to retain his
subservient mood with regard to the guru after this? The author contin-
ues that since the nature of the devotee is to take shelter in Ka, he
should then go on with the life of devotion as before, trusting that all will
be resolved.445 If not, he continues:
But if the guru now acts improperly, is confused about the Lord, is op-
posed to the glories of Ka, does not take part in delighting in His play,
is himself intolerably proud, and imitates Ka desiring the praise of the
world, then he should be rejected. One should not think how can the
guru be rejected? Because of the strong desire for love of Ka, in order
to attain Ka one takes shelter of a guru. If later a demoniac mentality
appears in that guru, what is one to do? Having rejected this demoniac
guru, one should worship another guru, who has devotion to ®r Ka.
By his power from Ka, the power of the demoniac guru is de-
stroyed.446
443 This is a different reading of the verse quoted in BS 238 (see above)
444 KB, p. 10. kintu yadi gurur asamañjasa karoti, tarhi ykti-siddhai
siddhntais tasya rahasi daa kara ya na tu tyjya/ gurur daaya tarhi
cet, tatrpi guror apy avaliptasya krykryam ajnata/ utpatta-
pratipannasya nyya-dao vidh yate// anena sarva suobhanam iti/
445 Ibid
446 KB, p. 11-12. tatra gurur yadi visadakr , vare bhrnta, ka-
yaovimukhas tad-vilsa-vinoda ng karoti svaya v durabhimn , lokas
vastavai kam anukaroti, tarhi tyjya eva/ katham eva gurus tyjya iti cen na,
ka-bhva-lobht ka-prptaye guror rayaa-ktam/ tad-anantara yadi
tasmin gurau sura-bhvas tarhi ki kartavyam? asura-guru tyaktv r ka-
bhaktimanta gurum anya bhajet/ asya ka-bald asurasya guror bala
mardan yam/
140
This passage shows a very pragmatic view of the guru, much along
the lines of the guide argument for the need of a guru (3.3.1). If the
guru has lost his ability to function as such, he should be given up and
a better one accepted instead.
In this way it can be seen how the Puric dictum of no guru can
be given up has been softened by introducing the exception of
non-Vaiava gurus. J va Gosvmins interpretation that a Vaiava
can become a non-Vaiava is an important and far-reaching idea, as
we shall see in section 5.2.3.
5.2.2 The example of ®ymnanda

The story of the new initiation of ®ymnanda (1556-1630?), one of
the famous Gau yas of the second generation, offers some insight
into the issue of taking distance from or rejecting a guru. ®ymnanda
was a disciple of Hdaynanda Goswami, also known as Hdaya
Caitanya Goswami, a disciple of Gauridsa Paita, one of Caitanyas
direct associates. Originally ®ymnanda was known as Dukh (The
sorrowful) Ka Dsa. On the order of Gauridsa Paita, and with the
consent of his guru, Dukh Ka Dsa went to Vndvana, where he
did menial service by sweeping the grove where Rdh and Ka
were supposed to dance at night. At the same time, he studied theol-
ogy under J va Gosvmin, who taught him how to internally serve
the divine couple in the mdhurya (amorous) mood.
One night, the story goes, in his meditation, Rdh and Ka
danced splendidly in the grove. While Rdh danced on and on, un-
knowingly, one of her ankle bells became loose and fell to the
ground. Neither she nor her friends noticed it. In the morning, when
Ka Dsa performed his ordinary duty of cleaning, he found the
golden ankle bell. Recognising its divine nature, he tied it around his
neck.
Meanwhile, in the transcendent dimension, after entering her
room, Rdh was perturbed to find one of her ankle bells missing.
Thinking that she may have dropped it in the grove, she ordered her
141
girlfriend Lalit to go there and search for it. Lalit, disguised as an old
lady hurried there and met Dukh Ka Dsa. He saw through her
guise and forced her to reveal her true identity. After some discus-
sion, she ordered him to stay for the remainder of this life with J va
Gosvmin and to go on with his method of worship. She also gave
him a mantra for attaining the divine couple.
Ka Dsa then gave the ankle bell to Lalit and fell at her feet.
Taking the ankle bell in her hand Lalit quickly placed it to his head
saying Let the touch of Rdhs feet be on your head. When she
again touched the ankle bell to his forehead, suddenly two vertical
lines appeared on his forehead, and from the touch of the locket of
the ankle bell, a dot appeared between the lines. She then said that
from this day on he would be known by the name ®ymnanda. In
this way he received a new mantra, name and tilaka. Miraculously,
his complexion had also changed: while he previously had been
very dark, now he was of a wonderful golden colour. Lalit finally for-
bade him to speak about the incident to anyone except J va
Gosvmin.
After Lalit had disappeared, Dukh Ka Dsa, from now on
known as ®ymnanda, went to see J va Gosvmin, and told him
everything. ®ymnanda requested him not to reveal this incident to
anyone but to say only that by the grace of his spiritual master every-
thing had taken place. Concealing ®ymnandas secret, J va
Gosvmin simply told everyone that due to the wish of
Hdaynanda Goswami, from now on Ka Dsa would be known
as ®ymnanda, and his tilaka as ®ymnand .
Seeing ®ymnandas new tilaka and hearing about his new name,
the people of Vndvana began to talk. Had J va Gosvmin taken
Hdaynandas disciple? How could he do such a thing? Some
thought he had commited an offense, others that there was some
misunderstanding, but nobody dared to question him personally. Fi-
nally, the rumors reached Hdaynanda Goswami in Bengal.
Hearing all this Hdaynanda became furious. Why had J va
Gosvmin taken his disciple as his own and given him a new name?
142
Did J va Gosvmin consider him a non-Vaiava? I shall arrange a
debate with all the Vaiavas regarding this matter. If it is proven that
I am a non-Vaiava, then I shall surely take refuge in J va Gosvmin.
Speaking like this, he ordered some of his disciples to leave for
Vndvana immediately with an angry letter to J va Gosvmin.
Replying to the letter, Jiva Goswami said that Ka Dsa had told
him that Hdaynanda had appeared in his dream and given him the
new name and tilaka. Respecting Hdaynandas desire, J va
Gosvmin had started using the new name. The devotees were re-
lieved to hear this explanation, and recorded it in a letter. They also
confirmed the story with ®ymnanda, who told the same story and
explained that Hdaynanda Goswami certainly still was his guru and
that J va Gosvmin was like his guru.
Needless to say, Hdaynanda was not satisfied by this answer. He
had no knowledge of appearing in any dream! He interpreted it all as
a trick of J va Gosvmins. After all, from his point of view, it ap-
peared as an obvious case of re-initiation: a new name, tilaka (which,
except for the dot, looked just like J va Gosvmins) and mantra, and
a flimsy explanation indeed! Together with his disciples and many
mahantas he left for Vndvana. On the way he visited the house of
Gauridsa Paita (who was by now dead) and picked up his chief
disciple. Finally they all arrived in Vndvana where they all met J va
Gosvmin, as well as ®ymananda. Hdaynanda Goswami and his
followers challenged ®ymnanda to prove the truth of his state-
ments. Dreams are always false, they said. The goswami said that
he would personally wipe away the new tilaka of ®ymnanda, and
if it did not reappear, it would be proof of his lying and cheating his
guru. ®ymnanda agreed, but asked for two days time to think.
In great distress, he approached Rdh in his meditation and fell at
her feet, telling her all about his troubles. What was he to do? He had
promised to not disclose what had actually happened to anyone ex-
cept J va Gosvmin. Rdh felt pity for him and called for Subla, her
brother (the spiritual identity of Gauridsa Paita). He again
painted the new tilaka on ®ymnandas forehead and the name on
143
his chest, and promised that if ®ymnanda remembered him, these
signs would immediately appear.
When the time fixed for the test arrived, ®ymnanda stuck to the
story of the dream, adding only that the person in the dream must
have been Gauridsa Paita in the guise of Hdaynanda Goswami.
The mahantas painted the new tilaka on ®ymnandas forehead
and wrote the name ®ymnanda on his chest. Hdaynanda
Goswami brought a water pot, while ®ymnanda called out to
Gauridsa Paita to come and save his reputation. In the presence
of everyone Hdaynanda Goswami washed off the tilaka, as well as
the name ®ymnanda from his chest. ®ymnanda loudly called to
Lalit to save him, and immediately the tilaka and name spontane-
ously reappeared in their proper places, even brighter than before.
The mahantas were astonished, but Hdaynanda Goswami hung
his head in shame.
All the Vaiavas were happy to see this miracle. ®ymnanda fell
at the feet of Hdaynanda. Repenting, the goswami placed
®ymnanda on his lap and lovingly kissed his face again and again.
Accepting ®ymnanda as the best of his disciples he decided to
keep his precious association always.
But ®ymnandas tribulations were not over. Some days later,
while observing a play about the love between Rdh and Ka, he
fell into an ecstatic trance. Hdaynanda Goswami could understand
that ®ymnandas devotional mood was completely different than
his, or that of Gauridsa Paita, who both were in the mood of cow-
herd boys (sakhya-bhva). Thinking that his disciple had given up
the mood of his gurus, Hdaynanda left the place. ®ymnanda,
however, remained, something which infuriated Hdaynanda. The
next morning he confronted ®ymnanda and demanded that he re-
turn to sakhya-bhva. When ®ymnanda expressed his inability to
do so, Hdaynanda beat him with a stick, striking him again and
again until his flesh was cut. Bleeding profusely ®ymnanda fell on
the ground. The mahantas were shocked with Hdaynandas be-
haviour, but ®ymnanda did not show any anger. Rather, he asked
144
him to forgive any offences he had committed, in his mind, by words
or deeds.
That night Caitanya appeared before Hdaynanda Goswami in a
dream. Hdaynanda bowed to the Lords feet. Looking up he saw
that Mahprabhus white scarf was covered with blood. Severe
wounds covered his body. Mahprabhu explained that since
®ymnanda is like his own self, he had taken his beating on himself.
In great distress and remorse, Hdaynanda fell at the feet of
Caitanya, who eventually pardoned him. Hdaynanda spent the
rest of the night thinking deeply. In the morning he related the
dream to the mahantas, and they all helped him celebrate twelve
festivals in a wonderful way, as ordered by Caitanya by way of pen-
ance. Finally he left, blessing ®ymnanda and J va Gosvmin.447
I have retold this story at some length for several reasons. It nicely
demonstrates how the perfected saints are thought to be able to
move within both the normal earthly plane of existence and the di-
vine realm of Vndvana, sometimes connecting them. But most of
all it says a lot about the problem of a disciple turning away from his
guru.
Even apart from the miraculous events, the historicity of the story
is not certain. Not all sources explicitly state that Hdyananda
Goswami was convinced.448 The Prema-vilsa bluntly states that the
name ®ymnanda was given by J va Gosvmin.449 The hagiography
of ®ymnandas chief disciple Rasiknanda does not mention this
story, but simply says that Hdaynanda happily gave Dukh Ka
Dsa the name ®ymnanda!450 Some things are clear, though. Re-
initiation was by no means a normal thing by the end of the sixteenth
447 ®ymnanda Praka, Chapters 1-4. The same episode is also narrated in the
Bhakti-ratnkara, chapter 6.
448 Chakrabarty (1985), 245 quotes a book called Abhirma-lilmta which simply
says that Hdaya Caitanya and the mahantas took a highly critical view of J va
Gosvmins conduct.
449 Prema Vilsa, chapter 12
450 Rasika-magala 1.2.10.
145
century if even suspicion of it would create such an uproar. Because
of J va Gosvmins great reputation, nobody in Vndvana dared
speak up to him, but in Bengal the situation was different.
Hdaynanda Goswami was senior to J va Gosvmin, and did not
hesitate in criticising what to him appeared as a great offense. Since
Hdaynanda was well-known and respected as a Vaiava, the only
way for J va Gosvmin and ®ymnanda to justify breaking his order
was to refer to a still higher authority: Hdaynandas own guru,
Gauridsa Paita.
It is not known whether this incident happened before or after J va
Gosvmin had written the Bhakti-sandarbha. Even if that text al-
ready existed, it would take some more years until the doctrines of
the Vndvana Gosvmins even theoretically would become the
standard norm for the Gau yas in Bengal. Even if the text had been
accepted by the mahantas who accompanied Hdaynanda
Goswami to Vndvana as arbitrators, the reasons it gives for reject-
ing a guru would not have been applicable in this case. Hdaynanda
(originally) did not seem to have any problems with his disciple
studying under J va Gosvmin. Since J va Gosvmin was the undis-
puted leader of the Gau ya Vaiava community in Vndvana dur-
ing this time, studying under him was natural. What upset
Hdaynanda Goswami was rather the thought that J va Gosvmin
had given his disciple a new initiation. Would such a re-initiation have
been permissible? According to the Hari-bhakti-vilsa, no, since
Hdaynanda Gosvmin certainly was a Vaiava guru.
One could say that ®ymnanda should have rejected his first guru
Hdaynanda when the conflict erupted, since he was unqualified to
teach him, not being situated in the bhva ®ymnanda was attracted
to. Moreover, he wanted to deprive his disciple from J va Gosvmins
association. This (barely) fulfills the reasons mentioned above for
taking distance from a guru. For completely rejecting him, he would
also have to be a non-Vaiava through his behaviour and mentality.
But this cannot be said about Hdaynanda. Had J va Gosvmin really
146
given Dukh Ka Dsa re-initiation, he would thus have acted
against the rules in his own book.
There was therefore no way to completely reject Hdaynanda,
even though it becomes evident that at the end of the story there is
little or nothing in common between the guru and disciple. Instead,
®ymnanda constantly maintains that Hdaynanda is his guru both
in words (by saying it) and in deeds (by not trying to escape his pun-
ishment, by accepting his blessings, etc.), even though the story
makes it clear that ®ymnanda is far more spiritually elevated than
Hdaynanda Goswami. As mentioned before (2.3.3), ®ymnanda
indeed went on to establish a disciplic succession of his own, al-
though formally retaining his link to Hdaynanda Goswami.
5.2.3 Modern explanations

The story of ®ymnanda shows what an exceptional thing rejecting
a guru was in the early years of the Gau ya Vaiava movement.
Today, the situation is somewhat different. When writing on this sub-
ject, Ananta Dsa Bbj also refers to the relevant passages of the
Bhakti-sandarbha. The expression hater of Vaiavas (describing
the kind of guru who should be given up) he glosses as an enemy of
the Vaiavas. Hate, he writes (quoting the Bhakti-sandarbha451 )
is the same as slander, one way of offending a Vaiava. An offender
to the Vaiavas is not qualified to be a guru, and should be re-
jected.452 Such an interpretation makes rejecting the guru easier.
Bhaktivednta Nryaa Mahrja is even more radical in this regard.
If one finds that the guru still desires sense gratification, one should
give up his association. Especially if the guru has fallen down from
the position of a renunciant and again taken up family life, one
should pay him ones respects, and then leave him behind as one
451 BS 107. The word for hate here is dvea, somewhat lighter than vi-dvea, the
basis for vidvein.
452 Anantadsa Bbj [n.d], 14
147
leaves stool after passing it.453
Others take a more moderate stance. If ones guru somehow has be-
come fallen, one should worship him from a distance and give him one
year to rectify himself. If he does not, one should return the mantras re-
ceived from him and accept them again from another guru.454 The need
for returning the mantra is based on the belief that a mantra received
from a non-Vaiava guru will be detrimental.
Not all Gau yas agree with the above views. For example many
members of ISKCON think that if the guru was a proper Vaiava at the
time of initiation, the mantras he gave have not been received from a
non-Vaiava, and should therefore not be given up. There would there-
fore not be any need for a formal new initiation, even though one would
have to seek the guidance of another ik-guru.455
Some go even further in this direction. Padmanbha Goswami said
that one should never reject a fallen Vaiava guru. One would certainly
have to accept another instructing guru for further guidance, but one
should never reject the original guru. He offered a graphic simile:
A mother has given birth to a child. The child is now ten years old and the
mother has become a prostitute. Can you say that she is not his mother or
he not her son? No, you can not say that. The child will give some respect
to the mother. As human nature, he has to give respect to the mother, but
on the other hand, he feels pain that she is a prostitute. Both things. How
can you say that she is not his mother? You can not say. Impossible!
The same thing, when you have taken initiation from your guru, it
means that he is your guru. You cannot deny it. Initiation is just like a
sacrament, a saskra. You have accepted him, heard the holy mantra
with your ears, accepted him as a guru. Now you say that he is not guru?
That is not possible. He has fallen down, that is another case, but you have
to give him respect as a guru.456
453 Bhaktivedanta Narayan Maharaja (2000), 20

454 IF mgt 2000/89
455 E.g. IF 2001/78
456 IF mgt 2000/68. A very similar example was given by another goswami guru,
Gopinathalla Deva Goswami (IF mgt 2002/12)
148
Another goswami guru echoed the same ideas, clearly saying that
the duty of a disciple of a fallen guru is simply to wait for the guru to
become rectified, no matter how long that takes.457 After all, one gets
the guru one deserves, and all is not lost even if one does not attain
the highest reaches of bhakti in this particular life.
While these opinions are radically different from each other, they
all find some support in the scriptural passages examined above.
The reasons for emphasising different texts may be manyfold, but
one obvious motive is institutional politics. The gurus who stress the
need for rejecting fallen gurus are also the ones who eagerly
reinitiate persons already initiated by gurus now judged unqualified.
Likewise, the reason why goswamis so strongly oppose reinitiation is
probably that they are the ones likely to be portrayed as worldly
and less qualified than some charismatic ascetic guru.
The currently very strained relationship between ISKCON and
Bhaktivednta Nryaa Mahrja may serve as an example. The
founder of ISKCON, Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda, had a
friendly relationship with Nryaa Mahrja, and the sannysa-guru
of Prabhupda, Bhaktiprajñna Keava Mahrja, was the d k-guru
of Nryaa Mahrja. As per a previous order of Prabhupdas,
Nryaa Mahrja performed his funeral ceremony (samdhi-
kriy) after his demise in November, 1977. The relationship be-
tween Prabhupdas disciples in ISKCON and Nryaa Mahrja re-
mained friendly until the early 1990s. By that time, several leading
members of ISKCON had started going to Nryaa Mahrja for
guidance, and the leaders of ISKCON began to fear his taking over
the whole movement. In accordance with earlier rules forbidding
members of ISKCON from taking spiritual instruction from persons
outside the movement, the governing body of ISKCON prohibited
its members from associating with Nryaa Mahrja and openly
criticised him and some of his teachings.
457 IF mgt 2000/71
149
The short-term effect of this denouncement was favourable to
ISKCON. All but one of the leaders who had earlier associated with
Nryaa Mahrja distanced themselves from him. However,
Nryaa Mahrja and many members of ISKCON felt that he had
been wronged and insulted by false accusations. He started touring
the world, and through his scholarship and personal charisma quickly
become very attractive for those who were dissatisfied with the lead-
ership of ISKCON and the failings of their own gurus. Starting in the
mid-1990s, Nryaa Mahrja began reinitiating them. Almost from
the beginning he also reinitiated disciples of gurus who were not
fallen, arguing that if their ISKCON guru forbids them from listening
to him, that is a sign of the so-called gurus enviousness. A Vaiava is
not envious, so such a person should be rejected.
In this case, and, I would argue, generally, reinitiation is a sign of
membership in a new group and of rejecting the old group. By
reinitiating the disciple of another guru, the guru very clearly shows
what he thinks of the qualification of the previous guru, or in the
above example rather the previous institution (Nryaa Mahrja
has made it clear that he considers all gurus in ISKCON unquali-
fied458 ). A person wishing to change institutional loyalities is gener-
ally expected to take reinitiation. In some cases, someone who
wishes to return to his previous guru is given a second reinitiation!
Still, reinitiation has not lost the dramatic quality present in the
story about ®ymnanda. There are many stories in the
hagiographical literature about ascetic gurus refusing to give
reinitiation to disciples of, for example, a worldly goswami descend-
ant of Nitynanda, fearing to offend him.459 Most of the reinitiations
take place when a person from a traditional background approaches
a modern guru (e.g. a disciple of a goswami from the Nitynanda
vaa wants to join a Gau ya Maha) or vice-versa, when there is a
practical reason for it: the mantras given are different.
458 E.g. IF 2000/14b

459 See for example the story of Nandakiora dsa Goswami in Kapoor (1999).
150
6 . I N I T I AT I O N
The definition I have presented (in 3.5) for a Gau ya Vaiava guru
is a charismatic person who is offered special reverence by one or
several persons on account of his awarding him/ them initiation
and/ or especially important spiritual advice. The two previous
chapters have dealt with the first part of this definition, the charis-
matic person. Now, it is time to look more closely at one of the rea-
sons for the reverence offered to the guru: that he may give initia-
tion. As before, I will begin by examining what the scriptural sources
say and then move on to what initiation looks like today. This time,
the differences are greater than they have been in the earlier chap-
ters of this part, but understanding the modern system of initiation in
Gau ya Vaiavism requires some knowledge of what the ideal
ritual of initiation looks like. For this reason, I will give a rather lengthy
description of them below.
6.1 Initiation in the scriptures
6.1.1 Hari-bhakti-vilsa
The Hari-bhakti-vilsa devotes the whole second chapter to de-
scribing d k, initiation, mostly following the Krama-d pik of
Keava crya.460 After again writing about the need and fruit of ini-
tiation, Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin cites a verse from the Viu-
ymala defining d k as when one gives divine (divya) knowl-
edge and destroys (sakaya) sin461 While the etymology may not
be that accurate according to linguistic principles, this definition does
point to two things that will be repeated again and again in the differ-
460 Krama-d pik, 4.4-82

461 HBV 2.10
151
ent descriptions of initiation to be given: the disciple receives a
mantra full of otherworldly knowledge, and is ritually freed from all
sins.
Gopla Bhaa also quotes a verse from the Tattva-sgara saying
that Just as brass becomes gold by application of mercury, so by ini-
tiation men become twice-born.462 The commentator glosses
men as indeed everyone and twice-born as brhmaas.463 In
other words, just as the alchemist is (at least supposed to be) able to
transmute brass into gold by applying mercury, so the guru trans-
forms all kinds of disciples into brhmaas. This is a remarkable state-
ment that later Vaiavas have made much out of. It seems a little
odd in this book, where differences between Vaiavas of different
varas have elsewhere been retained, for example in the section
dealing with the qualifications of the guru (see 4.2).
The next subject is the time for initiation. Different authorities give
somewhat different opinions, but generally the months Vaikha,
vina, Krtika, Mrga ra, Mgha and Phlguna are considered aus-
picious.464 Krttika is best, but for initiation into Gopla-mantras also
the otherwise prohibited month of Caitra is allowed on the authority
of many authorities.465 The pure days are Monday, Wednesday,
Thursday, Friday and Sunday. Pure asterisms and lunar days are also
mentioned. The initiation should be performed during the bright
fortnight.466
It is difficult to find a rationale behind why those particular months,
days and so forth are auspicious and the others not. Tuesday, for ex-
ample, is generally thought to be auspicious, but is here forbidden.
Sunday is otherwise not thought to be a good day, but here it is. Gen-
erally, about half of the categories are pure and the other impure, so
462 HBV 2.12

464 HBV 2.13-19
465 HBV 2.20-21
466 HBV 2.23-26
152
finding an auspicious date can be a little tricky. At the time of writing
this, it is the ninth of July 2001. The next day suitable for initiation
according to these rules would be the eighteenth of October 2001
(month: vina; fortnight: bright; day: Thursday; lunar day: second;
asterism: Svat ), so a prospective initiate would have to wait for over
three months.
In a typically Indian way, there are exceptions to these rules. One
can always perform the ritual of initiation in a holy place, at a solar or
lunar eclipse, and during the festivals of offering the cord or the
damana-plant. A holy place or these times are so pure that they are
able to counteract any bad influence.467 Following this, the prospec-
tive initiate would not have to wait all the time until the second half of
October, since the festival of offering the cord (Pavitrropaa
Dvda ) falls already on July 30th. At that date, the month and day are
impure, but that can be disregarded.
Having made things easier, Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin gives yet
another exception from the Tattva-sgara: since it is so rare to find a
sad-guru, one should immediately accept initiation from him when
he gives his consent, whether it is day or night, one is in the forest or
in a village. The desire of the sad-guru overrules everything.468 In
this way, if the guru of our prospective disciple considers himself a
sad-guru, he could fix the date of initiation already today. Alterna-
tively, if he is ignorant of these rules and happens to suggest initia-
tion on a forbidden day, if the prospective disciple thinks of his guru
as a sad-guru (as he most probably does), he does not have to worry
about whether the date is good or not.
After discussing these preliminaries, the author goes on to de-
scribe the ceremony of initiation. Quoting the Tantric classic ®rad-
tilak,469 he explains that there are four kinds of initiation: kriyvat
467 HBV 2.28-30

468 HBV 2.31-33
469 ®rad-tilaka 4.3
153
(ceremonial), kaltm (ordination), varamay (consisting of let-
ters) and vedhamay (consisting of perforation or penetration).
Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin describes the first kind of initiation,
kriyvat . The description is often very cursory, but the commenta-
tor fills in the details. Very briefly, the rite entails first constructing a
sacred pavillion. Before initiation, the disciple practices fasting and
silence. He is ritually purified by water from a sanctified pitcher, and
is finally asked to enter a holy enclosure, the pavillion, where he
sleeps beside his guru during the night, who has entered it previ-
ously and worshipped a sacred fire. On the next day, after many rites
of worship and inner and outer purification, the guru marks the disci-
ple with sectarian marks (tilakas), whispers the mantra into his ear,
transfers his power into him and makes him agree to follow certain
new rules. Finally the disciple offers some gifts to the guru and
breaks the fast together with his friends.470 As the author himself
says, this method, based on books such as the Prapañca-sra, is
mainly Tantric.471
Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin next gives a description of another kind
of initiation, one that he calls Puric initiation. He provides a long
quotation from the Varha Pura (98.7-55), where ®iva speaks to
Prvat about initiation. The guru should first observe the disciple for
one year to see whether or not the disciple is suitable for initiation.
When the year has passed the disciple should ask the guru for initia-
tion. He should then worship the guru as Viu. On the tenth lunar
day of the bright fortnight of the month of Krttika, the disciple
should, after eating, lie down to sleep beside the guru in a temple of
the Lord. In the morning, he should tell the guru what he has dreamt,
and the guru should then tell him what the initiation will be like. The
commentator quotes a verse saying that a cruel dream indicates a
470 HBV 2.34-184

471 HBV 2.186
472 HBV 2.189-200
154
low initiation, a bad dream a middling initiation, and a good dream a
good initiation.472
After fasting that day, the eleventh, they should both take bath
and go to a temple of Viu. On the floor the guru should then draw
a maala. He should then blindfold the disciple, who is clad in new
white clothes and carrying flowers in his hands. The guru should then
ritually establish and worship different divinities in nine pitchers of
water. After this, he should sprinkle the disciple with water from the
pitchers. Then the disciple should be led into the maala. He
should ritually be purified and warned against blaspheming gods or
elders. Then the guru should perform a homa or fire sacrifice, and
after that, all the saskras or sacraments (such as name-giving,
feeding of the first rice, and so on473 ) for the disciple. He should then
uncover the eyes of the disciple and speak the mantra three times
into his ear. Finally, the disciple should offer the guru a gift (dakia)
according to his means. A king, for example, should give elephants,
horses, jewels, rings, gold, villages or the like.474
As S.K. De points out, though called Puric, this ritual is also not
free from Tantric influences.475 While decidedly simpler, it does not
differ greatly from the previous method. Here we find the same typi-
cal elements of a rite of passage: fasting, dressing in white, sprinkling
with sanctified water and so on. Blindfolding is added: a clear way of
inducing the liminal state before entering a new stage in life. By per-
forming the saskras for the disciple anew, the guru asserts his
position as the disciples actual father.
For the benefit of those who are unable to perform such elaborate
ceremonies as described above, Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin also gives
473 For a modern Gau ya presentation of these, see Premarsa and Snd pani Muni
Dsa (1997)
474 HBV 2.201-228
475 De (1961), 420
155
a description of a simplified procedure for initiation. When an auspi-
cious moment has arrived, one should place a new pitcher, deco-
rated with sandalwood and flowers, in a particular maala. The
pitcher should be filled with milk, five flowers, all kinds of herbs, five
gems, and seven kinds of earth. The seven kinds of earth are earth
from a horse stable, from a stable for elephants, from an ant-hill, from
a crossing, from a kings gate, from a cow-pen and from a riverbank.
After worshipping Ka, the guru should sprinkle the pitcher using a
bundle of holy kua grass, uttering the mantra he is to give 1008
times. With that water he should in the same way sprinkle the disci-
ple and then teach him the mantra. The disciple should then devot-
edly worship the guru, and according to his capacity also the assem-
bled brhmaas.476
While finding earth from a stable for elephants may not always be
so easy, this ritual is certainly radically simplified from the ones we
have seen previously. Gone are the long preparations, the fasting
and fire sacrifices. We are left with five elements: the maala, the
establishment of a pitcher with sanctified water, worship of Ka,
sprinkling the disciple with the sanctified water, and the teaching of
the mantra. The power of the mantra is transferred from the guru to
the disciple not only verbally, but also symbolically through the wa-
ter in the pitcher.
Two even more simplified versions are quoted from the Tattva-
sgara. If the guru is unable to perform any other rituals, he should
worship a faultless lotus flower. Dipping the lotus in water, he should
eight times sprinkle the disciple. Having placed his hand on the head
of the disciple, the guru should recite the mantra in his ear. Other-
wise, during a solar or lunar eclipse, at a holy place or in a temple of
®iva, initiation can be given just by words.477
476 HBV 2.237-242

477 HBV 2.243-244
156
From the five elements above we are down first to three: worship
of a lotus flower, sprinkling of the disciple, and teaching the mantra,
and then to one: teaching the mantra. In a typically Indian way
Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin has gone from a very elaborate system of
initiation to the most simple possible, in this way making the essence
of initiation very clear: passing on a mantra. The mantra itself is sup-
posed to be able to give otherworldly knowledge and remove sin,
the definition of initiation given in the beginning of the chapter.
In the complex versions of initiation given above, the guru can be
seen as a mystagogue, a religious specialist who performs sacra-
ments, magical actions meant to bring salvation. He purifies the dis-
ciple of sin using sanctified water, he transfers his power into him,
and so forth. With every simplification, this aspect is played down.
Instead, the great emphasis on passing on the mantra points to an-
other important aspect of the guru: the teacher. Even if he would
never again meet the disciple, he would have taught him the mantra,
which is considered full of mystical secrets, attainable simply by re-
citing or meditating upon it. Moreover, it connects the guru with a
tradition, since he himself must have received the mantra in the
same way. By passing on the mantra, the guru not only engages in
teaching spiritual topics, he also acts as a preserver of tradition. More
on these roles of the guru in part III.
6.1.2 Sdhana-d pik

Another southerner, Nryaa Bhaa Gosvmin, a granddisciple of
Gaddhara Paita, also wrote a book on Vaiava rituals, the
Sdhana-d pik. The date of the book is not known, but the author
was born in 1531 and his magnum opus, Vraja-bhakti-vilsa, was
written in 1552.478 The author was thus a junior contemporary with
Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin, something that is easy to see in the
478 Haberman (1994), 56-62
157
Sdhana-d pik: it is little more than an abridged version of the Hari-
bhakti-vilsa, curiously enough without any reference to the original
work. The reason I want to introduce this text here is that although
the book is firmly based on the Hari-bhakti-vilsa, some details dif-
fer, and those differences are interesting.
The first chapter of the Sdhana-d pik is called approaching a
guru, but it deals also with initiation. After describing kriyvat and
simplified kinds of initiation in a similar way as in the Hari-bhakti-
vilsa479 , he does something different: he gives short descriptions of
the three types of initiation that Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin mentioned
but fails to describe.
He begins with varamay intiation. The guru should place the
sixteen first letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, beginning from the last
(visarga), on the body of the disciple all together and one after the
other, sprinkle him with water, place his hand on his head and then
teach him the mantra.480
Kalvat initiation is when the guru first meditates on the five ele-
ments of the body in five parts of the body of the disciple. Then he
awakens them all by nysa (a Tantric method of placing different
divinities in parts of the body): from the feet up to the knees he
meditates on the element earth, from the knees up to the navel wa-
ter, from the navel up to the neck fire, from the neck up to the brow
air, from the brow to the top of the head space. While meditating on
these all together and one after the other, he should also recite
mantras directed respectively to cessation, creation, knowledge,
peace and that beyond peace. After this, the guru teaches the mantra
to the disciple.481 Vedhamay initiation is when the guru by having
sameness of purpose with his disciple infuses knowledge, renuncia-
tion and so forth in the disciple so that he immediately gives up ma-
terial life.482
479 SD, pp 37-51

480 SD, p 51-52
481 SD, p 52
482 Ibid
158
In all these cases the descriptions are very brief, but it is clear that
these modes of initiation are Tantric. The two first contain different
types of nysa, while the last (vedhamay ) seems to be a kind of
mystical immediate transmission of power into a disciple having the
right frame of mind. It is mentioned also in the Kulrava Tantra,
where Ida Bay-Schmidt calls it piercing or a subtle impact of the
gurus mental power.483 Even in the often extremely concise
Sdhana-d pik, these three categories of initiation seem to be in-
cluded for the sake of completeness. After this, Nryaa Bhaa
Gosvmin continues with another type of initiation:
But some spradyic persons perform the five sacraments, accord-

ing to the rules in the Padma Pura. That is extremely beautiful. It is
said: tpa, pura, nman, mantra and yga: these are the five sac-
raments that cause the greatest singlemindedness. And also: Carry-
ing the conch, disk, vertical tilaka, etc, are the marks of a servant.484
This kind of initiation is practiced by Vaiavas of the ®r - and Brahm-

sapradyas in south India. That the author calls them spradyic
(belonging to a sapradya) is interesting, since it seems to indicate
that he does not consider the Gau yas themselves spradyic.
He gives his support to this manner of initiation by calling it ex-
tremely beautiful (at va crutama). He proceeds to explain this by
quoting a rather lengthy explanation of the rituals, spoken by the
Lord to a brhmaa.
A proper guru should initiate a proper disciple. Short descriptions
of the two are given, similar to the general descriptions of the ideal
guru and disciple given in chapter four above. One should fashion
metallic brands of the disk and conch of Viu out of gold, silver, cop-
per or brass. The brands should be bathed with fivefold nectar
483 Bay-Schmidt (1984), p 151

484 SD, p 53. kecit tu smpradyik padma-purokta-vidhin pañca-saskran
kurvanti, tad at va-crutamam/ tath hi tpa pura tath nma mantro
yga ca pañcama/ am pañca-saskr vai parmaiknti-hetava// akha-
cakrordhva-purdi-dharaa dsasya lakaam/ iti ca/
159
(milk, yoghurt, honey, ghee and sugarwater) and then worshipped
with mantras, sandalwood paste, flowers, etc., before the form of the
Lord. The guru should then light a fire according to the rules of his
family. The guru should then offer 1008 or 108 oblations of ghee into
the fire with a mantra. He should also offer rice boiled in sweet milk
together with ghee, reciting mantras such as the Purua-hymn of the
¬g-veda (10.90). Then the two brands should be placed in the fire.
Uttering the sixteen-syllabled mantra, the guru should now offer
ghee twenty more times into the fire. After this, using the heated
metallic brands, the guru should brand (tpa) the marks of the conch
and disk onto the right and left shoulder of the disciple.485
After this, the guru should establish a pitcher filled with pure water.
He should sanctify the water with the mantra and then sprinkle the
water on the head of the disciple. He should then teach the mantra to
the disciple, who wears vertical tilaka (pura), as also the goal of
the mantra, proper behaviour and rules of worship (yga). The guru
should also give the disciple a new name (nman) such as Ka
Dsa (the servant of Ka) or Govinda Dsa.486
While Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin does not describe this kind of ini-
tiation in the Hari-bhakti-vilsa, some of the five sacraments appear
also in the other types of initiation. In the kriyvat initiation, for ex-
ample, the disciple is given pura, mantra and yga. In the context
of describing the rites of the ®ayaa Dvda festival, Gopla Bhaa
gives a long description of accepting the branded marks of Viu.487
In general, initation with five sacraments has not been practiced by
Gau ya Vaiavas, though some, such as Baladeva Vidybhuana488
and Kedarntha Datta Bhaktivinoda489 have recommended it. Espe-
cially branding has been frowned upon, and even been declared for-
485 SD, pp 53-54

486 SD, p 54
487 HBV 15.45-106
488 Prameya-ratnval 8.5-6
489 Bhaktivinoda Thakur (1989)
160
bidden for practitioners of rgnuga-sdhana.490 Bhaktivinoda
writes that Caitanya suggests substituting stamping the marks with
sandalwood paste instead of branding them as a special concession
to the fallen souls of the Kali age.491 However, one of the five sacra-
ments mentioned here, but not found in other descriptions, has
passed on to most modern initiations: nman or a new name.
6.2 Initiation today

As pointed out by Haberman, initiations nowadays are less elaborate
than most of the above descriptions.492 Especially in the case that the
disciple is poor the rituals will be quite simple. Some even say that
Gau ya Vaiava rituals should not include complicated things such
as homas.493 Padmanbha Goswami first gave a description of a
rather complex ceremony involving a pitcher with sancified water, a
homa, etc., but then said that most disciples want a ritual that is not
too costly nor takes too much time.494 Also, if many persons are to
receive initiation at the same time, the rituals are often simplified.
Puruottama Goswami of the Rdh-ramaa temple often initiates
groups of 15-20 poor Oriyan farmers at a time. At that time, initiation
will contain three elements: first he will give everyone three strings
of small tulas beads to wear around the neck (kanthi-ml). Next
he will, with the help of assistants, mark the upper body of the
(male) initiates with twelve tilakas. Then he will give the mantras.
They are to be chanted 108 times on the fingers or on a rosary. He
will also give a small laminated board with a triptych: images of
Rdh-ramaa in the centre, Caitanya on the left and himself on the
right.495
490 See Kapoor (1999), pp 43-45

491 Bhaktivinoda Thakur (1989), p 2
492 Haberman (1989), 117
493 IF mgt 2000/69
494 IF mgt 2000/68
495 Case (2000), 35-36
161
6.2.1 First and second initiation
Apart from the simplification, the main difference is that today initia-
tions are usually conducted in a two-tiered way. First the disciples
receive the mah-mantra, which is technically not a mantra but
Harinma, Kas names, and later, when they are considered a lit-
tle more advanced, they receive one or several mantras. Some devo-
tees would strongly object to this and say that the first initiation is not
really initiation but only preparation for the real initiation to follow
later.496 Many also call the first initiation Harinma and only the
second d k or initiation. 497 They argue that Harinma can not be
called initiation since no mantra is given. That is a good objection, but
I have opted to use the words first and second initiation, since the
elements of the ritual of initiation described above are shared be-
tween the two. The disciple will, for example, receive his new name
at the time of the first initiation.
Practically all gurus I have spoken to follow this two-tiered system
of initiation. The time between first and second initiation will vary
between disciple and disciple. Candidates deemed especially quali-
fied by their gurus may receive both at one time, others may have to
wait up to seven years or more.498 Apart from these two main initia-
tions, there are also other kinds of initiations that the disciple may or
may not receive.
Generally, first initiation is a simple affair. Freshly bathed and clad
in new clothes, the disciple approaches the guru and prostrates. The
guru teaches him the mah-mantra, gives some spiritual instructions,
a rosary and neckbeads, and marks the disciple with the tilaka of his
parivra. In many cases, a new name is also given, usually beginning
with the same letter as the old one. Finally, the disciple gives some
dakia to the guru. Often, the new disciple will eat together with
the guru and be given some of the remnants of his meal.
496 See for example Anantadsa Bbj (1996), 9

497 Field notes, Vndvana, November 2000
498 IF mgt 2000/71
162
In ISKCON, the rituals are a little more elaborate. In addition to the
above, the guru will also ask the disciple to follow some rules and
regulations. In many cases, the sanctity of the occasion is highlighted
by a homa performed by the guru himself or a senior devotee, in
which the new disciples take part by throwing grains into the fire and
at the end a banana, symbolising their past karman.499
Second initiation continues on from this. After similar preliminaries
as in the first, the guru imparts the initiation mantra or mantras to the
disciple. While the mah-mantra is public, these mantras are secret
and are communicated to the disciple in private. Generally, the
mantras are whispered into the right ear of a male disciple, and the
left ear of female.500 The disciple is usually also given more elaborate
spiritual instructions at this time, and may be asked to make some
additional vows. The second initiation is seen as a deepening of the
relationship between guru and disciple.501
In the Gau ya Mahas and ISKCON, the upanayana saskra
(investiture with the sacred thread) is given at the same time as sec-
ond initiation. The rationale behind this is that every initiated
Vaiava is (at least) on the level of a brhmaa. Following the verse
of the Hari-bhakti-vilsa cited above (6.1.1) saying that every man
becomes a brhmaa by d k, upanayana (including the Vedic
Brahm gyatr 502 traditionally chanted by brhmaas three times
daily) is given to any qualified disciple, regardless of birth. The main
source for the elaborate rituals followed for this upanayana is the
Sat-kriy-sra-d pik, a book on how to perform the traditional
Hindu saskras in a Vaiava way, attributed to Gopla Bhaa
499 Field notes, Tampere, 20.7.2002

500 Sinha (1966), 69
501 Prema Rasa and Sand pani Muni Dsa (1997), 130
502 O bhr bhuva sva/ tat savitur vareya bhargo devasya dh mahi/ dhiyo yo
na pracodayt, ¬g Veda 3.62.10. This mantra is the model for all other gyatr s
that will be mentioned later.
163
Gosvmin.503 Such an elaborate initiation contains some of the ele-
ments of the ceremonies of the Hari-bhakti-vilsa, such as a fire sac-
rifice, wearing new clothes and ritual sprinkling of water. Combining
initiation with a saskra is not a completely new idea: it was done
also in the Puric initiation of the Hari-bhakti-vilsa.
6.2.2 Siddha initiation

Apart from the two initiations described above, there are two other
rituals within Gau ya Vaiavism that may be called types of initia-
tion, but which are optional or awarded only to persons held to be
especially advanced. The first of these could be called Siddha-initia-
tion, when the disciple is given knowledge about his siddha-
svarpa, spiritual identity, and that of his guru and predecessor gu-
rus, for use in rgnug meditation. The disciple will not at this time
receive a new mantra, but since he receives much new spiritual
knowledge and is allowed to enter a new stage in his spiritual prac-
tice this rite can well be called one type of initiation. It is not de-
scribed in the writings of the Gosvmins, but is, as Haberman and
others have shown, a later development of the ideas Rpa
Gosvmin articulated in his Bhakti-rasmta-sindhu.504
At the time of Siddha-initiation, the d k-guru gives the disciple
knowledge of his ekdaa-bhva, or elevenfold existence. These
eleven categories give the framework of the persona the disciple is
supposed to have in the spiritual world and his relationship with
503 Sat-kriy-sra-d pik, p 201-222. According to S.K. De (1961), p 529, it is ex-

tremely doubtful whether the Gopla Bhaa who wrote this book is identical with
the author of the Hari-bhakti-vilsa. I subscribe to the same view, since many things
(such as the style of the text, the prohibition against worshipping other divinities
than Ka) are here different from what the Hari-bhakti-vilsa teaches. Some be-
lieve the book was written by Vaikuha Vcaspati, a later scholar (e.g.
Bhaktibhdeva ®rauti Mahrja, cited in Bhaktivednta Nryaa Mahrja [n.d.1], p.
111).
504 Haberman (1989), 116-117
164
Ka. The rites are very simple: the guru simply sits down with the
disciple and gives him a paper listing the eleven categories for the
diciple, himself and all the predecessor gurus. He will also explain
them, and start teaching the disciple in rgnug-sdhana, the path
of emulating the mood of one of Kas liberated followers in the
mind. Alternatively, he might direct the disciple to someone else
who will teach him these practices.
As pointed out by Haberman, there are two different
understandings of how the guru gives Siddha initiation.505 The most
common idea is that the guru, through his spiritual insight, is able to
see the real, eternal spiritual form of the disciple. Because of this, he
can enlighten the disciple about the details of his siddha-svarpa.
This spiritual form may be completely unknown for the disciple him-
self before the guru reveals it. As one guru succinctly put it: the guru
will give it, because the disciple is not in the position to realise it.506
The other idea is that the siddha identity the guru gives is more of a
working model than the actual eternal identity in the spiritual world.
Both guru and disciple will discuss the details so that it will be as use-
ful as possible in the meditation of the disciple. In the course of prac-
tice, details that seem wrong may be changed, so that the eternal
spiritual form is gradually unfolded. This view was held by
Kedarntha Datta Bhaktivinoda.507 Some modern gurus, such as
Ka Keavnanda Deva Goswami, the head of the ®ymnanda
parivra, also subscribe to this idea.508
The time when this initiation is given depends upon how the guru
views rgnug-sdhana. Generally speaking, there are three
views prevalent in modern Gau ya Vaiavism. The first is that
rgnug-sdhana is the primary mode of sdhana in Gau ya
Vaiavism, and the best and easiest way to advance spiritually. For
505 Haberman (1986), 117-119

506 IF mgt 2000/71
507 Shukavak N. Dasa (1999), 227-229
508 IF mgt 2000/85
165
properly engaging in this kind of practice, and thus advancing spir-
itually, the disciple must have knowledge about his siddha form. For
this reason, Siddha-initiation should be given immediately, together
with ordinary initiation, or a short time afterwards. This view is held
by the bbj s of Rdhkua, the members of the Rmadsa
parivra, and most other ascetic Gau ya gurus. For example Ananta
Dsa Bbj gives his disciples first and second initiation almost im-
mediately, and Siddha-initiation one or one and a half month afterward,
when they have learned the basics, such as performing altar worship.509
D na Hari Dsa Bbj , a granddisciple of Rmadsa Bbj , gives Siddha-
initiation at the same time as ordinary initiation.510
The second view is that while rgnug-sdhana is the best thing,
not everyone is qualified for it. Most people should first practice vaidhi-
sdhana to purify themselves and to gain the eligibility for rgnug-
sdhana. This view is held by most of the goswamis and some parts of
the Gau ya Maha. Some are very restrictive: Ka Gopalnanda
Goswami of the ®ymnanda parivra said he has almost a thousand
disciples but that he so far had not given Siddha-initiation to anyone.511
While most speak in general terms of the disciple having to be very
qualified,512 one guru was very specific and said that after a disciple has
chanted three lakhs (300 000) names of the mah-mantra daily for 21
years, he can go to Vndvana and get Siddha-initiation.513
The third view is that rgnug-sdhana and Siddha-initiation are so
high things that they should only be honoured from a distance. Accord-
ing to this view, very few persons in this degraded age will develop the
necessary qualifications needed. Instead of oneself or the guru concoct-
ing an imaginary spiritual identity, simply meditating upon Kas
name will reveal everything in due course of time. It is therefore not
509 IF mgt 2000/66

510 IF mgt 2000/69
511 IF mgt 2000/71
512 IF mgt 2000/89
513 IF mgt 2000/88
166
necessary for the guru to personally give Siddha-initiation to the disci-
ple. This view is held by some goswamis (e.g. Padmanbha
Goswami514 ), most of the Gau ya Mahas515 and by ISKCON.516 Some
bbj s also subscribe to this view.517
While proponents of these three views in practice differ in always,
sometimes, or never giving or allowing a disciple to elsewhere take
Siddha-initiation, the differences are thus smaller on the theoretical
plane: they simply interpret differently what the eligibility for
rgnug-sdhana is. Such differences are not new: for example,
Vivantha Cakravartin seems to have been considerably more liberal in
this regard than J va Gosvmin.518
Apart from not awarding any mantra, the role of the guru is quite dif-
ferent in this type of initiation from what it was in the earlier types. He is
no mystagogue here: there are no detailed rituals intended at removing
sin, no mystical transmissions of power. As in the earlier types of initia-
tion, he again functions as a teacher, but to a greater degree. More about
the guru as a teacher will follow in chapter nine.
6.2.3 Vea-initiation
Yet another form of initiation is when a disciple who fully wants to dedi-
cate himself to spiritual life is given vea (also known as bhek), or the
dress and position of a bbj , a renunciate. Generally, only gurus who
themselves are bbj s can give this kind of initiation, even though
some goswamis also do so.519 Some goswamis even claim that only they
can award vea, not the bbj s.520 The vea-guru need not be the same
514 IF mgt 2000/68

515 See for example Swami B.G. Narasingha (1998), 121-130
516 E.g. Suhotra Swami (1994), 51-62
517 One example from the 20th century is Nitynanda Dsa Bbaj of Nandagrma.
See Kapoor (1999), 447-460.
518 Swami B.V. Tripurari (1998), 9-11
519 IF mgt 2000/85
520 IF 2000/14d
167
as the d k guru, and is indeed usually different, as we have seen (in
3.4).
The candidate can be either a man or woman, and of any vara. At
Rdh-kua one can today even see one or two western-born bbj s.
The main requisite is the desire to surrender fully to Ka. The guru is
the one who decides when the disciple is ready, but at least at Rdh-
kua there is a committee (pañca) who has to give its approval. Before
initiation, the aspirant must stay in Rdh-kua for at least a year.521
Kennedy gives a summary of the ritual of Vea-initiation following
the book Verayaviddhi (Rules for accepting vea) ascribed to
Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin. On the day before the initiation, the initi-
ate is to fast and sleep on the ground. Early in the morning, he is to
shave his head and bathe in the Ganges or in other holy water mixed
with the five products of the cow.522 He then smears the body with
earth uttering mantras and drinks water with which the image of
Ka has been bathed. After this, he presents himself before the
guru wearing a new dhoti and uttar ya (upper cloth). The guru takes
a new kanthi-ml (necklace of tulas -wood), offers it to Ka,
wears it himself and finally puts it around the neck of the disciple,
uttering a special mantra. He then marks the twelve tilakas on the
body of the disciple.523
After this the guru places his hand on the head of the disciple and
gives him a new name. The name is usually one of Ka or Caitanya
and begins with the same letter as the previous, and ends with Dsa,
just as above. Persons who already have such a name (from their
general initiation) in some cases retain them.
Then the guru gives the disciple the kaupina, underwear consist-
ing of a belt and a narrow strip of cloth worn between the thighs,
commonly used by ascetics in India. The kaupina is fortified by in-
voking a number of divinities into it.524 The kaupina symbolises the
521 IF 2000/14a
522 I.e. milk, yoghurt, ghee, cow dung and cow urine
523 Kennedy (1925), 163
524 Mahanidhi Swami (1998), 143-144
168
austerity and especially the celibacy of the new bbaj . The guru ties
the knot himself. He also gives the disciple a bahirvsa, outer cloth,
consisting of half a white dhoti and worn simply around the waist.
The other half of the dhoti is used as an uttar ya. The disciple is also
given the standard mantras, if he hasnt received them before, and a
particular mantra for bbj s.525 These mantras are whispered in the
left ear of the initiate even if male, since all bbj s are supposed to
think of themselves as maidservants of the divine couple Rdh and
Ka. The guru then imparts instructions on worship and speaks
about the rules of ascetic life and on surrendering to Ka. The rites
are concluded by the new bbj eating remnants of the gurus meal,
feeding the Vaiavas, and giving a donation to the guru.526
The whole ceremony thus includes ten elements: 1) fasting; 2)
shaving the head; 3) bathing in holy water; 4) wearing the tulas
necklace; 5) putting on tilaka; 6) receiving a new name; 7) receiving
a mantra; 8) receiving the kaupina; 9) worshipping Ka and 10)
surrendering to Ka. The same rites are followed (execept receiv-
ing the kaupina) when a woman is given vea (becoming a mtj ).
Kennedy also writes that the guru after marking the tilakas on the
disciple stamps the disk and conch of Viu on his shoulders,527 but I
find that doubtful. I have never seen bbj s marked like this. It is
considered even forbidden to wear the marks of Viu for rgnug-
practitioners, who are supposed to be exclusively devoted to Rdh
and Ka.528
6.2.4 Sannysa initiation

As mentioned above (2.3.5), Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat introduced
sannysa into his form of Gau ya Vaiavism as an alternative to the
525 IF mgt 2002/11

526 Kennedy (1925), 164
527 Ibid
528 See for example Kapoor (1999), 42-45
169
bbj class of ascetics. The practice of initiating Vaiava
sannysins has continued in the groups stemming from him. Since
sannysa is seen as a better alternative to vea, the rites for awarding
sannysa are quite similar to those for Vea-initiation. One major dif-
ference, however, in keeping with the sanskritic character of
Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat s innovations, is that only men can become
sannysins. Also, while bbj s do not enjoy a particularly high sta-
tus in Gau ya Vaiava society, the sannysins are the elite in the
Gau ya Mahas and ISKCON. Becoming a sannysin is thus in these
movements a clear step up on the social ladder.
A short book, the Saskra-d pik, describes the method of
awarding sannysa.529 While it is considered the standard rule-
book for Sannysa-initiation,530 the rituals actually describe
awarding Vea-initiation. Bhaktisiddhntas followers thus add
some things to the rituals to distinguish their own brand of
sannysa from the bbj form. There is no giving of tilaka or
tulas neckbeads, since they have been given already at the time
of (regular) initiation, without which nobody can receive
sannysa. As part of saskra eight above (receiving the
kaupina) the triple staff of a tridain sannysin is given.531
The mantra is usually given in private after the ceremonies are
over.
Sannysins of the advaita school are known by ten names
(daanmin): T rtha, rama, Vana, Araya, Giri, Parvata, Sgara,
529 The rituals described are identical with those of the Verayaviddhi described
above. Since the Saskra-d pik also is ascribed to Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin, we
probably have two names for the same book. The book is obviously not written by
Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin, since it refers to the author of the Hari-bhakti-vilsa (on
page 21), speaks about following in the footsteps of the Gosvmins (p. 27) and
enjoins worship of Caitanya along with his four principal associates, known as the
Pañca-tattva (ibid), an idea not found in the writings of the Gosvmins.
530 Mahanidhi Swami (1998), 143
531 Ibid, 144
170
Sarasvat , Bhrat and Pur .532 These names are passed on from
guru to disciple as a kind of surname. The guru will also give an-
other name, usually ending with nanda. The full name of a
daanmin sannysin could thus be Brahmnanda Bhrat .
When Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat instituted his system of Gau ya
Vaiava sannysa, he introduced these ten names, but also
many others that are said to have been used for tridain
sannysins in the Rudra-sapradya in ancient times.533 They
are all contained in a list of 108 names ascribed to the Muktika
Upaniad and the Sttvata-sahit.534 Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat
would give one of these names as a sannysin-name, and a prefix of
bhakti plus another word, such as prad pa (lantern). A full name
could thus be Bhaktiprad pa T rtha. The prefix is often written as two
separate words or shortened into two letters, e.g. B.P. T rtha. An honor-
ific Mahrja is usually added at the end, and often Trida Swami
at the beginning. The previous name (e.g. Rma Dsa) is given up, just
as anything connected with the previous life is supposed to be. In
common parlance, such a sannysin will be known by his sannysa-
name plus Mahrja, for example T rtha Mahrja. This system is fol-
lowed by most of the Gau ya Mahas today, but there are at least two
exceptions. Bhakti Prajñna Keava Mahrja gave his sannysa disci-
ples names according to the list mentioned above, but the same pre-
fix, Bhaktivednta, to all.535 B.H. (Bhaktihdaya) Bon Mahrja passed
on the name Bon (Vana) to his disciples, but gave them prefixes with-
532 Cenkner (1984), 23

533 Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupda (1974b), 183
534 Gau ya Kahahra 15.40. I have not been able to consult the Sttvata-
sahit, but the list is not found in the Muktika Upaniad, which however does
contain a list of 108 Upaniads. According to B.R. ®r dhara Mahrja, Ananta
Vsudeva Dsa, one of Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat s leading disciples, said that the
list was composed by one of Bhaktisiddhntas disciples. See B.B. Vishnu Maharaja
in http://www.gosai.com/chaitanya/saranagati/html/vishnu_mjs/ affection_unabr-
idged/oag_a_3.html
535 Bhaktivedanta Nryaa Mahrja [nd], 139-143
171
out Bhakti and ending with nanda, for example Gopnanda
Bon.536
6.3 Initiation mantras

As we have seen, the main part of the ordinary initiation is awarding
the mantra. The Hari-bhakti-vilsa speaks about the greatness of
Vaiava mantras in general, but specifically mentions the eight- and
twelve-syllable mantras adressed to Viu,537 the 32-syllable mantra
of Nsiha (The lion-man descent),538 the six-syllable mantra of
Rma539 and the eighteen-syllable mantra540 also known as the
Gopla mantra.541 There is no clear indication which one is best, but
since the last one gets the most space, one can guess that it is the
most important one.
All these mantras have their origin in the ®ruti part of the scriptures,
though mostly in the late Upaniads such as the Gopla Tapan . Par-
ticularly the eight-, twelve- and eighteen syllable mantras are also
celebrated throughout the Vaiava Puras, especially the Padma
Pura.
Nowadays, the mantras that are given vary between parivras
and even individual gurus. The general practice is that the guru will
pass on some or all of the mantras he has himself received from his
guru. Still, there is considerable difference among different gurus.
Some will give only one mantra,542 others up to sixteen or more.543
536 Broo (1999), 75

537 o namo nryanya, o namo bhgavate vsudevaya
538 ugra-v ra mah-viu jvalanta sarvato-mukham/ nsiha bh ana
bhadra mtyo mtyu nammy aham//
539 o namo rmya
540 kli kya govindya gop jana-vallabhya svh
541 HBV 1.126-193
542 IF mgt 2000/68
543 IF 2000/14a
172
These mantras are thought to be essential for worship of Ka, but
also for internal spiritual culture. They are said to be full of unlimited
spiritual power,544 and should be mentally or silently repeated at
least once daily.
The origin of these mantras is often uncertain. If we examine, for
example, the 24 mantras that Ananta Dsa Bbj gives, we find that
only seven can be traced to a written source, the Gaura-
govindrcana-smaraa-paddhati (ca 1620) by Dhynacandra
Gosvmin of the Gopla Guru parivra. They are the Gaura mantra545
and gyatr ,546 Gopla mantra and Kma gyatr ,547 Rdh mantra548
and gyatr ,549 and Rpa-mañjar mantra.550 Apart from these, he also
gives his disciples the following mantras: guru mantra and gyatr ,
guru-mañjari mantra and gyatr , Nitynanda mantra and gyatr ,
Advaita mantra and gyatr , Gaddhara mantra and gyatr , ®r vsa
mantra and gyatr , Lalit mantra and gyatr , Anaga-mañjar mantra
and gyatr and Rpa-mañjar gyatr . While mantras with these
names also are given in the Gaura-govindrcana-smaraa-paddhati,
they are different from those given by Ananta Dsa Bbj . The origin
of his variants of the mantras is unknown: except for the Gopla
mantra and Kma gyatr , he received all of them from a ik-guru,
Ka Caitanya Dsa Bbj , about whom little is known.551
This example also shows that a guru, in contrast to the general rule
that one may have only one d k-guru, may receive mantras from

545 Kl gaurya svh. GGSP 55, quoted from Urdhvmnya Tantra (3.15)
546 Kl caitanyya vidmahe vivmbharya dh mahi/ tan no gaura
pracodayt//. GGSP 72, no source mentioned
547 Kl kmadevya vidmahe pupabya dh mahi/ tan no nanga
pracodayt//. GGSP 143-144. Quoted from the Svyambhuva gama. This mantra is
mentioned (by the name Anaga gyatr ) in the Gopla-tpan Upaniad, 1.18.
548 ®r rm rdhikyai svh GGSP 181. Quoted from the Gaur Tantra.
549 ®r -rdhikyai vidmahe prema-rpyai dh mahi/ tan no rdh pracodayt//.
GGSP 181. No source given.
550 ®r rpa-mañjaryai svh. GGSP 298. Quoted from the Kior Tantra.
551 E-letter from Mdhavnanda Dsa to author, 21.3.2003
173
several persons. Ananta Dsa Bbj himself states that only the
Gopla mantra and Kma gyatr are actual d k-mantras (since he
received only them from his d k-guru), but he gives his own disci-
ples all of these mantras at the time of initiation, so that the distinction
between actual d k-mantras and the others (additional mantras
for worship) is blurred.552
Sources are mentioned for most of the mantras given in the
Gaura-govindrcana-smaraa-paddhati, but the texts referred to
are very obscure, such as the Svyambhuva gama or Kiori Tantra,
or if the books are available, the verses attributed to them are not
found in modern editions. That is hardly surprising, since many of the
persons mentioned in the mantras are much posterior to the date of,
say, the Padma Pura. Attributing the mantras to various scriptures
thus seems to be a way to give them greater respectability. Such a
practice is nothing new.553 Another indication of the dubiousness of
these sources is that modern Gau yas are not aware of them. One
author devotes 28 pages to describing the Kma gyatr , but has
nothing to say about its source,554 another similarly 71!555 Some say
that it was Jhnav (one of Nitynandas two wives) who introduced
the mantras for Caitanya and his associates.556
6.4 Rules for initiated disciples
6.4.1 General rules

An important way the life of a disciple changes after initiation is that
he is now obliged to follow certain rules. He has probably already
been following most of them, but after initiation they become man-
552 E-letter from Mdhavnanda Dsa to author, 21.3.2003. Another disciple I spoke
with (IF 2000/14a) was not aware of this distinction.
553 For a discussion on Madhvas use of spurious quotations, see Mesquita (2000).
555 Swami B.G. Narasingha (2000), 121-167, 169-192
556 E.g. Rasnanda Vana Mahrja (2001), 17-18
174
datory. The Hari-bhakti-vilsa contains several lists of rules (one
containing no less than 104!) that the disciple is to agree to follow at
the time of initiation.557 A modern reader of these rules is likely to be
surprised by the emphasis on details of ritual and religious observ-
ances. Out of 52 injunctions, only eight concern other things, such as
the attitude towards the guru. Out of the 52 prohibitions, 31 deal with
rituals or observances such as Ekda or ®rddha. Few general
moral rules are given. Indeed, nothing is said about such basic prohi-
bitions as not killing, stealing, lying or having illicit sexual relations,
since such things are considered general rules of Hindu society,
while the rules here are specifically dealing with the initiated disci-
ple. They deal with things the disciple is supposed to do or avoid
doing after initiation. Stealing or lying is forbidden at all times. If noth-
ing is said contrary to ordinary rules, they are to be followed.
A noteworthy omission, however, is that nothing is said about japa,
or chanting the name of Ka (usually the mah-mantra), a practice
that is of utmost importance for Gau ya Vaiavas both past and
present. The reason for this lack is that, as stated earlier (1.2.1) the
Hari-bhakti-vilsa was written for Vaiavas in general, and the
sources quoted were all pre-Gau ya Vaiava. The practice of japa
is not given the same emphasis in other Vaiava sapradyas.
Modern Vaiavas generally consider these rules as ideals. Bhakti
Pramoda Puri Mahrja (a disciple of Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat , who
was known as a very strict follower of the Hari-bhakti-vilsa) writes:
Hari-bhakti-vilsa, however, gives far more regulations than is possi-

ble for anyone to follow. The disciple should therefore seek specific
instructions from the spiritual master about what exactly he must do or
must not do. The essence of all instructions, however, should be kept
in mind. That essence is to always remember the spiritual master, the
Vaiavas, and the Supreme Lord, and the essence of all prohibitions is
to never forget them. Whatever injunctions and prohibitions are found
in the scripture are merely variations on this theme.558
557 HBV 2.136-146, 149-178

558 Swami B.P. Puri Maharaja [n.d.], 114.
175
The rules emphasised today vary greatly from guru to guru. In
Samja Ba , one of the largest ramas in Navadv pa, initiated devo-
tees are supposed to follow 53 rules (mainly taken from the lists of
the Hari-bhakti-vilsa, with the difference that the emphasis there is
on rules for householders, here on rules for renunciants) listed on two
big tables hanging on pillars near the main altar.559 At the other ex-
treme is Puruottama Goswami, who does not demand anything else
from prospective initiates than that they have a desire to become
initiated, although he claims that 85% of those who become initiated
eventually give up meat-eating and drinking alcohol.560
There are some rules that most Gau yas do agree on. One should
be vegetarian, avoid intoxicants, avoid illicit sexual relations, worship
an image of Ka, honour and follow the guru and, especially, chant
the name of Ka. Caitanya did not specify how much one is to
chant, but rather said that one should do it constantly.561 The ideal
was given by his Muslim-born follower Haridsa who would chant
three lakhs (300, 000) names daily, equalling 194 rounds on a stand-
ard rosary of 108 beads.562 Some of my informants claimed to follow
that standard.563 If one would take as little as five minutes per round,
that many rounds would take more than sixteen hours to complete.
The standard for bbj s has traditionally been a minimum of one
lakh, the equal of 64 rounds on the rosary. Such amounts have gener-
ally not been demanded from householder disciples. Ka
Keavnanda Deva Goswami asks new disciples to begin with three
rounds.564 Ananta Dsa Bbj tells his householder disciples to chant
at least four rounds,565 as does Ramavallabha Dsa Adhikrin of the
Rdhkaha Maha in Puri.566
559 Field notes, Navadvipa, December 2000

560 Margaret Case (2000), 47-48
561 CC 3.20.21
562 CC 3.3.100
563 IF mgt 2000/88
564 IF mgt 2000/71
565 IF 2000/14a
566 IF mgt 2000/88
176
How one should honour the guru will be dealt with in part three.
For now it will suffice to say that many think this to be the most im-
portant rule, since the guru will then engage the disciple in every-
thing else that is necessary.567
6.4.2 Rules for bbj s and sannysins

Apart from the rules already given, there are some particular rules
that initiated bbj s and sannysins are expected to follow. The
main principle is cessation of any wordly social connections, such as
to wife, children and relatives. The renunciant must give up wealth
and prestige and live simply as a celibate humble devotee of the
Lord. As a sign of this, the bbj will discard his upav ta (holy thread)
if he has one. Kennedy mentions an extensive list of rules for
bbj s,568 but they are not all strictly followed today. Bbj s are not
supposed to accept gifts from worldly people, but I have never seen
anyone refuse a donation on the basis of the caste status of the donor,
though the hagiographies contain stories to that effect.569
Bbj s are supposed to live by a system of begging known as
madhukr , the way of the bumblebee. The idea is to beg from door
to door, but to accept only a little in every place, never a full meal, to
avoid becoming dependent on any particular person. Some also re-
strict the number of houses they will approach.570 In the Vndvana
area, where this system is common, the bbj s will usually be given
pieces of simple unleavened flatbreads (roi) and buttermilk. In
ramas with many inmates, the procedure is usually to send out a
few persons to collect madhukr in the form of rice, flour, vegeta-
bles, etc. in the forenoon and to then prepare whatever has been
567 IF mgt 2000/70

568 Kennedy (1925), 164-166
569 See for example Kapoor (1999), 180, 185
570 Kapoor (1999), 16
177
received for everyone in the rama. Ideally, nothing should be
stored for the next day, trusting that the Lord will provide.571
As a bbj , a sannysin should renounce the association of rela-
tives and live in strict celibacy. He should carry the triple-staff and
wear saffron robes. Since the sannysin still is a part of the
varrama society, he should keep his upav ta or sacred thread.572
In some ways, however, he is considered socially dead. Any assets
gained after the acceptance of sannysa cannot be inherited by his
children.573 A sannysin should be honoured by everyone. Indeed,
if one fails to bow down to a sannysin when one sees him the first
time in the day, one should remain fasting for the rest of the day.574
On the other hand, a sannysin who falls down from his position of
celibacy is called a vantsin, or one who eats his own vomit, since he
again takes up something he previously rejected.575
While sannysins are supposed to be the most renounced of all the
ramas, one can see that they often (especially in ISKCON) enjoy
more comforts than the brahmacrins. They often eat food especially
cooked for them that is better than that the other inmates of the
rama get, have rooms of their own and even servants that take care
of their laundry and so forth. Especially sannysins that are gurus re-
ceive much service. One rationale given for this rather glaring paradox
is that it is beneficial for others (especially their disciples) to serve
them, since they are more spiritually advanced; another oft-heard rea-
son is that the sannysins need some material conveniences to facili-
tate their preaching to worldly-minded people.
571 Kapoor (1995), 254

572 Bhaktivednta Nryaa Mahrja [n.d.2], 7-11
573 IF 2001/78
575 BP 7.15.36
178
6.4.3 Breaking the rules
Since uttering the name of Ka is thought to purify from any kind of
sin, there is no other developed system of ritual atonement in the
Gau ya Vaiava sapradya.576 When a guru corrects a disciple
who has done something wrong, he will generally just point out the
fault and ask the disciple not to repeat it, and the disciple will ask for
forgiveness.577 However, there also seems to be four cases in which
atonement is demanded: 1) when the sin is especially great, 2) when
someone has made repeated smaller offenses, 3) when the reputa-
tion of a particular institution or guru has been threatened, or 4) when
the offender is a well-known Vaiava.
Perhaps the most common example of the first case is when a
celibate Vaiava has broken his vow, either by directly engaging in
sexual intercourse, or even by associating too closely with the oppo-
site sex. Caitanya himself completely rejected one ascetic follower
for this offense.578 In the second case the offense itself need not be
so great, rather the problem is that it is repeated again and again, for
example if someone repeatedly misses the early morning service
(magala-rati).
In the third case not only the offender is concerned, but the repu-
tation of his guru or of a whole institution. For this reason some steps
must be taken so that the offender rectifies himself, and, even more
importantly, that others do not think that the authorities condone the
behaviour of the offender. The offence here is usually serious.
The fourth and last case is related to the third. It is felt that if leaders
such as gurus behave improperly, general devotees may lose faith in
Vaiavism. Here the offence need not be very serious. An example
may be taken from the hagiography of Gaurakiora ®iromai (19th
century). He was a well-known saint and discourser on the
Bhgavata Pura living in Vndvana. It is said that once the queen
576 CC 2.22.143.
577 IF mgt 2000/68
578 CC 3.2.102-172
179
of Hetampur came to hear him. Pleased by what she heard, she of-
fered him some fruits, flowers and money as a gift. Not wanting to
displease her, Gaurakiora accepted the gift. By doing so, however,
he broke two rules, namely that one should never accept gifts for
speaking the Bhgavata, and that renunciants should never accept
alms from a worldly minded person.579 To atone for this mistake, he
was asked to speak on the Bhgavata in every temple of Vndvana
within a year, something that he succeeded in doing by giving sev-
eral talks a day.580
The atonement for a particular offense is determined on an ad-hoc
basis, depending very much on the severity of the guru and on the
nature of the offense. Generally it will consist of fasting or other extra
austerities, staying away from other Vaiavas for a certain period of
time, performing special worship or other religious activities (for
example dramatically increasing the number of mantras chanted
daily), sponsoring Vaiava festivals or simply begging for forgive-
ness and showing repentance. In extreme cases, a guru can even
reject a disciple.581 There have been some examples of persons be-
ing excommunicated from the whole Gau ya sapradya, so that
all Gau yas were forbidden from associating with them.582
579 Given in CC 1.12.50

580 Kapoor (1999), 94
581 IF mgt 2000/71
582 Chatterjee (1983), 151
180
III. ROLES OF THE GURU
This part of the thesis deals in part with the middle part of my defini-
tion of a Gau ya Vaiava guru: a charismatic person who is of-
fered special reverence by one or several persons on account of
his awarding him/ them initiation and/ or especially important
spiritual advice. I believe that a description of the reverence offered
to the guru and an understanding of it can best be achieved by focus-
ing on the roles of the guru. I have chosen to examine seven roles
that the guru may accept in relation to his disciples.583 This typology
stems partly from earlier scholars, and partly from my own observa-
tions in the field. None of the roles I specify will seem very original or
radical in themselves, but taken together, I believe they form a good
tool for studying the guru.
Splitting the role of being guru into seven distinct aspects also
makes it easier to view the interplay between canon and charisma,
and to grasp the distinction between institutional and personal cha-
risma. By the end of this part, it will also be easier to locate the
Gau ya Vaiava guru within the framework of Webers typology of
charismatic personages.
It is important to note that all these roles are enacted in relation to
disciples and other admirers. A householder in the position of a guru
may act and function as any other Gau ya Vaiava householder in
relation to his family. Also ascetic gurus will usually have a sphere of
their own, into which they may withdraw from time to time.584 Gu-
rus may also give up their position as guru completely.
As will be seen, some of the roles are more important than others.
They also act on somewhat different platforms. The guru functions,
for example, only sometimes as a father while he at all times re-
mains a manifestation of divinity. Still, as I will show, every guru will
583 With role I do not wish to imply that the guru always consciously plays play-
acts or changes into another character at specific points of time.
584 IF mgt 2000/92
181
at some time step into all roles, regardless of whether he wishes to
emphasise a particular one or not. There are of course more roles that
the guru might accept apart from the ones I deal with (for example
lover, betrayer, son, etc.), but those roles would be voluntary. The
seven roles described below have to be accepted at least sometimes
by every Gau ya Vaiava guru.
182
7. PARENT
To compare the guru with a parent is no new idea. The Gau ya

Vaiava movement itself does so explicitly,585 as do Hindu sacred
texts in general: usually the guru is compared to the father and the dis-
ciple with the son.586 One reason for this is historical: as already men-
tioned (3.1), in Vedic times the guru was very often the same person as
the father. Neither has the academic community missed the connec-
tion. Psychoanalytically minded scholars have seen the relationship
between father and son as the basis for the relationship between guru
and disciple.587 Steiermann observes that the guru can take the role of
a protecting mother or commanding father according to the
soteriological need of the disciple.588 In this chapter, I will examine two
cases in which the parent-role of the guru clearly manifests itself in
the relationship between guru and disciple.589 The first applies to prac-
tically all Gau ya Vaiava gurus, the other to some.
7.1 Creating a spiritual family

One way in which the guru can be compared to a father is how he cre-
ates a community around himself that in some ways resembles a fam-
ily. This is seen for instance in the vocabulary used by disciples: the
guru is often called bb or bbj (father, respected father), and other
disciples are adressed as brother or sister so-and-so. When one disciple
speaks about a fellow-disciple of the same guru, that person is usually
called a Godbrother or Godsister.590
585 E.g. HBV 3.450
586 E.g. Kulrava-tantra 12.15, 35, cited in Bay-Schmidt (1984), 45
587 See Narayan (1992), 145, 180-181
588 Steiermann (1989), 290
589 The guru and the father can of course be one and the same person also in the
Gau ya Vaiava movement. This chapter does not deal with those cases, since it
then is obvious that the guru will be a parent of the disciple.
590 Field notes, Rdhkua, 25.10.2000. ISKCON is an exception to this. While the
terms Godbrother and Godsister are used, the guru is never called father, neither
are fellow disciples adressed as brother or sister.
183
Sometimes this sense of family can be more than just a matter of
religious sentiment. In the circle of close disciples of Puruottama
Goswami, for example, the families have to some extent used the
network of disciples to marry their children to one another or to each
others nephews.591 Even without this, it has been pointed out that
such relationships in God can often become very strong ties per-
haps even stronger than any other.592 In this instance, we see how
charisma can have an integrative effect.
Just as the guru can be seen as a kind of father to the disciples, the
guru of the guru can be compared to a grandfather. Narahari Sarakra
writes:
See, see! As the father is an authority, so are his older and younger
brothers. Still the father is more worshipable, even though they are
related. In the same way the father of the father, or the guru of the
guru is twice worshipable. This behaviour is accepted by all.593
However, it is uncommon that the guru of the guru

(paramaguru) will interfere with the orders of the guru so that
the disciple would have to take sides. Generally, he will act as a
senior well-wisher for his grand-disciples. In many cases, there
will not be more than one living generation of gurus, something
that naturally will prevent such clashes of authority. Some even
claim that nobody can become a guru while his own guru is
alive.594
As one might know ones ancestors, disciples will usually be
able to list at least a few of their own gurus predecessors. In
Tantric tradition, usually three guru-generations are remem-
591 Case (2000), 33

592 Wach (1958), 125
593 KB, p 9. paya, paya, yath pit gurus tath tasya bhrtgrajo nuja, pitur
adhika-pjyo v pitu cedtm ya eva v, tathpi pitu pit gurur api guru, tasya
pj dviguiteti ail loka-prasiddh/
594 Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda, Lecture 750406CC.MAY. In Bhaktivedanta
Vedabase 4.11.
184
bered,595 but Gau yas generally go farther than that. At the time
of Siddha-initiation, a disciple will receive what is called guru-
prali, a list of all the gurus of the parivra, from the present
one down to the associate of Caitanya who originated the
parivra. Rmavallabha Dsa Adhikrin of the Rdhkanta Maha
in Puri, for example, listed 19 predecessor gurus from memory.596
Ordinary devotees may not be able to reach so far back, but it is
common for disciples to know at least four or five predecessor
gurus.597
How much reverence previous gurus are offered depends es-
pecially on their position within the parivra. If the grand-guru,
for example, was a famous, charismatic person, while the present
guru is not so, it is possible that his role in the life of the disciple
will be very important, even if he is not physically present. In
ISKCON, all devotees are encouraged to form a personal relation-
ship with Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda (d. 1977), the
founder of the movement and grand-guru of new disciples mainly
by reading his books.598 M Mai, a granddisciple of the famous
Vijaya Ka Gosvmin, usually saw him in her spiritual trances
rather than her own guru.599
If the guru is a householder, the disciples will necessarily inter-
act with his biological family. The Hari-bhakti-vilsa offers some
remarks in this connection:
One should always act favourably - like towards the guru - towards
his sons, wives and his friends. One should not anoint the limbs,
bathe, eat the remnants of or wash the feet of the son of the guru.
The wife of the guru should be worshipped like the guru, if she is
595 Bay-Schmidt, 134

596 IF mgt 2000/88
597 In ISKCON, for example, all disciples are supposed to know at least five pred-
ecessors to their guru. See Premarasa and Sand pani Muni Dsa (1997), 137
598 See for example Satsvarpa dsa Goswami (1995)
599 Kapoor (1995a), 391-417
185
of the same caste, but if she is of a different caste she should be hon-
oured by rising up and saluting respectfully. One should not inunct,
bathe, or anoint the limbs or hair of the gurus wife.600
As the commentator observes, the first sentence gives the rule, while
the rest consists of exceptions. The prohibition against bathing the
wife of the guru is fitting in an age where the disciple could be of the
same age as she. In fact, the sin of defiling the bed of the guru is one
of five mah-ptakas or great sins of classic Hindu law.601
7.2 Accepting fatherly duties

Of course, whether or not a guru wants to emphasise the role of a
parent in relation to the disciples depends on factors such as his per-
sonality, the needs of the disciples, and so on. If he does, it will gen-
erally be by trying to nurture not only the strictly spiritual needs of
the disciple, but by seeing to the disciples all-round welfare. Many
disciples are not shy to say that they feel their guru is fatherly in this
way.602 Sometimes this paternal affection may border on friendship,
but if there is any equality in the relationship between the guru and
disciple, it is a temporary one, initiated by the guru. The status differ-
ence between the guru and disciple will not be permanently
changed.
Except for being paternal in such a general way, a guru may also
emphasise this role by accepting social duties and responsibilities
usually connected with the biological father, such as helping a disci-
600 HBV 1.84-87. The text is a quote from the Krma Pura (2.14.28, 30-32). kiñ ca
reyas tu guruvad-vttir nityam eva samcaret/ guru-putreu dreu guro caiva
svabandhuu// utsdana vai gtr snpanocchia-bhojane/ na kuryd
guru-putrasya pdayo aucam eva ca// guruvat paripjy ca savar guru-
yoita/ asavars tu sapjy praty-utthnbhivdanai// abhyañjana
snpanañ ca gtrotsdanam eva ca/ guru-patny na kryi kenñ ca
prasdanam//
601 See for example Manu-sahit 11.56
602 IF mgt 2000/93
186
ple find a good job or getting married. Padmanbha Goswami said
that the guru should take care of the disciple in every way, material
and spiritual. It is the right of any disciple, for example, to invite the
guru to his home to officiate or even perform marriages or other such
rituals. However, the sannysin-gurus are an exception: they should
not be involved in such worldly dealings.603 ®r vatsa Goswami, also of
the Rdh-ramaa-temple, went even further. He opined that
bbj s or sannysins should not accept disciples at all, since that
would create a new family for the renunciant something that he
was supposed to be rid of!604 Still, as we have seen (4.1) there are
today both householder and renunciant gurus in Gau ya
Vaiavism. Forming a family of disciples is generally not seen as a
problem, but the new family is rather seen as a spiritual one, not com-
parable with material (and thus entangling) relationships.605
While renunciant gurus generally do not involve themselves in
what they perceive as the worldly life of their disciples, there are
exceptions. Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda personally arranged
the marriage (even performing the actual marriage saskra) of
several of his disciples. For this he was criticised by his Godbrothers,
who maintained that it was against the rules of sannysa to involve
oneself in such worldly dealings. His defence was that married disci-
ples could perform much service for Ka, and that there was none
else than himself who knew how to perform the proper rites.606
While arranged marriages are not in vogue in ISKCON nowadays,
some sannysins conduct marriage ceremonies for their disciples.
Among the arguments they give for this is that they want to make
sure that the disciples can remain steady in their spiritual life, that
they want to give them a position in society suitable for preaching,
and that celibate disciples may become dysfunctional.607 However,
603 IF mgt 2000/68

604 IF 2000/14d
605 See for example Satsvarpa dsa Goswami (1994), part two, 194
606 Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda (1975a), 124
607 Bir Krishna das Goswami, e-letter to author, 30.9.2002
187
today practically every ISKCON centre has qualified householders
who know how to perform saskras, so there is no real necessity
anymore for sannysins to conduct the ceremonies themselves.
Rather than bowing to necessity, a sannysin who performs a mar-
riage ceremony in present day ISKCON does so voluntarily, perhaps
to show that he approves of the couple getting married and to bless
them with his presence.
The exception of ISKCON above points to one important correla-
tion: the more sectarian the group, the more paternal the guru tends
to become, in the sense of taking over responsibilities of the father.
The reason is easy to understand: in a group where contact with out-
siders is discouraged, the guru (or some other authority, such as the
leader of the rama) has to take over the duties of the father if he is
an outsider.
188
8. FEUDAL LORD
The parallel between the guru and a feudal lord has been noted by
Daniel Gold.608 Hindu tradition itself sometimes compares a guru to
a king (for example in the saying that one should not go empty-
handed to a physician, king or guru609 ). Here, I will stick to Golds
feudal lord, since Gau ya gurus will consider themselves subordi-
nate to Ka (whom we could consider the king), and generally do
not wield that much power themselves.610 This chapter will focus on
some dynamics of the guru institution that are best seen in the light of
this parallell. But before going into that, some remarks on Indian feu-
dalism.
As Romila Thapar has observed, Indian feudalism (beginning in
AD 800-1200) differs in some aspects from the feudalism of medi-
eval Europe. For instance, in Indian feudalism the large-scale farming
and manorial system of Europe was unknown. Still, the basic requi-
sites were there: the king granted the revenue from a varying pro-
portion of his land to his officers or selected holders, persons equiva-
lent to vassals elsewhere. The feudatories could (and usually would)
hire out their assigned land to cultivators, from which they would
collect an agreed upon revenue. Part of this revenue would be sent
to the king. The feudatory was also supposed to maintain soldiers for
the use of the king in times of emergency. Beside these two main
duties he also had others: he had to attend court on special occasions,
such as the kings birthday, he might be called upon to give his
daughter to the king in marriage, and in order to change the adminis-
tration of his holdings he had to get the permission of the king. In
return, the feudatory was allowed to use some royal paraphernalia
(such as elephants, a cmara, etc), take a royal title (sometimes as
608 Gold (1987), 17-20

609 Quoted in HBV 4.343
610 Another alternative would be to compare the guru with a politician, as sug-
gested by professor Kasinath Mukherjee, IF 2000/14e
189
imposing as mahmaalevara, Lord of the great earth) and in
some cases appoint sub-feudatories standing in the same relation to
himself as he towards the king.611
In this chapter, I will first look at two cases in which the guru him-
self or the institution functions in ways very similar to a temporal
ruler, regardless of whether the particular guru desires to take up and
cultivate the role of a feudal lord. Examples of this are royal rituals
and succession. After that, different alternatives for a guru who
wishes to emphasise this role are examined.
8.1 Royal rituals

It has been argued that many of the typically Hindu religious rites,
such as pj and darana, have their origin in court etiquette.612
However, since they have outgrown that context long ago, I will
leave them for chapter 14, where the guru is examined as a manifes-
tation of divinity. In this chapter, I will consider rituals more explicitly
connected with medieval court life.
8.1.1 Consecration
Gau ya Vaiavism does not know any standard rituals for becom-
ing a guru. Especially nowadays, almost anyone can declare himself
guru as long as he can find followers. No ceremony is needed: the
new guru just starts accepting disciples. However, when a new
mahanta or leader of an rama or maha is appointed, some cer-
emonies will take place. Generally they are simple. The person to
be consecrated is seated on the p ha or seat of the leader of the
institution, offered standard items of worship (such as incense,
lamps and flower garlands) and honoured with prostrated obei-
611 Thapar (1969), 241-243

612 Gonda (1970), 77
190
sances by the members of the institution. Often leading members
are asked to give short speeches in which they declare their loyalty
to the new leader.613
Details will vary from group to group. The mahanta of the
Gop ntha- temple in Vndvana (who himself was elevated to that
position at the age of eight months) explicitly compared the ritual of
becoming mahanta to a royal consecration by claiming that it is very
elaborate, like a Rjasya-yajña without the fire sacrifice.614 The
Rjasya is the grand ceremony in which an emperor is consecrated
as sovereign of the whole world. The Mahbhrata describes how
Yudhihira performed this ceremony, starting by sending out his
brothers for a full year to extract the allegiance of all kings in the four
directions, collect the immense wealth necessary, etc.615 Although
the appointment of a mahanta even in the Gop ntha-temple may
not contain all the elements of Yudhihiras archetypical Rjasya, it
has many obvious parallells to the crowning of a king: taking the seat,
receiving oaths of loyalty from the subjects, and so on.
8.1.2 Appointing subordinate vassals

As a feudal lord in some cases might appoint subordinate vassals, so
goswami gurus sometimes appoint subordinate gurus, or
adhikrins. As we have seen, according to the Hari-bhakti-vilsa, a
brhmaa guru is allowed to initiate disciples of all lower classes,
while gurus of other varas can initiate only disciples of similar or
lower social status.616 However, if a brhmaa guru accepts many
613 I have not personally witnessed such an event, but at the Bhajan Kutir in
Vndvana I saw pictures of the ceremony when Gopnanda Bon Maharja was de-
clared crya of the Rdh-Govinda Trust, as that institution is called. The partici-
pants all seemed very grave and sober. The similarly simple consecration
(crybhieka) of Ananta Vsudeva Dsa is described in ®riharikpa Dsa (1975),
24-25.
614 IF mgt 2002/12
615 Mahbhrata, Sabhparvan 13-45
616 HBV 1.47-50
191
low-caste disciples, he risks his own ritual purity, at least in the
eyes of brhmaical Hindu society. This is the reason for why the
goswamis of the Advaita vaa, for example, have been so care-
ful in refusing women and low-born men. A system of adhikrins
was created to answer this problem. A goswami would authorize a
person of a lower vara to initiate persons of similar or still lower
social status. In this way the movement could be spread socially,
and also geographically, in a time when travel still was a danger-
ous and difficult undertaking.617
The persons the adhikrin initiated would be his own disciples
and not disciples of the goswami. While an adhikrins have a de-
gree of freedom, he and his disciples can all be called upon for
service to the goswami, such as collecting funds, organising pil-
grimages, etc. Generally, an adhikrin cannot appoint further
subordinate adhikrins.618 If an adhikrin himself is a bbj , he
can also give Vea-initiation. It is also possible for an adhikrin to
become the mahanta of an institution.619
It is difficult to pinpoint when this system appeared. There are
no hints of it in the writings of the Vndvana school. It may be an
importation from the Assamese brand of Vaiavism, founded by
®akaradeva (1449-1569?), who seems to have instituted a simi-
lar system among his disciples by appointing the leaders of vari-
ous low-caste tribes and communities as leaders (atoi) of their
own groups.620 Kennedy, writing in the 1920, mentions that the
gurus of the jti vaiavas are adhikrins,621 so at that time this
system seems to have been in full swing. With the gradual erosion
of the traditional social structure, the need for such a two-tiered
system of gurus seems to be fading. Today, many Gau ya
617 OConnell (1986), 46

618 IF mgt 2002/11
619 Ibid
620 Fuchs (1992), 192
621 Kennedy, 179
192
Vaiavas do not even know of the difference between these two
kinds of gurus.622
Still, that is not to say that there are no adhikrins today, but their
role is changing. While they have lost much of their social role, they
still fulfill the geographical role of representing a goswami in a place
he seldom visits. They may also be managers of temples owned by a
goswami who is not able for some reason to manage them himself.
Ka Keavnanda Deva Goswami mentions a change that has
entered into this system:
The system is that the adhikrins at first take d k from mahantas, but
now some adhikrins try to take d k in their [own] family, but that is
not the system. [...] The system is that at first they take d k, then they
give. 623
In other words, the adhikrins have begun to pass down their

adhikra or eligibility for giving initiation in their own family lines.
Instead of following the system of remaining subservient to the
mahantas or goswamis, they have started to create their own family
lines of gurus. The son of an adhikrin will thus become a guru with-
out the approval of some mahanta. Still, it seems that at least in this
area (the Midnapura district of West Bengal) the adhikrins restrict
their giving of initiation to the lower classes.624
8.2 Succession
As mentioned before (2.3.3), there are two basic forms of succession
in the Gau ya Vaiava movement: hereditary and appointed. Be-
low I will examine both forms, comparing them with succession of
rulers in feudal states in India and elsewhere. Finally, a third way of
becoming a guru is highlighted: appointing oneself.
622 E.g. IF mgt 2000/86

623 IF mgt 2000/85
624 IF mgt 2000/85
193
Especially if the previous guru has been very charismatic, succes-
sion may be problematic. What then happens, can in Webers terms
be called routinisation of charisma, by which one tries to convert the
personal charisma of the deceased guru into an institutional charisma
that can be picked up by others. Weber distinguishes six types, of
which no less than four can be found below: heredity; designation
by the charismatic leader himself; designation by an elite of qualified
followers; and revelation through oracles, lots, divine judgements,
etc.625
8.2.1 Hereditary succession

Hereditary succession is practiced within the goswami families (and,
apparently, among some adhikrins). If, apart from the position of
guru, there is an institution such as a temple to inherit, the system
generally used is male primogeniture, that the eldest son inherits
everything. In most cases, other children may initiate their own disci-
ples, manage subordinate temples, etc.
The idea of hereditary guruship seems quite contrary to the em-
phasis on personal qualifications discussed above (4.1.1), and to the
very notion of guruship prevalent in the West. How could spiritual
standing be hereditary? In fact, systems of hereditary guruship can be
found in most Vaiava sapradyas. Rmnuja instituted 74 or 84
hereditary guruships amongst his followers. The descendants of
these gurus are called crya-puruas and are considered equally
qualified gurus as the celibate heads of the mahas, called
svmins.626 In the Rudra sapradya, the male descendants of
Vallabha are called mahrjas, and they function as the movements
gurus. Since Vallabha is considered to have been divine, they also
share in the same divine nature. The Kumra sapradya also has a
625 Weber (1964), 363-373

626 Wilson (1958), 18
194
class of hereditary gurus called goswamis as well as renunciant gurus,
just like the Gau yas. The Rmnand s, however, have only
renunciant gurus.627 Thus, amongst the Vaiava sapradyas, the
most common system is to have both hereditary and appointed gu-
rus.
As mentioned above (3.1), in Vedic times, guruship was mainly
inherited, so it is by no means a modern phenomena. One way of
securing additional prestige for a lineage of gurus is to give it a divine
origin. As the mahrjas of the Rudra sapradya, the goswamis of
the Nitynanda and Advaita vaas are also at least extraordinarily
holy because of their divine ancestors. Similarly, most other
goswamis consider their ancestor divine in some way. Such gurus
naturally have a more powerful inherited charisma than gurus who
are born from normal human parents.
Another argument for the qualification of goswami gurus turns the
tables around. Rather than referring to institutional charisma,
goswamis possess a type of special personal charisma. One such
guru said:
From our birth we have taken prasda [sanctified food], taken part in
pha [religious discourses], k rtana, etc. When I was born my father
gave me Harinma [first initiation]. He also gave me the tulas -ml
[prayer beads]. In our family the custom is that nobody takes food from
outside, only mahprasda, all are doing bhajana [worship], k rtana,
pha, etc.628
In other words, goswamis are especially qualified because of the cir-

cumstances accompanying their childhood. From birth they have
been surrounded by religious rituals, remained pure by only eating
foodstuffs offered to Ka, heard the name of Ka, been taught
how to act as a guru, and so on. And of course, that they were born
627 Fuller (1992), 164. See Brent (1972), 183-199 for two lively portraits of modern
mahrjas.
628 IF mgt 2000/71
195
into that particular family is no chance either, but determined by their
extraordinary previous karman.629
Apart from such emic explanations, comparing the guru to a feudal
lord helps understanding hereditary succession. It is no coincidence
that monarchy has almost always been linked to hereditary succession,
for it greatly helps to maintain stability. When the next ruler is fixed and
known many years beforehand, little room is left for court intrigues and
politics (except for murdering the crown prince, of course). Attempts
at regularly electing a ruler have usually failed (the prime example
being Poland), since such elections leave much room for infighting,
and since the electors will find it hard to submit to the king they them-
selves elected, no matter how personally qualified he might be. On
the other hand, primogeniture fixes the next mahanta no matter what
opponents say. Weber goes further to claim that without primogeni-
ture, heredital routinisation of charisma is almost impossible.630
In practical life, however, things still tend to become complicated.
The younger brothers of the mahanta may not always accept his lead-
ership. In the Govinda temple in Vndvana, the oldest son of the pre-
vious mahanta, Pradyumna Kumra Goswami, is Añjana Kumra
Goswami. However, at the time of the death of the previous mahanta,
the seva-pja (daily temple worship) was supervised by Anuja
Goswami, a younger brother of Añjana Kumras. The younger brother
feels that he should also now have influence over the worship, and this
has led to a conflict that disturbs the whole temple community. Similar
conflicts over power between goswami brothers can be seen in other
large temples in Vndvana.631 However, as we shall see shortly, these
conflicts seem dwarfed by the problems appointed succession can
lead to.
There are of course also other reasons for a guru wanting his son to
be his successor. Blood is, after all, thicker than water. And as Daniel
Gold points out, Indian law especially today makes inheriting a rich
629 IF mgt 2002/12

630 Weber (1964), 370
631 IF mgt 2002/11
196
establishment much easier for a man with a family than for a favourite
celibate disciple.632
8.2.2 Succession by appointment

Gurus in the renounced order of life have no descendants that could
inherit their seat. While there are several examples of such gurus
leaving their succession open (generally using the argument that
such important things should be left to Ka and that some conflict
can prove healthy and refreshing in the long run633 ), the usual sys-
tem is that the guru appoints his favourite disciple as his successor.
Sometimes, aging gurus will keep their disciples in suspense until
the last possible moment (and some disciples feel that it is greatly
offensive to even think about a successor while the guru is alive634 ),
but more common is that the successor is appointed well in time.
Three years before his passing, Bhakti Rakaka ®r dhara Mahrja
(1895-1988) publicly declared that his favourite disciple, Bhakti
Sundara Govinda Mahrja, would from now on initiate all disciples
on his behalf, and after his passing become the crya and president
of the institution.635 In a speech he said:
You all know that from long time ago I have chosen ®r man Bhakti
Sundar Govinda Mahrja and I have given him sannysa. All my
Vaiava Godbrothers are very affectionate towards him and it is also
their desire to give him this position. [...]
Those who have any regard for me should give this respect and
position to Govinda Mahrja as my successor. As much as you have
faith in my sincerity, then with all sincerity I believe that he has got
the capacity of rendering service in this way. [...] If anyone cannot
accept this, he may leave the Math rather than stay here and disturb
the peace of the Math.636
632 Gold (1987), 101

633 IF mgt 2000/81
634 IF mgt 2002/9a
635 Swami B.R. Sridhar (1993), 41
636 Prapanna Krishna Brahmacari [n.d.], iii-iv
197
In trying to convince his followers, ®r dhara Mahrja draws not only
on his own authority, but also on his Godbrothers, adding that those
who cannot follow his order should rather leave than stay in the
maha stirring political conflicts.
In the above case, the transfer of institutional charisma went rela-
tively painlessly. If the deceased guru has many disciples and a large
and rich organisation, there will almost certainly be conflicts over
who will be the next leader. Perhaps the best example of this is what
happened after the death of Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat , the founder
of the Gau ya Maha. 637 The movement first fractured into two con-
tending groups led by the two leading managers of the founder,
Ananta Vsudeva Dsa (1895-1959) and Kuñjabihr Dsa (1894-
1976). The first attracted the greater following of the two and was
initially largely successful in setting himself up as the legitimate suc-
cessor. However, when he subsequently gave up his sannysa, mar-
ried and withdrew from the post of the crya, many of his
Godbrothers abandoned him and started their own organisations.
With this, the threshold of breaking ones loyalty to the present
crya seems to have been lowered, so that even small disagree-
ments led to Godbrothers parting ways and starting their own
mahas and organisations. Today, only 66 years after the death of
Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat , there are more than fifty separate
Gau ya Maha institutions, several of them claiming that their par-
ticular crya is Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat s one and only legitimate
successor, or even the only real guru in the whole world.638
Even though the sum total of todays multiplex Gau ya Maha is
much greater than the unified Gau ya Maha of 1936 - there are
about thirty Gau ya Maha temples in the Mayapra/ Navadv pa
637 There are many versions of this story. I have compiled this trying to fit together
the narrations of B.B. Vishnu Maharaj (internet document), 4, Bhagabat Maharaj
(1974), 36-37, Satsvarpa dsa Goswami (1994), part one, 95-96, Sasmal (2000), 132-
166 and Yati Maharaj (1994), 130-131, 147-148.
638 E.g. IF 2000/14c, IF mgt 2002/9a, Sasmal (2000)
198
area alone639 - the breakup of the organisation and the bickering be-
tween Godbrothers is still seen as a missionary failure. In order to
avoid the same thing happening again, several alternative strategies
have been tried. As we saw above, ®r dhara Mahrja made sure that
his choice of successor was clear to everyone well in advance of his
death. B.H. Bon Mahrja formed a board of seven trustees who elect
an crya. The trustees are elected for life and themselves appoint
new trustees when someone dies.640 Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhu-
pda also formed a board to manage his ISKCON movement called
the Governing Body Commission (GBC). Here, however, no new
crya is elected, but rather many persons are allowed to initiate
their own disciples as long as they and the disciples remain subservi-
ent to the GBC.641
One novel way of succession is propounded by the Rvik-move-
ment within or around ISKCON. They claim that Bhaktivednta
Swami Prabhupda did not appoint a successor since he did not want
one. Rather, through his books, recorded classes and so on, he is still
(though deceased in 1977) fully capable of acting as the crya of
the organisation, and will continue to do so for the next 10 000 years.
New disciples are initiated by tviks (priests), who function only as
representatives of the crya.642 In this way, the proponents of this
doctrine propose to solve the problem of succession by terminating
it, not at all unlike what the Sikhs did with the Guru Granth Sahib
(see 1.3.3).
8.2.3 Appointing oneself

Another way of becoming a Gau ya Vaiava guru is to simply ap-
point oneself, much as a powerful political leader might take over
639 Field notes, Mypura, February 2002

640 Broo (1999), 86
641 Ibid, 87
642 The Final Order
199
part of a chaotic country. Since Gau ya Vaiavism is so loosely or-
ganised, anyone charismatic enough to gather at least one disciple
can declare himself a guru, even if his own guru never asked him to
become one, without anyone having much to say about it.
Of course, the motives for becoming a guru may be many. The
one usually presented by self-appointed gurus themselves is a de-
sire to help others. Since compassion is a saintly quality, saints will
naturally want to help others attain what they have.643 But is declar-
ing oneself guru not going against the cardinal Vaiava virtue of hu-
mility? Not necessarily. ®r dhara Mahrja comments:
Another thing also came to my mind, that a doctor is not omniscient,

but should he not try his best to cure a patient? As much as he has ca-
pacity he must try to help, otherwise the world will be at a stand-still.
It is not that everyone will say, Only if I have complete and full
knowledge will I approach to help another, for that is not possible in
this world. Everyone has a relative position. With this also coming to
my mind I began in a mild way to help.644
Another alternative is to proclaim that one has indeed been selected

as the true successor, but in an unusual way such as in a dream or vi-
sion,645 or that one was pressured by many Godbrothers to accept
the task of being guru.646 In any case, such self-appointed gurus may
with time become the leaders of big institutions, facing the same
problems with succession as those inheriting an old one.
8.2.4 Abdicating
Above (5.2) the question of giving up a guru was examined. Even
though rare, the opposite situation may also occur: that the guru
gives up his disciples and the his position as a guru. The reasons for
643 Ananta Dsa Bbj [n.d.], 5

644 Swami B.R. Sridhara (1999), 23
645 IF mgt 2002/9a, Sasmal (2000), 74-75
646 Bhaktivednta Nryaa Mahrja [n.d.1], 95
200
this may be many: outside pressure, dissatisfaction with the progress
of the disciples, loss of faith, so-called material desires, etc. One
resigning guru of ISKCON wrote:
There are advanced devotees in ISKCON, and it is my duty to request

those who have accepted guidance and shelter under me to take shel-
ter of other senior devotees within ISKCON, and if in doubt to consult
your local GBC representative. [...] I sadly release my disciples and
aspiring disciples. I hope that you do not curse me out of anger and
despair. However, it would be cruel and unfair if I were to falsely
mislead you into believing that I am in some way qualified or capable
to act as your true spiritual master. I am not.647
In spite of such apologies, losing the guru is a traumatic experience

for all disciples I have spoken with who have gone through it. One
compared it with the world collapsing.648 Another disciple said:
Therefore, his departure was a terrible thing. I respected him, trusted

him. I did not feel that I was betrayed, like some did, but I did feel let
down, like if a close relative had died. [...] Even after getting ik
from [another guru], waves of this sadness would come up again. Cop-
ing with this hasnt been easy. But I have not felt any bitterness. Sor-
row, why did this have to happen?.649
While some disciples will find another guru and be able to trust him,
many will lose faith in the bhakti path. In ISKCON, an organisation
that has been plagued by the falldown of many gurus (of the origi-
nal eleven appointed by Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda, only
four remain), this has lead to a the defection of many members and
widespread disillusionment with present gurus. On the other hand, it
has also strenghtened the faith of loyal members in the unique posi-
tion of Prabhupda.650
647 Vipramukhya Dasa in www.vnn.org/world/WD0209/WD15-7559.html

648 IF mgt 2000/93
649 IF mgt 2001/78
650 IF mgt 2000/91, Taml Krishna Goswami (1997)
201
There are many strategies available for disciples wishing to cope
with this kind of loss. One is to see it as Ka testing the sincerity of
the disciple.651 Another is denial. Even though Ananta Vsudeva
Dsa gave up sannysa, renounced his post as crya and de-
nounced his own guru, Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat , as heterodox,652
some of his disciples and followers interpreted all this as a l l, that
he merely gave up the outer trappings of an institutional position to
devote himself to a more intensive, inner spiritual life.653 Yet another
strategy for coping is to try to find a mysterious meaning behind it all.
The case above is then interpreted as Kas arrangement for ex-
panding the Gau ya Maha, by breaking it up into many small
groups, all competing with each other by establishing more and
more branches.654
8.3 Acting as a feudal lord
8.3.1 Using regalia

While Gau ya Vaiava gurus dot not display as much pomp as the
®akarite jagadgurus,655 especially goswami- and crya-gurus of-
ten employ some regalia. They are fanned with the royal white
cmara, their disciples bow down before them, and they may even
be called (especially in the Gau ya Mahas and ISKCON) guru-
mahrja, Emperor guru. According to the Hari-bhakti-vilsa, one
should never utter the name of the guru alone; rather, it should be
prefixed with o r and appended with viupda.656
651 IF mgt 2000/91

652 Jan Brzezinski in http://www.harekrsna.com/vada/cor_publ/jagat2.htm
653 Sasmal (2000), ®r harikpa Dsa (1975)
654 Bhaktivedanta Narayana Maharaja in http://members.surfeu.fi/gaudiya/articles/
id2.htm
655 See Cenkner (1984)
656 HBV 1.94-95
202
Gurus that wish to emphasise this lordly role often do so by in-
creasing the royal opulence around them. They may sit on high,
throne-like seats (at least higher than those of the disciples,657 en-
gage servants for the smallest tasks, use costly garments, and so on.
Together with such behaviour it often occurs that the guru isolates
himself from his followers, interacting with them rarely and only on
his own terms, to clearly maintain the status-difference between
himself and them. Jagadbandhu went to the extreme of shutting
himself up in a dark room for seventeen years, not even allowing his
own disciples (with a few exceptions) to see him.658 In this case,
charisma works as an isolative force.
The rationale generally given for such display of pomp is that it is
the disciples who wish to honour the guru in this way, and that the
guru does not want to disappoint them by not accepting it,659 or that
it helps them maintain the proper reverential attitude towards the
guru.660 The first argument is hardly convincing, since those gurus
who reject such opulence have no problem convincing their disci-
ples to use their funds in other ways. One ISKCON guru has forbid-
den his followers from offering him flower-garlands, arguing that
Kas money can be used in better ways.661 The second argu-
ment is more to the point: royal opulence is an effective way of high-
lighting the status-difference between guru and disciples.
8.3.2 Excerting power

I mentioned above that gurus generally do not wield very much
power. I here follow Bernard de Jouvenels understanding of
power or authority (below I will use the two words synonymically),
657 HBV 4.353

658 McDaniel (1989), 73
659 Monckton (1994), 42
660 Ibid, 43
661 IF mgt 2001/78
203
which I find useful. He differentiates three dimensions of power:
extensiveness, or how many people are subject to the commands,
comprehensiveness, or how many different types of actions may be
influenced, and intensiveness, or how great sacrifices to their self-
interests the subjects are ready to make in order to comply.662 It is
often popularly thought that Hindu gurus have great power in at
least the two latter respects.663
In terms of extensiveness, the power of Gau ya Vaiava guru
varies a lot. Some gurus have only one or two disciples,664 while oth-
ers are said to have as many as 40 000.665 The latter case is, however,
very exceptional: even gurus who are known as influential may not
have more than a few hundred disciples.666 Goswami gurus may
have a few thousand disciples, but tens of thousands is very rare.
These disciples will be, in varying comprehensiveness and inten-
siveness, under the power of the guru. The larger circle of admirers
will also be affected, but in a smaller degree.
In some cases, gurus are also able to exert authority on a part of
Vaiava sociery broader than their disciples and admirers. Tradition-
ally, goswamis had much influence on social affairs especially in rural
areas. Bhagavn Dsa Bbj of Kln exercised great control over
much of the Gau ya Vaiava movement in Bengal during the sec-
ond half of the nineteenth century.667 One sign of how such exten-
siveness of power has lessened since that time is mentioned above:
adhikrins becoming hereditary gurus themselves without caring
for the goswamis. Still, some gurus do retain a bit of social power. In
one important Gau ya centre I heard stories about how the daugh-
662 de Jouvenel, quoted in Ketola (2002), 29

663 E.g. Narayan (1992), 82
664 E.g. Sudhnanda Bon Maharja, a disciple of B.H. Bon Maharja, had only two
disciples.
665 Bhaktivednta Nryaa Maharja, according to an e-letter from Mdhavnanda
Dsa, 27.8.2002.
666 E.g. Ananta Dsa Bbj has about 300 disciples. IF 2000/14a
204
ter of an influential goswami was raped by a band of sweepers a few
years ago. The goswami hired ruffians to raid the sweepers commu-
nity, killing several men and torching their makeshift houses, keep-
ing the police out of the whole business.668
While Gau ya Vaiavism generally has stayed out of Hindu com-
munal politics, a few gurus have tried to enlarge the extensiveness of
their authority in this way. 669 The more common way of building up
extensiveness is recruiting more disciples nowadays often by trav-
elling to the West.
It might be argued that with the advent of cheap and widely dis-
tributed printed Gau ya Vaiava texts (e.g. the books of
Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda) and modern media such as the
internet, the extensiveness of Gau ya Vaiavism has been dramati-
cally increased. I would disagree. While many persons might be
somehow influenced by Gau ya Vaiava teachings in this way,
very few will take the step to becoming followers or disciples of a
Gau ya Vaiava guru.670 Generally speaking, I think it is safe to say
that Gau ya Vaiava gurus today seldom have any power outside
the group of their disciples or other followers.
The comprehensiveness of the gurus power varies with the com-
mitment of the disciple. A disciple staying in an rama is ideally
supposed to in all his doings be following the orders of the guru.
When asked about rules for disciples, one bbj found the question
irrelevant: the disciple will do anything the guru says, and nothing
else.671 Such a disciple is supposed to wait on the guru hand and foot.
If the guru does not explicitly ask him to eat, for example, he will
fast.672 With regard to householder disciples (which form the over-
668 Since my source for this is not very reliable, I have left out names and dates.
669 OConnell (1997)
670 Compare the reported pieces of literature distributed by ISKCON, about 400 000
000 (http://www.iskcon.org/main/twohk/iskcon/means.htm), with the number of
congregational members, 190 000 (Sardella 2002).
671 IF mgt 2000/70
205
whelming majority of disciples to all kinds of gurus673 ), the compre-
hensiveness will naturally be minimal, limited almost exclusively to
matters of doctrine and religious practice. For instance, several gurus
admitted that they do not even try to make their householder disci-
ples follow the rule not to associate with non-Vaiavas, since they
find it impossible to avoid them in the modern world.674
Some gurus feel the need to maintain comprehensive authority
over their disciples in order to be able to guide them on the spiritual
path. To do this, they might encourage their disciples to move into
their rama, to visit often or to keep regular contact, even up to
writing weekly reports.675 This works best in groups with a sectarian
character. In ISKCON, which has been becoming more denomina-
tional since the mid-1980s, some gurus complain of how the com-
prehensiveness of their authority has been hampered.676
With regard to intensiveness of power, we find the same varia-
tions between disciples. The ideal is that the disciple should be will-
ing to lay down his life for the guru, and to have implicit faith in his
words. Blind faith in the guru is an old idea.677 Not to follow the order
of the guru is one of the ten offenses against Kas name, some-
thing of Gau ya Vaiava cardinal sins.678 In actuality, disciples are
seldom given very intensive orders, but they are supposed to be
ready to face the challenge if one comes. One merchant was asked
by his guru to construct a new temple in Vndvana. Dutifully, he
followed the order, even though it almost ruined him financially.679
673 One guru reported having about 5000 disciples, out of which only 100
renunciates. IF mgt 2000/88.
674 E.g. IF mgt 2000/85
675 IF mgt 2000/93
676 E.g. Hdaynanda Dsa Gosvm (2000), 53
677 Bay-Schmidt (1989), 128
678 Swami B.H. Bon Maharaj (1965), 150-152
679 IF mgt 2002/12
206
One reason often given by Gau ya Vaiavas for the exercise of
intensive authority is that it helps disciples come to the plane of total
surrender to the will of God in this world manifested through the
guru which is thought to be necessary for spiritual progress.680 In-
tensive authority could also function as a way to test the loyalty of the
disciples (much as a feudal lord might test his subjects to reassure
himself of their allegiance in times of crisis) and to make clear who is
in charge. However, exercising intensive authority may also rebound
on the guru. If the disciple for some reason is not able to comply, he
(and indeed others in the community) may lose faith or even leave
the guru altogether. When a guru is financially dependent on his dis-
ciples as especially goswami gurus generally are many defec-
tions will be problematic in more than a spiritual sense.
680 Kapoor (1993), 387
207
9. TEACHER
In my definition of the Gau ya Vaiava guru (3.5), I have stated

that he receives special reverence on account of awarding initia-
tion and/ or especially important spiritual advice. This chapter
looks at the gurus function of imparting or teaching spiritual
knowledge.
Calling the guru an advisor or teacher is not new. Indeed, in In-
dia, any kind of teacher may be called a guru a usage which has
spread to the West, where experts in any particular field often are
called gurus. As we saw before (3.1), in the Vedic and
Upaniadic times, the guru was first of all a teacher of the Vedic
hymns/ otherwordly knowledge. This understanding of the gu-
rus role is seen also in Gau ya Vaiavism. Among the primary
qualifications of the guru stipulated (see 4.1.1), the first was
deeply learned in scripture and the highest a learning that is
explained as necessary for imparting spiritual knowledge to the
students,681 thus implying that transmission of knowledge is one
of the main responsibilities of the guru. Moreover, one of the argu-
ments for the necessity of accepting a guru (3.3.1) was that eve-
ryone needs a guide, a teacher.
When in the role of the teacher, the guru can be compared with
the teacher of ethics in Webers typology of charismatic person-
ages. There is one important difference, however: while the
teacher of ethics does not break social norms, the Gau ya
Vaiava guru might do so, thus coming closer to the category of
the prophet. There are many examples of this especially in the
early phases of the Gau ya Vaiava sapradya (e.g.
Nitynanda and his son V rabhadra), and among gurus that have
come to the West, where the social norms are very different from
those in India.
209
It is sometimes argued that a guru differs from an ordinary
teacher by at all times teaching his disciples, i.e. by never step-
ping out from the role of a teacher.682 This is true only in an indi-
rect way. It is hard to imagine that any guru will consciously try to
teach something by every single action he undertakes, but disci-
ples may interpret even seemingly meaningless actions as eso-
teric instructions. In part 9.2 below, this kind of non-verbal teach-
ing will be dealt with.
When it comes to verbal teaching, as we also have seen, the
Gau ya Vaiava movement knows two primary classes of gu-
rus: the d k- or initiating guru and the ik- or instructing guru.
Obviously, the ik-guru will be the guru who best can be com-
pared to a teacher, but the d k-guru will also be a teacher, at
least when giving the mantra. This chapter will look on some as-
pects of the teacher-role, first focusing on the way every d k-
guru (the ik-guru teaches by definition) takes up this role,
then on the options available for gurus who want to delve deeper
into it.
Being an effective teacher hinges largely on the gurus per-
sonal charisma. Nevertheless, a strong institutional charisma can
help the guru gain enough respect for persons to take his teach-
ings seriously, even if he himself is only moderately talented as a
speaker or as a scriptural exegete. As we shall see, as in the case
of the Vedic and Upaniadic gurus, much of the teaching of the
Gau ya Vaiava guru is intimately connected with canon.
9.1 Imparting the mantra

Following a verse found in the Hari-bhakti-vilsa, J va Gosvmin
explains initiation in the following, oft-quoted way:
682 IF mgt 2000/91
210
Since from it divine knowledge is given and the destruction of sin
is effected, it is called initiation by the teachers, knowers of the
truth. [...] Thus the gama. The words divine knowledge here
refers to knowledge of the form of the Lord in the holy mantra, and
knowledge of the specific relationship with the Lord, as is ex-
plained in the Padma Pura, Uttara-kha, where the excel-
lence of the eight-syllable mantra is proclaimed.683
J va Gosvmin thus opines that initiation is more than just teaching

the disciple the words of one or more mantras. The guru should also
explain the meaning of the mantra, since it is thought to contain a
wealth of otherworldly knowledge. The example given is the eight-
syllable mantra,684 explained in chapter 226 of the Uttara-kha of
the Padma Pura. The mantra is first given, then technical details
such as the i (the sage who first revealed the mantra), devat (the
divinity addressed in the mantra) and metre, and then the rather
lengthy meaning, given by explaining many esoteric purports of the
syllables of the mantra. The specific relationship explained in the
mantra is that the human being is a servant of God in all circum-
stances.685
Lengthy explanations of seemingly simple mantras are also of-
fered in contemporary Gau ya Vaiavism, but not always. Some-
times initiation is, as explained above (6.2) little more than whisper-
ing the mantra into the ear of the disciple. Still, a d k-guru who does
only that functions as a teacher by teaching the mantra. The method
of teaching varies: some gurus have their disciple repeat the mantra
after them until they have learnt it by heart,686 others give out papers
of the mantras, from which the disciple can learn it.687
683 BS 283. divya jñna yato dadyt kuryt ppasya sakayam/ tasmd
d keti s prokt deikais tattva-kovidai// [...] ity gamt/ divya jñna hy atra
r mantre bhagavat-svarpa-jñnam, tena bhagavat sambandha-viea-jñnañ
ca, yath pdmottara-khadv kardikam adhikta-vivttam asti/
684 O namo nryaya
685 Padma Pura 5.226.1-93
686 E.g. Gopnanda Bon Maharja. Field notes, Vndvana 5.11.2000
687 E.g. in ISKCON. Field notes, Helsinki 5.6.2002
211
9.2 Non-verbal teaching
9.2.1 Personal example

It was mentioned above (4.1.1) that a very common ideal for the
guru is that he should be an crya in the sense of teaching by his
own example. There is a story about a man who brought his son to his
guru so that the guru could tell the son not to eat so many sweets.
The guru listened to the father and then asked both of them to come
back after two weeks. When they returned, the guru sternly told the
boy not to eat so many sweets. Why did you have to wait two weeks
to say such a simple thing, they father then asked. I first had to quit
eating sweets myself! Likewise, a Gau ya Vaiava guru is sup-
posed to be practicing what he preaches at all times.
In Gau ya Vaiavism, the guru generally acts on two planes: in
the sdhaka-deha and in the siddha-deha. The sdhaka-deha is the
physical body. The disciple is supposed to observe and emulate the
behaviour of the guru and thus himself rise to the same level of spir-
itual advancement. The siddha-deha, again, is the spiritual body the
guru has in the divine play of Ka. At the time of Siddha-initiation
(see 6.2.2), apart from the disciples own spiritual identity, the guru
also reveals to the disciple his own and his predecessors spiritual
identities (siddha-prali). This the disciple will use in his
rgnug-meditation.
Rgnug-sdhana-bhakti is defined as bhakti arising through fol-
lowing a rgtmika-devotee, a devotee in Kas eternal abode
who has rga or passionate, spontaneous love of Ka.688 Rga is
defined as love flowing towards Ka as naturally as the senses are
drawn to the sense objects.689 In this path, one does not only perform
the outer rituals of ordinary bhakti, but within ones mind meditates
on a particular eternally liberated associate of the Lord, and visualises
688 BRS 1.2.271-272

689 BS 310
212
oneself as a servant of this person, helping him or her serve Ka.
While one theoretically could follow any associate of Ka or his
expansions, almost all Gau yas follow one of the handmaids of
Rdh in Vndvana.690
The internal meditation and participation in Kas play (manasi-
seva) follows the descriptions given in the scriptures of what the
eternal abode looks like, what the inhabitants are like, and so forth.
Rdhs and Kas play is divided into eight watches in which differ-
ent activities take place. The practitioner visualises these activities,
the background scenery and takes part himself, sometimes remain-
ing for hours or even days in meditation. The ideal is to contemplate
the play of Ka twenty-four hours a day.691 Also here, the disciple
should serve and emulate the actions of his guru. He learns about the
particular service his guru has in Kas l l, about his mood in rela-
tion to Ka, and so on, and is then supposed to carry out his medi-
tation accordingly.
This also demonstrates an important aspect of the gurus role of
being a teacher that is different from an ordinary one: for the disciple,
he never stops being the teacher, not even in the liberated state.
Now, what if the guru acts in a way that does not seem to be exem-
plary? First of all, the guru is supposed to be above criticism.
Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda writes:
Even if there appears to be some discrepancy according to an imper-

fect devotees estimation, the devotee should be fixed in the convic-
tion that even if his spiritual master goes to a liquor shop, he is not a
drunkard; rather, he must have some purpose in going there.692
In other words, even strange actions are interpreted as having some

mysterious purpose. Perhaps he entered the liquor shop to deliver
the sinners. Another way of understanding mistakes or weaknesses
690 Kapoor (1995c), 37-38

691 McDaniel (1989), 49
692 Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda (1975c), 213
213
of the guru is that they stem from his desire to help. Using skilful
means, he mirrors the disciples own flaws.693 Yet another explana-
tion is that the human body of the guru inevitably makes him commit
mistakes, even though he is otherwise perfect.694 The guru (espe-
cially those who wish to emphasise the role as a feudal lord) may also
deliberately break the rules meant for ordinary devotees to demon-
strate his otherwordly character or to illustrate the status difference
between himself and the disciples.
If a guru acts in a very strange or even insane way, it will often be
interpreted as divine madness, a state that, especially in Bengal, is
considered almost a prerequisite for a holy man, as noted by June
McDaniel.695 These bouts of madness may seem very odd, but disci-
ples will find meaning in them. When Jagadbandhu appeared after
seventeen years of self-imposed seclusion, he walked only with dif-
ficulty and acted like a child: lisping only a few words, alternately
abusing people nearby or smiling serenely at them, and so forth. His
followers interpreted all this as a life of vicarious suffering.696
9.2.2 Mystical transmission of knowledge

Gau ya Vaiavism does not know any ritualised forms of mystical
transmission of knowledge, such as the akti-pta of the ®aivas of
Kashmir or of many modern Hindu gurus.697 Still, disciples will also
often say that their gurus have given them knowledge in supernatu-
ral ways. These include performing miracles to give disciples faith in,
for example, Kas name.698 The factuality or not of these miracles
is irrelevant in this context: what is important to note is that they usu-
ally seem to be done with a two-fold purpose in hand: to increase the
693 Gold (1987), 183

694 IF mgt 2000/72
695 McDaniel (1989)
696 Ibid, 73
697 E.g. Yogananda (2001), 142-144
698 Kapoor (1993), 395-398
214
faith of the disciples in the extraordinary position of the guru, and for
converting the faithless.699 Types of miracles include commanding
animals,700 healing disciples,701 appearing in visions before them,702
teaching them in dreams703 and so forth. It need not come as a great
surprise that the guru usually is not aware of having taught the disci-
ple in this way. As we shall see later (12.1.2), the movement has its
own way to explain such occurances.
9.3 Verbal teaching

While Wach states that one of the tasks of the Vaiava guru is to in-
terpret the holy writ (the other being to defend the faith),704 few
gurus will systematically teach their disciples philosophy or theol-
ogy. A common critique of gurus is that since they themselves are
not learned, they do not want their disciples to study, fearing loss of
respect by them.705 While this view might be germane in some
cases, there are notable exceptions. Most gurus will take up the role
of a teacher on many more occasions than only when teaching the
mantra.
The main venue of teaching is explaining scripture,706 a fact that
clearly shows that also in this case, the guru is strongly bound to
canon. Even gurus with radical ideas will generally present them by
interpreting the canonical texts such as the Bhgavata Pura. In-
terpreting and explaining scripture takes two main forms: public
readings and more private instruction.
699 Peter Schreiner comes to the same conclusion in his article on the charisma of
the founder of the Swaminarayan Movement. See Schreiner (2001), 161.
700 Kapoor (1995a), 61-62
701 Ibid, 193-194
702 Kapoor (1993), 532
703 Ibid, 239-242
704 Wach (1967), 129
705 IF 2000/14e
706 For example, all of the lectures of Ananta Dsa Bbj found on the web-site
www.raganuga.org are expositions on scripture.
215
9.3.1 Public readings
At least on festive occasions, leaders of Gau ya Vaiava organisa-
tions are expected to give pha, readings from the scriptures. I wit-
nessed one such reading in the Bhajana rama, a temple established
by B.H. Bon Mahrja, in Calcutta on the 24th of February, 2002. A
goswami from Vndvana, Rajea Kiora Goswami, spoke on the five
chapters about Kas mystical rsa-dance of the Bhgavata
Pura.707 Sitting in the temple-room of the rama on a raised seat
beside a tulas -plant, dressed in costly garments, the young goswami
was a striking sight. He started by leading the congregation (about 60
men and women) in popular Gau ya religious songs, and by reciting
standard prayers for invoking auspiciousness (magalcaraa708 ).
After a brief introduction, he then started reading the verses (in
Bengali translation) of the Bhgavata. He interspersed the reading
with his own explanations, leading the congregation in singing com-
mon pan-Vaiava songs (by Tulas Dsa, M r Bh , etc), and some-
times by singing the original Sanskrit verses. After going on with
great energy for more than two hours (and being asked by his father
more than once to stop soon) he ended with more congregational
singing and by thanking the hosts.709
While this occasion was more festive than most, elements found in
the description above are common for almost all such readings. The
guru (or other senior devotee reading) will commence from the ca-
nonical text, explaining it according to what he has heard from his
teacher(s) and adding comments based on his own insights. There is
little interaction with the audience during the reading. Questions are
not taken (except in ISKCON), neither are the listeners supposed to
interrupt the reader with their own comments. On occasion, mem-
707 BP 10.29-33
708 For one set, see Bhaktivednta Nryaa and Bhaktivednta Vmana Maharja
(1999), 1-8
709 Field notes, Calcutta, 24.2.2002
216
bers of an audience may exhibit great emotion by crying, fainting,
and so on, but generally speaking, their role is to sit quietly and listen,
and to join in the congregational singing.
Though this kind of reading at its worst may be stereotypical and
the explanations extremely repetitive, even a person as critical of
Gau ya Vaiavism as Melville Kennedy has to admit that it is
something of a teaching and inspirational agency.710 Others have
credited such scriptural readings with the spread of education to the
lower castes and women, all of whom have always been welcome to
hear.711
A variant of this public reading is when the readings are recorded
and transcribed, to become books, or when the guru writes books for
his disciples and others. As the readings, such books are usually ex-
positions upon scripture. They are usually addressed to practitioners
rather than to outsiders. There are of course exceptions, the books of
Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda, the founder of ISKCON, being
perhaps the most noteworthy.
9.3.2 Private instruction

Particularly ik-gurus will also personally guide their disciples. Gu-
rus may personally teach disciples how to conduct temple worship,
play musical instruments used in religious observances, and so on,
but usually they will delegate such tasks to senior disciples. When it
comes to understanding the scriptures and teaching manasi-sev,
they will generally do the teaching themselves.
Gurus seldom systematically teach their disciples theology apart
from when expounding the scriptures, but disciples may put ques-
tions to their guru at the time of darana (more about darana will
follow in 13.1). At the Bhajan Kutir, for example, Gopnanda Bon
Mahrja would sit in his chair on a veranda in the afternoons, chant-
710 Kennedy (1925), 167

711 Chatterjee (1983), 170-171
217
ing on his prayer-beads and responding to questions of disciples and
visitors, who would gather around him, sitting cross-legged on the
floor. Generally, he would speak on such high theological subjects as
the l l of Rdh and Ka, but he would also answer questions deal-
ing with the practical lives of disciples, such as whether a woman can
take initiation without the consent of her husband.712 Apart from at
such direct meetings, disciples might also write or telephone their
guru when important questions arise.
One of the main tasks of the ik-guru is often thought to be
teaching the method of manasi-sev or service in the mind. For this
kind of service to be possible, the meditator has to know what the
stage of this divine play the different parts of divine Vndvana
looks like, what the actors look like, what they do, how they speak,
and so on. For conveying all this knowledge, different giks
(notebooks) have been compiled, narrating the daily activities of
Rdh and Ka in great detail.713 For learning the divine geogra-
phy, colourful and intricate diagrams are often used. Apart from
these aids, the personal coaching of a guru who knows these
techiques is deemed necessary. Since these methods of worship are
considered confidential, teaching will be done in private to small
groups of disciples.
712 Field notes, Vndvana, 24.11.2000

713 For part of one, see www.raganuga.com/literature/sri_sri_bhavana_sara_
sangrahah.pdf
218
10. PRESERVER OF TRADITION
In contrast with contemporary Western thought, the traditional Hindu

worldview does not know of a linear evolution of humanity. Rather, the
cosmos goes through eternally repeating cycles of creation, mainte-
nance and destruction. The world is at its best at the beginning of crea-
tion, only to slowly degrade until it is finally destroyed. There are four
ages of the world: satya-, tret-, dvpara- and kali-yuga, of which kali-
yuga (the present age) is the last and worst. Even though some 427 000
years remain in the present age before the next cosmic destruction, the
quality of life will steadily worsen.714
With such an orientation to cosmic time it is no surprise that even to-
day the past is often glorified in India. A nostalgia for times gone by is of
course not limited to India by any means, but it seems to be exception-
ally strong there, no doubt for several reasons. The past does not even
have to be very far removed. One person I spoke to lamented the
present, sorry state of Gau ya Vaiavism. Ten years ago things were
so different!715
Thus one of the most important tasks of a guru will be to preserve and
safeguard what remains of his groups holy tradition.716 The tradition has
been preserved in a canon of holy texts most but not all common for all
Gau yas (see 1.3.2). Every orthodox Gau ya Vaiava guru will be-
long to a guru-parapar or succession of gurus, some of which may
have given their own contributions to the canon, to be preserved by
their followers, basically by repeating the same message that they heard
from their own gurus. For a Gau ya Vaiava guru, to say nothing is
mine, not a single letter717 is thus a matter of pride. Other aspects of the
714 For an in-depth Gau ya treatment of eschatology, see Bon Maharaj [n.d]
715 IF mgt 2000/86. R.M. Sarkar mentions a similar trend in his study of the Bauls of
Bengal. At present the scholars as well as laymen complain that there are no Bauls
in the strict sense of the term. Sarkar (1990), 217.
716 Wach (1967), 129
717 Gaur Govinda Swami Maharaja (1998), 106
219
tradition are customs peculiar to the particular group and institutions
founded by predecessors.
10.1 Preserving the heritage

In Vaiava thought, time is generally seen as a destructive agent.
By the influence of great time, Ka says in the Bhagavad-g t,
this yoga was lost.718 Even a canon, which can be said to be an at-
tempt to collect and safeguard the original message of a religious
community against corruption, needs a contemporary guru to pro-
tect it against corruption in the form of wrong interpretations, and to
pass it on. Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda gives the example of a
ripe mango high up in the tree. If it is thrown directly down to the
ground, it will be spoiled. Rather, it has to be passed down carefully
from one hand to the next. Similarly spiritual knowledge has to be
passed down in a guru-parapar.719
In concrete terms, what the mango represents varies. One thing
that every guru will pass on to his disciples is a mantra. Except in rare
cases (see 11.2.2), the guru will give the disciple the same mantras
that he has received from his own guru. It is commonly believed that
a mantra has to be received in this way in order to have any effect.
Just reading it in a book will be useless.720 The guru thus seems to do
more than just pass the mantra on: he keeps the mantra alive by his
own power. Similarly with the scriptural canon. Bhaktisiddhnta
Sarasvat endeavoured to keep the writings of his father and ik-
guru Kedarntha Datta Bhaktivinoda available at all times by bring-
ing out new editions, but also emphasised that they have to be un-
derstood through him.721 The conclusion is that the guru is thought
718 BG 4.2
719 Lecture 720902VP.NV (In Vedabase 4.11)
720 Prameya-ratnval 1.5, quoting a verse from the Padma Pura not found in
modern editions. Gaur Govinda Swami Mahrja (1998), 65.
721 Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat in http://www.wva-vvrs.org/nectar/paper.htm. The
same idea is expressed in Gaur Govinda Swami Mahrja (1998), 76.
220
to not only preserve the concrete, physical aspect of the heritage,
but also to keep its spirit alive.
Again, canon and charisma are bound to each other: indeed, the
canon does not seem to be able to stand on its own without the char-
ismatic power of a guru. I will explain more about this in the next
chapter.
10.1.1 Customs
Even though most of the rituals and practices are common for all
Gau ya Vaiavas, every parivra, vaa or modern group will
have its own customs, such as what the tilaka looks like, what reli-
gious songs to sing at the time of temple worship, what festivals to
celebrate, and so on. One of the mandatory tasks of the guru is to
make sure that these customs are remembered and followed. One
guru told me emphatically that in his temple nothing new is done,
only what is prescribed by tradition.722
One way by which this link to the tradition is highlighted is by cel-
ebrating the tirobhva or disappearance days of previous saints in
the group. Gau ya Vaiavas generally do not celebrate the birth-
days of saints, since a saint is just like anyone else when he is born,
but the day of his death, since he is then known to be a saint, and
since he at that time enters the eternal l l of Ka.723 Such festivals
are generally centered around the samdhi or tomb of the saint in
question.
The festival commemorating the 372nd tirobhva of ®ymnanda
at the Rdh-®ymasundara temple in Vndvana may serve as a
particularly grand example. On the 13th of June, 2002, the festival
began with adhivsa or preliminary worship and k rtana in the
evening. The whole of the next day featured different kinds of
722 IF mgt 2002/12

221
k rtanas describing the play of Rdh and Ka. The third day, 15th
of June, was the main day of the festival. The day began at six in the
morning with recitation of the thousand names of Gopla Ka, con-
tinued on with song, readings from the Bhgavata Pura and
®ymnanda Caritmta (a hagiography of ®ymnanda), k rtana
and more songs. There was also a memorial meeting, to which many
of the leading goswami and bbj gurus of Vndvana had been in-
vited, and where they spoke about the contributions of ®ymnanda.
The festival continued on the 24th with a full day of k rtana of the
mah-mantra. The next day was the actual tirobhva day. In the
morning, ®ymnandas samdhi was worshipped with standard
items such as flowers, incense and lamps. Then followed nagara-
sak rtana, congregational chanting in the streets of Vndvana, af-
ter which a grand feast was served to the hundreds of participants
who swelled to thousands at this time. In the evening, the ocaka-
k rtana or song lamenting the death of ®ymnanda was sung. The
next day, the tirobhva of another famous Vaiava of this group,
Baladeva Vidybhaa, was celebrated in a way similar to the day
before, but on a smaller scale.724
Such seven-day festivals are of course rare the cost to feed all the
participants so many days alone must be substantial but it is com-
mon for similar memorial festivals to last two or three days. Essential
elements are worshipping the samdhi or at least a picture of the
saint, speeches about him from senior and respectable Vaiava
guests, mah-mantra and ocaka k rtana and feasting. Such festi-
vals serve many purposes: strenghtening ties to other Vaiava insti-
tutions (especially within the same parivra) by inviting their mem-
bers (and thus being invited by them when they have their next fes-
tival), providing opportunites for musicians and singers to display
their talent and practice their livelihood, giving the guru a chance to
speak before a great audience, and so on, but the main purpose is to
724 Letter from Sri Krishnagopalananda Dev Goswami to author, June 2002.
222
remind the members of the group of their connection with a glorious
past.
10.1.2 Literature
Another way to preserve the tradition is to preserve the canon. The
writings left by past saints are felt to be their most valuable legacy.
Previously, this often meant taking care of a library left by previous
gurus a daunting task in Indias subtropical climate. Caretakers
sometimes devised surprising methods: J va Gosvmin found main-
taining the original manuscripts of Rpa and Santana Gosvmins
impossible, and instead interred them in a samdhi where they
would be offered regular worship instead of gathering dust and being
eaten by worms.725 Today, gurus who want to emphasise this role
often publish or reprint books by their predecessors, adding their
own foreword. Since printed books last no longer than handwritten
ones, this is a task every generation of gurus can busy themselves
with. Reprinted texts may or may not be systematically studied
within the group, but at least they will be available when sought..
10.1.3 Institution
Apart from customs and writings, many gurus have physical proper-
ties to preserve, as tangible assets of the institution established by a
predecessor. The institution may possess a small r pta or a whole
range of mahas, all requiring much effort to maintain in Indias cli-
mate. Also, because of heavy taxation and government confiscation
of landed properties, many gurus have fallen upon bad times, having
big temples to maintain with limited funds.726 Institutions that used
to enjoy the patronage of royalty and landowners, and that have not
been able to find new sponsors, are often in a deplorable situation.

726 IF mgt 2000/ 85
223
At the heart of Gau ya Vaiava temples usually stands the image
of Ka or Caitanya that the founder or some illustrious predecessor
had installed and worshipped. One of the most important functions
of the leader of the institution is to make sure that its daily worship
continues without interruption. Poor worship is a common source of
criticism, and is believed to reflect the poor devotion of the caretak-
ers.727 Many systems have been tried to maintain the worship. The
most successful one seems to be hereditary periods of worship, such
as is followed at the Rdh-ramaa temple in Vndvana.
Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin, who founded this temple, was a celi-
bate, but he wanted to establish a family line for maintaining the
worship of his image of Ka, Rdh-ramaa. He asked his favour-
ite disciple Gop ntha to marry for this reason, but Gop ntha re-
fused. Instead Gopnthas brother Damodara, who also was a dis-
ciple of Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin, took up the task. All the
goswamis of the Rdh-ramaa temple come in a vaa from him.
As usual, only males pass on the vaa. Damodara had three sons,
one of whom also had three sons, so that there are now five line-
ages of goswamis who serve Rdh-ramaa and take disciples.
Each of the five lineages is obliged to take care of the complex
worship of Rdh-ramaa for six months every two and a half years.
These six months are then divided between the adult male mem-
bers of the lineage. In this way, the worship of Rdh-ramaa has
been taken care of through the centuries.728
Another system is to appoint disciples to take care of the wor-
ship. The drawback with this is that the disciple either has to be a
very dedicated renunciant who has no other duties, or he has to be
paid, generally through a portion of the donations left by pilgrims
or other donors for the image. Dedicated disciples may be hard to
find, especially in the long run down the centuries. Paid temple
worship, again, is frowned upon and the social status of such
727 IF mgt 2002/ 11

728 Case (2000), 75-78
224
brhmaas is not very high. Furthermore, either the congregation
donates too little (making it difficult for the priest to maintain his
family) or too much (making the post attractive to others and
spawning rivalry between disciples). For these reasons, hereditary
periodic worship seems to be the best and hence most widespread
system.
However, in order to function properly this system rquires the
vaa to have many male members. If one person has to take care
of the worship for extended periods, his dedication may slacken. In
Vndvana, some vaas have very few male members, and some
have even died out, making for severe problems with maintaining
the worship.729
10.2 Protecting the tradition against threats

Another form of preserving tradition is to protect it against perceived
threats from outsiders or heretics within. Some gurus feel that enter-
ing into controversies is unworthy of Vaiava,730 while others feel
that it is necessary for protecting the purity of the tradition.731 At any
rate, heretics and non-believers have been denounced since the
very beginning of the Gau ya Vaiava movement. As is usual in
religious societies, heretics within the movement are seen as posing
a much greater threat than non-believers without, and thus most of
the energy of the orthodox are channelled in this direction. One early
example of such a heretic was Rpa Kavirja, a seventeenth-century
theologian, whose doctrine of imitiating the eternally liberated com-
panions of Ka (such as the cowherdesses of Vndvana) not only
in the mind but also physically was rejected and condemned in a
council in Jaipur in 1727. Rpa Kavirja was expelled from
Vndvana and moved to Assam.732
729 IF mgt 2002/11, IF mgt 2002/12

730 IF mgt 2002/9b
731 IF mgt 2002/12
732 Haberman (1989), 98-104
225
Today also, many gurus want to assert themselves as protectors of
true Gau ya Vaiavism and expose the misconceptions of rival
groups. They may write books,733 articles in journals,734 and letters
on the internet,735 or arrange meetings, and so forth. Generally, the
most persistent and intense conflicts are between modern and tradi-
tional groups, and between the bbj s and the goswamis. How-
ever, there is one important difference between todays and yester-
years conflicts. The influence of Gau ya Vaiava gurus today is not
as great as it was in previous centuries they might write refutations
of each other and boycott each others functions, but that is about as
far as it goes. When the followers of Jagadbandhu built a temple in
Vndvana in which an image of Jagadbandhu was placed above
Rdh-Ka and Caitanya-Nitynanda, there was a great outcry from
most other Gau ya groups in town, but they were not able to do
anything about it, not to speak of expelling the whole group from
Vndvana.736 In ISKCON, leaders have not been able to expell from
their own organisation the proponents of the ¬tvik-theory of succes-
sion even after several attempts, and even though they have con-
demned their theory as heretical and dangerous.737
733 E.g. Nryaa Mahrja [n.d.2], Swami B.G. Narasingha (1998)

734 E.g. Rosen & Deadwyler (1996)
735 For one example, see Krishna-kirti Das (http://www.chakra.org/2002/02/10/
posthumous.initiation/index.htm)
736 IF mgt 2002/ 13
737 Adridharana Dasa in http://farsight.members.beeb.net/35.htm
226
11. RENEWER OF TRADITION
The tradition itself does not generally recognise any need for re-
newal. As mentioned in the last chapter, the ideal lies in the past. The
essential idea of guru-parapar is that an unbroken chain of teach-
ers carries forward through time the same, unchanged, timeless mes-
sage. However, as was already hinted above (10.1), this is not com-
pletely true in the Gau ya Vaiavism. Every guru will do more than
just pass on the knowledge he has received: he will add his own mark
to it.
Why this is so is not hard to see. Daniel Gold writes about two ways
in which a tradition can break down. Corruption is when its ideals
and actualities drift too far away from each other, so that the manifest
forms seem tainted and no longer able to give access to the hidden
divine. Collapse is when the tradition is unable to adapt to changing
external conditions, after which potential adherents no longer see
the divine in the forms that the tradition has offered, and thus lend it
no practical support.738 Even a guru who has no intention to innovate
has to make sure neither of these things happens.
In most cases, no spectacular action is necessary. Both of the
above types of breakdown are gradual processes that can, and usu-
ally are, countered by slow and gradual changes within the tradition
itself. Outstanding reformers are needed only when a full breakdown
has occurred or is about to occur. Thus most gurus will not feel im-
pelled to institute radical reforms, but invariably they will make some
response to contemporary conditions.
Apart from in this minimal way, not every guru will want to be a
reformer, nor is every guru able to institute reformative measures
without being considered an iconoclast or as heterodox. Even the
smallest changes can draw harsh criticism. I have heard one guru be
called deviated since he allowed his disciples to occasionally wear
738 Gold (1988), 90
227
turbans!739 For great changes, strong personal charisma is needed.
The reformer usually would have to be particularly articulate and
learned in scriptural, exhibit intense ecstacies, or the like. The em-
phasis is on personal charisma to have inherited a strong institu-
tional charisma (by being the son of another famous guru, for exam-
ple) helps, but would be of secondary importance.
How much can be changed before the whole tradition is lost? As
we have seen (2.1), there is no supreme authority over the whole
Gau ya Vaiava sapradya who could determine the line be-
tween legitimate renewal and heterodoxy. That does not mean that
there are no norms, however. As mentioned before (1.3.2), when it
comes to theology and philosophy, authority rests largely in the
books of the six Gosvmins of Vndvana. To explicitly counter a
doctrine propounded by them (e.g. regarding the three aktis of
Ka) and still be counted as a Gau ya Vaiava would be difficult
indeed. Still, explanatory details might be added to existing doc-
trines, and particulars of practice might be changed. In Rappaports
terms (1.3.2), teachings on the level of cosmological axioms are sel-
dom touched (not to speak of ultimate sacred postulates), while
rules of conduct sometimes can be changed. The fourth category,
importations, are about change by definition.
As we saw in the last chapter, preserving and reforming the tradi-
tion often go hand in hand after all, a reformer renovates the tradi-
tion since he feels it is valuable and worthy of renovation rather than
rejection. Reformers often see themselves as preservers of the es-
sence of the tradition. As Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda wrote
in the introduction to his commentary on the Bhagavad-g t: If per-
sonally I have any credit in this matter, it is only that I have tried to
present [the teaching] as it is, without adulteration.740 Prabhupda
did not see himself as a reformer (even though he instituted several
739 Field notes, Calcutta 9.12.1998

740 Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda (1974a), xii
228
changes to the practices instituted by his own guru741 ) but as faith-
fully presenting the teachings of his predecessors in unadulterated
form.
There is also a theological side to this renewal: even though
Gau ya Vaiavas believe in the sanctity and importance of their
canon, Ka or Caitanya is thought to be able to reveal new details
about the spiritual truth if he so desires. After all, the canon itself is
thought to consist largely of the realisations and divine visions
(vaiduya-pratyaka) of past masters. Even though this world is be-
lieved to go through a slow but sure degradation, many Gau yas
present a history of spiritual evolution. First comes Crvka, then fol-
lows the Buddha, Jainism, Vaieika, Nyya, Sakhya, Yoga,
®akaras myvda, Rmnujas viidvaita, Madhvas dvaita,
one after the other, and finally, Caitanya.742 Even though Caitanyas
teachings are conceived as the zenith of theistic thought,743 more
revelations about them can come all the time. Some examples of this
will follow below.
11.1 Presenting the message in a contemporary way

Even though the movement has always allowed for some changes,
especially when made by charismatic gurus, it is only in modern
times that a need for changes has been explicitly articulated within
the tradition itself. Swami B.V. Tripurri writes:
One must distinguish between the form and the substance of the tra-
dition. Thus we find that the most prominent members of the lineage
are involved in renovation of the tradition, revealing its truth in a way
relevant to time and circumstance, such that those who are members
in form only cannot appreciate them. To recognize reformers of the
mission, practitioners themselves must also become essence seekers
741 For a list of some of them, see www.vnn.org/world/WD9810/WD16-2367.html

742 B.H. Bon Maharaj (1984), 201-213
743 Ibid, 212
229
on a deeper level and thus remain vital in their practice. Failure to do
so involves a break from the tradition despite superficial adherence to
its external symbols.744
These are strong words, presented, curiously enough, in the most

traditional of contexts: in a commentary on the Bhagavad-g t while
arguing for the need of a guru-parapar. Again, we can see an ex-
ample of the interconnection between canon and charisma, along
with the relation between tradition and innovation.
This explicit expression of the need for changes is connected with
the fact that Gau ya Vaiavism has become a world religion in the
past century, and is thus faced with many challenges unknown to
past masters.745 It remains to be seen what developments and re-
sponses will follow. Not many gurus have taken up this challenge
apart from presenting the theology in Western languages and using
Western concepts and examples. So far, attempts at presenting
Gau ya Vaiavism in a Western cultural garb have not proven re-
markably successful.746 On the contrary, many gurus have adopted a
scriptural fundamentalism arguably foreign to Gau ya Vaiavism.747
11.2 Creating new tradition

As mentioned above, besides presenting the tradition as it is but in
a contemporary idiom, reformers mainly concern themselves with
rules of conduct. A reformer will introduce some change within his
own group of disciples and admirers, after which it could gain accept-
ance in a wider segment of the Gau ya Vaiava movement. For this
744 Swami B.V. Tripurri (2001), 131

745 For a study about an early Gau ya reaction to modernism, see Shukavak N.
Dasa (1999).
746 One group which has made an attempt in this direction is the Chaitanya Mis-
sion. See Paramahamsa (1989). For an interesting account of an ambitious but ulti-
mately unsuccessful attempt at de-Indianising Gau ya Vaiava devotional mu-
sic, see Henry Doctroski at http://www.henrydoktorski.com/newvrindaban.shtml
747 For a drastic example, see Thompson (1991).
230
to occur, there must be a felt need for the change, arising from new
social conditions.
An example of such change is the practice of prefacing all l l-
k rtanas (congregational songs describing the play of Ka) with a
song describing a corresponding l l of Caitanya and prefacing any
meditation on Kas l l with a corresponding meditation on
Caitanyas l l. Siddha Ka Dsa Bbj of Govardhana intro-
duced this practice in the eighteenth century among his followers,
but gradually the practice spread to almost all of Gau ya
Vaiavism.748 This partly satisfied a long-felt need in the wider
community to harmonise two trends one in Bengal emphasizing
Caitanya, and the other in Vndvana emphasizing Ka.
Reforms may become deep-set tradition in a relatively short
time. The krta or Indian shirt considered part of traditional
Gau ya dress is never seen on pictures from the beginning of the
twentieth century. It may go even quicker: the particular set of
songs that are sung in ISKCON centres and that no one in ISKCON
would dare change was instituted in the beginning of the 1970s.749
11.2.1 New doctrines

Beside rules of conduct, gurus may also introduce new doctrines,
usually by adding more details to or reinterpreting existing ones.
This is very common, since exegetical practice implies the exer-
cise of originality. Some gurus go to such lengths in showing origi-
nality that they could well be called sacred legislators, in Max We-
bers terms. Let us consider two examples.
The first example concerns a typology of faith. The Bhgavata
Pura describes three types of faith in Ka. A person with weak
faith is one who has faith in the image form of the Lord, but not in his
devotees or other people. One of intermediate faith cultures love
748 Chakrabarty (1985), 309-316

749 Vaiyasaki dasa Adhikari (1999)
231
for the Lord, friendship to his devotees, mercy to the innocent and
indifference to the inimical. A person who has superior faith sees
the Lord in everyone and everyone in the Lord.750
Rpa Gosvmin adopts this general scheme, but gives it a twist.
Instead of looking at relationships with others, he focuses on the
depth of faith. According to him, anyone who has faith is eligible for
devotional service according to his grade of faith: weak, intermediate
or superior. One whose faith is tender, so that it can be moulded in
any way, has weak faith. One who has faith but is not expert in the
arguments of the scriptures, has intermediate faith, while one who in
all respects has strong faith and is expert in scriptural argumentation
has superior faith.751
Both of these schemes are used (sometimes rather confusingly) in
later Gau ya Vaiava writings. New interpretations have also
arisen. In his book Ka-sahit (1880) Kedarntha Datta
Bhaktivinoda offers a typology of faith in terms of ones ability to
connect it with reason. Weak faith means that one does not have in-
dependent power of discrimination, but has to accept whatever is
written in the scriptures as the order of the Lord. A person with
weak faith can only understand external meanings of scriptural state-
ments. Persons of intermediate faith try to connect faith with reason-
ing, but they are plagued by doubts and uncertainty. Persons of su-
perior faith are expert in connecting faith and reason.752
Bhaktivinoda offered this scheme in the particular historical con-
text of the Bengali renaissance, when all of Hinduism was under the
assault of Christianity, modernity, and so on. Contrasting reason with
belief was the order of the day.753 The new interpretation did not
survive. Rather, today Gau yas in Bhaktivinodas own group tend to
reject any attempt to subject scripture to rational scrutiny.754 The
750 BP 11.2.45-47
751 BRS 1.2.17-19. The same scheme is given in CC 2.22.64-69.
752 Bhaktivinoda Thakura in http://www.hknet.org.nz/BVT-no-sects.html
753 For details, see Shukavak N. Dasa (1999)
754 E.g. Suhotra Swami (1998)
232
main reason for its failure was probably that Bhaktivinoda himself
seems not to have developed it further. Yet in recent years this inter-
pretation has resurfaced, with a growing interest in a liberal
Gau ya Vaiavism.755
In a series of articles in the weekly Gau ya Journal, Ananta
Vsudeva Dsa offered yet another development of the same tripar-
tite classification of faith. He divided each of the three classes into
three sub-categories, thus identifying faith that is weak-weak, weak-
intermediate, weak-superior, etc. This modified structure was then
used to explain the gradual advancement of a devotee in detailed
terms.756 Even though this theologian later gave up his position as
crya and was rejected by almost all of his Godbrothers, reference
to his new typology of faith can be found in contemporary Gau ya
Vaiava discussions carefully omitting his name as its originator.757
The new idea needed the charisma of Ananta Vsudeva Dsa to be-
come widespread, and having been spread and found theologically
useful, survived his downfall.
While doctrines and ritual behaviour on Rappaports level of rules
of conduct are the main target of reformers, sometimes charismatic
gurus may try to go further and try to reinterpret cosmological axi-
oms. One example of this is Bhaktivinodas notion of daiv -
varrama. While traditional varrama is based on birth in a par-
ticular vara and a gradual spiritual evolution based on performing
ones duties, Kedarntha Datta Bhaktivinoda taught daiv -
varrama, whereby ones vara is determined by ones inclina-
tions and qualifications rather than by birth, and persons in all varas
should use their own inclinations in service to Ka.758 This perspec-
tive remained a theoretical question for Bhaktivinoda. But his son,
755 See e.g. many of the articles on www.saragrahi.org

756 Sasmal (2000), 122-123
757 E.g. in an article by Swami B.V. Tripurri (www.vnn.org/editorials.ET0111/ET20-
6974.html)
758 Bhaktivinoda Thkur (1998), 84-92, Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat µhkura (1999)
233
Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat , instituted the idea in his own mission by
awarding qualified disciples of any vara the upav ta of
brhmaas, authorizing them to perform religious rites that other-
wise only (born) brhmaas would be expected to do.759
Democraticing varrama is not a wholly foreign idea in
Gau ya Vaiavism. As mentioned before, Caitanya himself had
taught that anyone who knows the subject of Ka can be a
guru,760 and Nitynnda and other early preachers had sometimes
openly flaunted caste rules. There is thus a canonical basis for this
innovation. Still, as discussed above (2.1), generally Gau yas
would accept the prevailing social system, or else leave it alto-
gether. This new praxis was a significant change of the
cosmological axiom of varrama, and drew great criticism from
many quarters. Disciples of Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat suffered
threats of rejection from ordinary Hindu society (they found it hard,
for example, to get their children married761 ) and were at least once
even violently assaulted.762 Even today this issue is controversial,
and brhmaas initiated as such within the Gau ya Mahas and
ISKCON are not always acknowledged outside these movements
especially when it comes to social dealings such as marriage.763
Another example has to do with the cosmological axiom of
Kas sometimes coming to this world as an avatra. Caitanya is
regarded as a special, hidden avatra of Ka, after which the next
will be Kalkin, some 427 000 years from now.764 In spite of this, the
®ymnanda parivra has a doctrine about the divinity of
Rasiknanda (1590-1652765 ), foremost disciple of ®ymnanda.
Basically, it is claimed that Rasiknanda is an avatra of Aniruddha,
759 Brooks (1989), 87

760 CC 2.8.128
761 Bhaktivednta Nryaa Mahrja [n.d.1], 171-172
762 Ibid, 41-42
763 See Brooks (1989)
764 Bon Maharaj [n.d]
234
one of Vius so-called vyha expansions.766 To proclaim great gu-
rus as incarnations of some associate of Ka is not uncommon - in
fact, all of Caitanyas contemporary associates were considered
such767 - but to consider a guru (excepting Nitynanda and Advaita)
as a descended form of God himself will generally lead to the guru
and his disciples being considered heterodox.
I do not know who originated this claim, but it is well-established in
the present-day ®ymnanda parivra. In the Rdh-ymasundara
temple in Vndvana, Rasiknanda is called Aniruddhvatra in big
letters both in Hindi and Bengali on a large painting of him near the
altar. The same statement is given on the cover of a book written by
him768 and echoed by representatives of the parivra.769 The evi-
dence given for this doctrine is all taken from books within the
parivra.770 However, outside the ®ymnanda parivra, I have not
encountered anyone accepting this claim, even though they usually
will not deny it either.771 With the passage of time, opponents have
come to politely disagree. I thus seems that this new doctrine has
not spread very far. However, it have had far-reaching consequences
in extending the time-span of nitya-siddha gurus on earth. A nitya-
siddha is a person eternally liberated, whose sojourn on earth is
purely voluntary, to help bound souls achieve love of Ka. Origi-
nally only the devotees contemporary with Caitanya were belived to
be in this cathegory.772 Next, the most important saints (such as
®ymnanda and Rasiknanda) of the next generation were added,
and the line drawn there. After them, all saints were ordinary humans
766 The vyhas do not figure very prominently in Gau ya Vaiavism, but they are
extremely important in earlier, Pañcartric Vaiavism. See Matsubara (1994).
767 The GGD gives a long list of corresponding identities in Caitanyas l l and
Kas.
768 ®r ®r Rasiknanda Murri (1986)
769 IF mgt 2000/71, IF mgt 2000/85
770 IF mgt 2000/71
771 E.g. IF mgt 2002/12, IF mgt 2002/13
772 GGD 33-34
235
who became perfected through their devotional practices or
through the Lords mercy.773
While this second step seems to be just pushing the line a little
forward, it had far-reaching consequenses. Since this generation had
had no personal contact with Caitanya, but were thought to be nitya-
siddhas because of their personal charisma, there was no hindering
later saints of a similar charisma to be given the same status. That can
be seen today, when in some quarters practically all gurus are held to
be descended nitya-siddhas.774
11.2.2 New mantras

More dramatic than coming up with new doctrine is creating new
mantras. While gurus usually pass on mantras they have received
from their own gurus, new mantras also do appear, although it is rare
and considered quite unorthodox. The ®ymnanda parivra, for
example, passes on the Rdh-mantra ®ymnanda was given by
Lalit (see the story in 5.2.2). Kedarntha Datta Bhaktivinoda gave
his disciples a new Gaura-Gaddhara mantra.775 Rdh-ramaa
Caraa Dsa gave his followers a Gaura-mantra (which apparently
did not conform to ordinary Sanskrit grammar) which he claimed to
have received from Nitynanda himself.776 In the Gau ya Mahas
and ISKCON the so-called Brahm gyatr is given a mantra that is
found in the ¬g Veda777 and thus by no means new, but which is not
given by other Gau ya Vaiava gurus. In most of these cases, the
common denominator is that the origin of the new mantra is claimed
to be a divine revelation. Introducing a new mantra seems to be an
instance where the personal charisma of the reformer is not enough;
rather, he has to draw upon the authority of a divine being. Since
773 IF mgt 2000/86

774 IF mgt 2000/88
775 IF mgt 2000/86
776 Kapoor (1993), 329
777 ¬g Veda 3.62.10
236
mantras are given only to disciples, new mantras can spread only as
much as the own group does.
Some goswamis also think (following a rule that one is not to teach
the mantra to others778 ) that one should not pass on the same mantra
one has received oneself, but instead another mantra, or the same
mantra in a little different form. Some gurus also make changes to
mantras when they are to be given to disciples of low social standing,
for example by removing the very sacred o and replacing it with
the less sacred ai.779
778 HBV 2.136. Most interpret the rule to mean that one should not reveal the mantra
to outsiders.
779 B.P. Puri Mahrja [nd], 115-116
237
1 2 . M E D I AT O R B E T W E E N G O D A N D M A N
The tradition itself recognises one of the most important roles of the
guru as being a mediator between God and man. Among the argu-
ments for the need for a guru (3.3.2), one was that the guru gives the
disciple eligibility for worshipping Ka. But the guru does even
more: he forwards the disciple to Ka. As Bhakti Prajñna Yati
Mahrja said:
Guru recommends one to Ka. Like Svarpa Damodara was

Mahprabhus dearest associate: all had to pass through him. Like this
guru also. When we become the dearest disciple we can understand
the ontological aspect of the guru.780
What the Mahrja here refers to is the gurus aspect as Kas dear-
est devotee. Because he is so dear to Ka, his dear disciple will
naturally also be dear to Ka. However, according to the principle
of guru-parapar, the guru should not consider himself as the di-
rect link to Ka, rather, he should see himself as simply leading his
disciples to the shelter of his own guru, who then can lead all on to
Kna.781 However, instead of going into the ontological side of this
issue, which has been examined before (3.2), this chapter will look at
how this doctrine manifests itself in ritual and in daily dealings be-
tween guru and disciple.
In Steinmanns typology, the role of mediator between God and
man corresponds with the first phase of the bhakti-guru. The guru is
worshipped not as God but like God, since the disciples believe that
he is able to bring down the mercy of God.
780 IF mgt 2000/81

781 Whether gurus really feel themselves as humble servants of their own guru or if
they consider themselves as the saviour of their disciples is an interesting issue, but
one which falls outside the scope of this thesis. For an interesting account of the
thoughts of a newly appointed guru, see Satsvarpa dsa Goswami (1997).
239
In contrast with some of the roles presented earlier (e.g. the
renewer of tradition), this is one that the guru does not step in and out
of. As the disciple considers the guru to be at all times a teacher, so he
considers him also to always be a mediator between himself and
God. Still, there are some instances in which this role comes out more
clearly, such as the ritual worship of the guru before worshipping
Ka.
While this role is very strongly a manifestation of the gurus institu-
tional charisma, personal charisma can be added by a guru who opts for
emphasising this role more. When he does so, he often emphasises his
own unique position as Kas dearest devotee and the only one able
to lead the disciples to salvation, much like the prophet in Webers
typology. As we shall see, this is usually done in situations when a the
guru percieves a threat that has to be countered.
12.1 Via medium

One important part that the guru plays is as a via medium between his
disciples and Ka. Usually it is the disciple who needs a medium for
approaching Ka. Since the status of Ka is so much higher than
that of the devotee, the disciple needs someone more accessible to
help him reach Ka. However, it is also thought that Ka some-
times similarly uses the guru as a via medium for approaching the
devotee. The guru can thus function as a via medium in both direc-
tions, albeit for different reasons. Examples of both will follow below.
12.1.1 Key for the devotee to access Ka

Any worship of Ka has to be preceeded by worship of the guru. The
Hari-bhakti-vilsa states that before commencing the daily worship
of Ka, one should worship the guru and prostrate oneself before
him like a stick at least three times, touching his feet.782 Touching
782 HBV 4.371-372
240
the feet of superiors is a pan-Indian expression, denoting respect
and recognition of the difference in status.
The forms this worship of the guru takes varies. One manual of
worship says that one should worship the guru with sixteen
upacras783 (see 13.1 for more about this subject), while another
states that five is enough.784 Furthermore, in practical life flowers or
water may substitute all of these items, or they may even be offered
only mentally.785 The point is thus not the forms the worship takes,
but rather that worship of Ka must begin by some kind of worship
of the guru.
By worshipping the guru, the disciple ritually asks him for the per-
mission to approach Ka. The same can be seen in almost all rituals
of Gau ya Vaiavism. When offering food to Ka, the devotee in
ISKCON begins by chanting prayers to the guru, goes on to prayers
to Caitanya, before finally adressing Ka.786
There is also another, more general way in which the guru
preceeds Ka. Rpa Gosvmin defines arcana or worship as offer-
ing articles together with mantra,787 implying that no worship in the
strict sense can be done without mantras. And without a guru, one
can not receive mantras. In other words, the guru gives the disciple
the eligibility for worship. The same eligibility is then re-affirmed by
first approaching the guru when worshipping Ka.
12.1.2 Key for Ka to access the devotee

While the guru usually mediates from low to high, there are some
instances in which the mediation goes in the other direction. It was
mentioned before (3.2) that the disciple is supposed to consider
783 Bhaktivednta Nryaa & Vmana Mahrja (1999), 53-58

784 Pañcartra Prad pa, 155
785 Ibid, vol II, 18
787 BRS 1.2.137. This is not the full definition, but the rest is not relevant for the
purpose at hand.
241
Ka to be speaking through the guru. This idea has some interest-
ing consequences. One is that since Ka is the one who is really
speaking, the guru himself may not always be conscious of every-
thing he says. As one guru said:
Some things happen that I am not conscious of. It may be Ka,

Paramtman [the Supersoul] or whatever who acts through me. So that
one sometimes says the right things - sometimes, but often enough so
that [the disciples] faith is strenghtened.788
The same idea is even more clearly expressed in the way the same
guru explained dreams disciples have about him. When asked
whether he was conscious of entering their dreams and giving them
spiritual advice there, he denied it. It was not he personally who en-
tered their dreams, he said, but Ka taking his form.789 The idea of
a divine being appearing in dreams in the guise of a more familiar
person we saw earlier, in the story of ®ymnanda (5.2.2).
Why then does Ka need to appear in the guise of the guru?
Would the message not be taken even more seriously if he appeared
in his own form? The answer was given by Kadsa Kavirja earlier
on (3.2): the disciple is not able to perceive the otherwordly form of
Ka himself.
These instances also show that the notion of the dual nature of the
guru is the one that gives the best theological explanation of his be-
haviour. The answer that it is not the guru personally who appears in
the dream is obviously very convenient if the disciple would ask the
guru to repeat the instructions he gave in the dream! Still, it should be
emphasised that this explanation is usually given by disciples. I have
never heard or heard about a guru claiming innocence for something
he has said or done on the plea that it was Ka who actually per-
formed the action.
788 IF mgt 2000/ 92

789 IF mgt 2000/ 92
242
12.2 The greatest devotee
While every guru is a mediator between God and man in the sense
described above, gurus who wish to emphasise this role have some
further options. Perhaps the most common one is to emphasise
ones own unique position as Kas dearest devotee. Since Ka is
believed to love his devotees more than himself, serving the devo-
tees is considered one of the best ways to attract his attention and
mercy.790 A guru who wishes to bolster his own authority may draw
upon this dogma.
Since the cardinal virtue of Gau ya Vaiavism is humility, gurus
can usually not directly spell out this message. It is not unusual to
hear gurus in a round-about way speak about the great importance of
serving advanced souls, the rarity of meeting such persons and how
fortunate one is if one happens to do that, etc., making it obvious that
they are speaking about themselves. One guru I interviewed denied
being the guru of anyone. Those I called his disciples were just his
friends and advisors.791 The same guru had, however, just moments
before, asked one person to surrender everything to me: mind,
body, words and soul hardly words one would direct to an advi-
sor!792
A guru who wishes to prove to his disciples that he is Kas dear-
est devotee will often refer to his personal charisma, for example
some extraordinary achievement that he has been able to perform
by Kas special mercy. Why would Ka had bestowed that
mercy upon him if he wasnt especially qualified? Bhaktivednta
Swami Prabhupda writes:
Without receiving the Lords special power, one cannot preach His
glories all over the world. Even though one may celebrate himself as
a learned follower of ®r Caitanya Mahprabhu, and even though one
790 See e.g. BS 213 quoted above (3.2)

791 IF 2000/14b
792 Field diary, Vndvana, 11.11.2000
243
may attempt to preach the holy name of the Lord all over the world, if
he is not favored by ®r Caitanya Mahprabhu he will find fault with
the pure devotee and will not be able to understand how a preacher
is empowered by Lord Caitanya. One must be considered bereft of
the mercy of ®r Caitanya Mahprabhu when he criticizes the Ka
consciousness movement now spreading all over the world or finds
fault with this movement or the leader of the movement.793
The leader of the movement is the same as the author of the pas-
sage, and the one who must be considered bereft of the mercy is
probably B.H. Bon Mahrja, who also had tried to preach Caitanyas
message outside of India and who at times had voiced critical opin-
ions of some of the activities of ISKCON. The reason for singling him
out in this way is probably that he at the time of writing was consid-
ered a threat to the movement.794
793 Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda (1975b), 265

794 See Broo (1999), 81-83
244
1 3 . M A N I F E S TAT I O N O F D I V I N I T Y
In Gau ya Vaiavism, the second part of the dual nature of the guru
is that he is God himself, manifested in the form of a human being. In
Steinmanns typology, this corresponds with the second phase of the
Bhakti-guru and with the Tantra-guru. Especially the Tantric scrip-
tures are full of statements to this effect. The Kulrava Tantra says:
My dear, the revered guru is described as ®iva himself but without his
three eyes, Acyuta [Viu] without his four arms, Brahm without his
four heads.795
The doctrine of the dual nature of the guru gives orthodox Gau ya
Vaiavism the chance to both agree and disagree with statements
such as this. As mentioned before (3.2), many will disagree and say
that the guru is not God, but as good as God.796 Still, there are several
instances in which he is treated in a way very similar to how God is,
and which justify calling him a manifestation of divinity, the most
obvious perhaps being that the guru often is called gurudeva, guru-
god.797
In the eyes of the disciples, this is a role that the guru does not
enter and leave. He is always a manifestation of divinity, even while
sleeping. No personal charisma is needed. Still, as with the other
roles, every guru can emphasise this one more or less, according to
their personal nature and what they perceive as the needs of their
disciples. An orthodox Gau ya Vaiava guru will not be able to go
as far as a Tantric guru and fully fusion the devotion of his disciples for
himself with that for God, but he can certainly go far enough for crit-
ics to claim that he obscures Ka from his disciples by his pres-
ence.798 Still, this role is one that the guru himself usually does not
795 Kulrava-tantra 13.58, quoted in Bay-Schmidt (1989), 76.

797 E.g. Gaur Govinda Swami Maharaja (1996), 19
798 IF 2000/14e
245
have to consciously enter: his disciples put him into it, especially in
connection with worship. As in the case of preserver and renewer of
tradition, the role of the guru as manifestation of divinity is often hard
to separate from that of mediator between God and man.
In some cases, the guru is in a very concrete way considered to be
divine: when he is Prabhu-santna or the offspring of God. This
term is given to the descendants of Nitynanda and Advaita, the two
associates of Caitanya who, like him, are considered avatras of
Ka (as Balarma and Mah-viu, respectively).799 These persons
have a particular institutional charisma which, especially in previous
times, made them stand out amongst Gau ya gurus. In modern
times also, at least some such gurus seem to be very much conscious
of their own special status, and behave accordingly.800
13.1 Acting like God

Most of the instances in which the guru can be seen to be in the role
of a manifestation of divinity, or when he acts like God, pertain to
image worship. For that reason, a brief explanation of image worship
in Gau ya Vaiavism is necessary.
Apart from being in the list of the five most important devotional
activities in the Bhakti-rasmta-sindhu, worshipping Kas im-
age pertains to at least thirty-six items in the list of sixty-four devo-
tional activities in the same book. The Hari-bhakti-vilsa contains
extremely complex and detailed rules for image worship. Every
Gau ya rama and temple, and practically every Gaud ya home
will contain an altar with images of Rdh and Ka or Caitanya. Im-
age worship is thus an important part of Gau ya Vaiava ritual.
799 There are other associates of Caitanya (and later personalities also) who are
considered avatras of some form of Ka, but the term Prabhu-santna is reserved
for these two families.
800 Field notes, Navadv pa, December 2000.
246
The rationale behind image worship is not, as popular Neo-Hindu
authors reason,801 that it is just a help for beginners to fix their mind
on the transcendent Lord. Rather, Gau ya Vaiava theology main-
tains that a properly fashioned, installed and worshipped image of
Ka actually is a special avatra of Ka. While the image is fash-
ioned out of material ingredients (usually stone, an alloy of eight
metals or neem-wood), Ka descends into the image and makes it
alive. After this, the Gau yas do not (as some Hindus do802 ) believe
the image to represent or contain Ka, but to be actually non-differ-
ent from Ka.803 By worshipping the image, the devotee can use
all his senses in the Lords service.804
The image is treated as being alive and dependent on its worship-
pers. For this reason it is awakened in the morning, bathed and
dressed in clothes suitable for the season, offered eatables and re-
freshments. In the day it gives audience (darana805 ) to the devo-
tees, and in the evening it is put to sleep. In big temples the image
may be worshipped with elaborate rituals and great pomp, while an
image in the house of a poor farmer will have to be content with less.
13.1.1 Giving darana

As an image gives darana to its devotee, a guru gives darana to his
disciples. Darana literally means seeing, but the idea is not of a
one-way action, but rather an audience where one person looks up
and the other down. In this case, it is of course the disciple who looks
up at the guru.
The Hari-bhakti-vilsa gives several rules in this connection. The
disciple should never come before the guru emptyhanded,806 and
801 See for example Sen (1991), 65.

802 Fuller (1992), 60
804 Ibid, 11-13
805 For an excellent treatment of the dynamics of darana, see Eck (1981).
806 HBV 4.343
247
upon seeing the guru he should immediately prostrate before him
like a rod fallen on the ground. While in the presence of the guru, he
should avoid stretching his feet, yawning, laughing, cracking the fin-
gers, instructing or worshipping others or displaying a haughty atti-
tude. The disciple should furthermore take care not to step over any-
thing intimately connected with the guru, such as his shoes, bed,
palanquin or canopy, not to speak of the guru himself. He should also
not leave before being given the express permission to do so.807 The
same rules are given for someone going for the darana of a god.808
Whether or not all these rules are emphasised and followed is an-
other thing. Only in ISKCON have I seen disciples bowing down
every time they see the guru. Elsewhere in the Hari-bhakti-vilsa it
is said that one should avoid stepping over the gurus shadow,809 but
I have never seen that rule being consistently followed. Regardless
of details, the basic idea is that the disciple comes before the guru
and receives the blessings of the guru. The disciple may (and is often
advised to) also put questions to the guru. In fact, as we saw above
(9.3.2), daranas are one of the main venues for the guru to give his
disciples spiritual advice.
The degree of intimacy between guru and disciple during
darana depends on the role the guru wants to emphasise: if it is the
father, the situation may be quite informal; if the feudal lord, ex-
tremely formal. In the latter case, disciples may take obtaining even
a glimpse of the guru as a treasured darana.810 The extreme is once
again taken by Jagadbandhu: he once gave a woman darana by
showing her his finger, covered by cloth, through a hole in the wall.811
807 HBV 1.82-91

808 See for example Bon Maharaj (1965), 147-149.
809 HBV 2.166
810 E.g. IF mgt 2001/78
811 Datta, in http://home.att.net/~haripurush-jagadbandhu/HTML/rambagan.htm
248
13.1.2 Receiving pj
The worship of images of gods in Hinduism is called pj and follows
the same basic structure all over India and even beyond. A fixed
number of upacras or articles of worship are offered to the image.
The most common list includes sixteen upacras: seven of welcom-
ing a seat, welcoming words, water for bathing the feet, water for
sprinkling on the head, water for sipping, a sweet drink and water for
sipping again; three of bathing a bath, clothing and ornaments; five
of general worship sandalwood, flowers, incense, lamps and food-
stuffs; and one concluding upacra offering respects.812
Being as it is at the centre of theistic Hinduism, pj has been ex-
tensively studied by scholars of Indian religion. Many interpret it as
an act of respectful honouring, much akin to how one would enter-
tain a king.813 However, there is also another, more intimate, aspect
to it: the god is entertained as a dear guest. As C.J. Fuller writes:
[pj] elaborates the hospitality of the home as much as the gran-
deur of the palace.814 In other words, pj implies a dramatic status
difference between worshipper and worshipped, but the act of wor-
ship signifies the momentary coming together of high and low. This
communion does not affect the status of the god, but it does affect
that of the worshipper, who is purified and temporarily given a
higher status.815
As mentioned above (12.1.1), the guru receives pj very similar
to that of an image. This is called guru-pj and even if the guru is
present in the vicinity, it is only on special occasions (such as when
he is installed as mahanta or crya, at the time of initiation, on the
day of guru-prim or at Vysa-pj) done directly to the living
form of the guru. Instead, it is directed to a picture or other represen-
812 Pañcartra Prad pa, Vol II, 133-135. Fuller (1992), 67 gives a slightly different
list.
813 Gonda (1970), 77
814 Fuller (1992), 69
815 Ketola (2002), 113
249
tation of him. While very similar, the worship is not exactly the same
as for Ka. For example, tulas -leaves are never offered to the feet
of the guru since they are reserved exclusively for Ka and his
avatras, but they may be offered to the heart of the guru, since
Ka is considered to reside there.816
13.1.3 Entering an image

For an image of a god to be properly consecrated for worship, a cer-
emony called pra-pratih or installation of life must be per-
formed. The details of this ceremony may vary (as usual, an ex-
tremely elaborate version is given in the Hari-bhakti-vilsa817 ), but
the idea is to call down the deity into the image and to bring all of its
senses to life. Such a ceremony may also be performed for an image
of a guru.
In the compound of the Govinda bi (temple) in Navadv pa I
witnessed part of the pra-pratih ceremony for images of three
past masters. The temple belongs to the Narottama parivra, and
the three images depicted the founder of that particular temple, af-
fectionately known as Bhvanevara Sdhu µhkura (?-1940), his
main disciple and grand-disciple.818 The three images were made of
plaster, life-size and brightly painted, and depicted the trio sitting
with legs crossed and their right hands in the characteristic Gau ya
small bag containing prayer-beads.
Two brhmanas performed the ceremonies while a crowd of
mostly elderly ladies watched. The older brhmana read mantras
(mainly so-called root-mantras consisting of particularly powerful
syllables, e.g. kl ) while the younger one touched the heart and
mouth of the three images with a bundle of holy kua-grass. Every
now and then the older brhmana exclaimed o pratiha!, be
816 Field notes, Vndvana, November, 2000.

817 HBV 20.820-998
818 Sardella (2002), 19
250
established!, to which the onlookers responded by joyous ulula-
tion.819
The function of images of past gurus such as these can be called
substitutive. When the guru is no longer present, he can be offered
pj and general reverence in the image form instead. Such images
are usually placed above the grave of the guru. Hindu saints are not
cremated, but buried, and above the grave a small monument is usu-
ally constructed, generally called a samdhi.820
The centre of such a samdhi is the image of the saint interred
there. In the first Gau ya Vaiava samdhis, such as those of Rpa
and Santana Gosvmins, the image is abstract, looking a little like a
big egg, but nowadays the ambition is that the images should be as
realistic as possible. They are generally made of plaster and painted.
The images are fed, offered pj and rati (waving of ghee-lamps,
etc.), prayed to, clothed and bathed just like the image of a god.
Theologically speaking, it is the divine nature of the guru that en-
ters the image and receives the offerings, the same Ka that speaks
through every guru, but in practical life, the two natures are not dif-
ferentiated. Many devotees think that somehow the guru after death
has acquired the power of expanding himself into a new form or
even several, since there may be several images of the same de-
ceased guru, all as much alive.821 As with images of Ka, a mythol-
ogy soon springs up around especially important guru-images.822
Apart from the worship of images, songs adressed to the guru also
often contain many phrases and pictures generally used for Ka. In
a song written for the midday worship at the samdhi of B.H. Bon
Mahrja, it is said that the gods behold the worship, hidden in the
clouds.823 B.H. Bon Mahrja himself sings elsewhere that he bows
819 Field notes, Navadv pa 30.12.2000

820 See Mahnidhi Swami (1993)
821 E.g. IF mgt 2000/91
822 IF mgt 2000/92
823 Premnanda Vana Mahrja (1994), 170
251
down at the feet of his guru, birth after birth, in life or death.824 An-
other Vaiava poet sings that if the guru is not merciful towards him,
he can only cry and cry and is not able to retain his life.825 Such
phrases are used very commonly in songs directed to Ka and
Caitanya.826
13.1.4 Purifying and spiritualising matter

Another important aspect of image worship is that the image is
thought to sanctify whatever comes in touch with it. For this reason,
the remnants of foodstuffs, garlands, tulas -leaves and other items
that have been offered to the image are distributed to the devotees
as sanctified articles. Strict Gau ya Vaiavas eat no food that has not
first been offered to an image of Ka. Such food is called prasda
(mercy) and considered greatly purifying. It is not just eaten, but
honoured.827 At festivals, Gau yas sit down in rows and freely eat
prasda together with each other, neglecting caste rules.
In Hindu culture, eating someones leftovers is taboo, but not in all
cases. The servant may eat his masters remnants, the wife those of
the husband, and so forth, but not the other way around. Consuming
someones remnants indicates acceptance of a great difference in
status. Eating prasda thus denotes recognition of ones position as a
servant of Ka. However, as pointed out by Kimmo Ketola, there is
also another side to prasda: it is thought to be contaminated with
Kas saliva. Since that saliva is divine, it contaminates the eater in
a positive way with divine qualities.828
Just as Ka, the guru is able to turn food offered to him into
prasda. In ancient times, the Vedic student would go around beg-
824 Bhaktihdaya Vana Devagosvm (1981), 4

825 Premnanda Vana Mahrja (1994), 21
826 E.g. ibid, 188-189
828 Ketola (2002), 113
252
ging, and after returning to the rama, he would offer his begging
bowl to the guru. After eating, the guru would give the remnants to
the disciple.829 This practice developed into offering the guru food
and taking the remnants as in the case of a god.830 As Gold says, in his
power to sancify food the guru seems to differ little from a god.831
In the Gau ya Vaiava sapradya the issue is somewhat more
complicated. While a disciple will offer food to the picture of image
of the guru (thinking that he will forward it to Ka), gurus them-
selves prefer to eat prasda and not unoffered food. For that reason,
when cooking for the guru, disciples will first offer the food to Ka
and then bring it as prasda to the guru. However, when they ritually
offer the food, they will first ritually give it to the guru.832 If they at
any rate offer the food to the guru on the altar, why not give it directly
to the guru in his room? Several devotees I have spoken to have not
been able to answer this question with more than that is just the way
it is done.833 The answer is to be found in the doctrine of the two-
fold nature of the guru. The guru himself is and thinks of himself as
Kas devotee, and therefore asks to be served prasda. The pic-
ture, conversely, represents the divine side of the guru. In any case,
the remnants of the gurus meal is twice contaminated: first by
Ka and then by the guru, so it is considered doubly spiritually po-
tent.
Another form of prasda which the guru traditionally awards his
disciples is allowing them to wash his feet and drink the water that
has been used. While some gurus have indicated that this custom is
on the decline,834 it is still very much part of the way of honouring a
guru, especially when he visits the home of disciples. The basis of
829 pastamba Dharma Stra 1.1.3.26-35 (in Olivelle 2000)

830 Bay-Schmidt (1989), 118
831 Gold (1987), 37
832 Field notes, Helsinki, August 2002
833 E.g. IF mgt 2000/91
834 IF mgt 2000/68
253
this ceremony is the idea that while for the saints themselves, their
feet are the lowest part of the body, for those below them, the feet
are the only part that can be accessed. While the dust of an ordinary
mans feet - or the water that has washed them - would be extremely
polluting, in the case of a saint the opposite is true. For this reason,
the feet (often called lotus feet835 ) of the guru are often used to
represent him, both in iconography and writing.836
13.2 Saving the disciples

While the guru is usually seen (as in the last chapter) as leading the
disciple to Ka, in Gau ya Vaiavism the guru is often seen as
more or less an independent saviour. He is sometimes compared to
a physician who saves the disciple-patient from the disease of
sasra.837 In fact, like the Tantric guru, the importance of the
Gau ya guru may overshadow that of Ka. As a verse quoted in
the Hari-bhakti-vilsa proclaims:
When Hari is angry, the guru can save, when the guru is angry, no-
body. Therefore, with all efforts the guru should certainly be
pleased!838
Especially in songs directed to the guru, he often seems to be an inde-

pendent saviour of his disciples. The famous Gau ya poet Narottama
Dsa sings of the guru as the only abode of devotion, his lord birth after
birth; about love for his feet as the ultimate goal; and how by whose
mercy one can cross over nescience and attain Ka.839 In Vivantha
Cakravartins Gurvaka or eight prayers to the guru (18th century), it
835 E.g. Gaur Govinda Swami Maharaja (1999), 1.

836 Narayan (1992), 82-83
837 E.g. BS 213, quoting BP 6.30.38.
838 HBV 4.360. anyatra ca harau rue gurus trt gurau rue na kacana/
tasmd sarva-prayatnena gurum eva prasdayet//
839 Bhakti-r rpa Siddhnt Gosvm Maharja (1995), 89.
254
is said that one who has the mercy of the guru attains the mercy of
Ka, but that one who does not will never attain it.840
The theological idea behind such statements is that since the guru is
supposed to be Kas dearest, his opinion will weigh heavily indeed
with Ka. However, gurus who feel a need for increasing their own
authority can use such statements for strenghtening their own posi-
tion, much as when the guru in the role of mediator between God and
man emphasises his own position as Kas dearest devotee (12.2). It
is thus also in this case difficult to distinguish this role from the previous
one.
13.3 Declaring himself God

The extreme limit of pursuing the role of manifestation of divinity is
when the guru crosses the line of Gau ya Vaiava orthodoxy and
declares that he is actually not only representing Ka, but Ka him-
self, descended to save humanity. Gurus who do so are usually consid-
ered heterodox, but in some cases they manage to remain on the
fringes of orthodoxy. For that, they must be charismatic enough and
others must have the option to politely disagree with their divinity, for
example by saying that it was the disciples of the guru who came up
with the idea (because they wanted to be disciples of God, not only of
an ordinary guru), not the charismatic person himself.841 Because the
guru is financially dependent on the disciples, he has to oblige
them.842 The facts do not seem to agree with such rationalisations.
Jagadbandhu, for example, spoke clearly about his own position as the
supreme Lord:
Govinda is the beginning of all, the origin of all creation. His existence
depends on nothing whatsoever, being the Supreme Being Himself -
840 Bhakti-r rpa Siddhnt Gosvm Maharja (1995), 6

841 E.g. O.B.L. Kapoor on Prabhu Jagadbandhu, in Kapoor (1995a), 94
842 Suhotra Swami (1997), 58
255
He is ®r ®r Ka and ®r ®r Gaurga [Caitanya]. He, who is the com-
bination of all powers of these two l ls of ®r ®r Ka and ®r ®r
Gaurga, is ®r ®r Haripurua Prabhu Jagadbandhu. Know me as to be
the same.843
Many of his disciples initially seem to have had a hard time digesting
some of his more unorthodox statements.844 Harantha, another unor-
thodox Gau ya Vaiava, also claimed to be a new avatra of
Caitanya, stated that himself on many occasions.845 Other gurus, such
as Rdh-ramaa Caraa Dsa Bbj or Bhaktivednta Swami
Prabhupda objected strongly when some of their disciples tried to
portray them as God, and did not hesitate to banish them if they did not
stop speaking such heresy.846 It does not thus seem that gurus need to
oblige their disciples in this way if they do not desire so themselves.
843 According to Kunja Lal Datta in http://home.att.net/~haripurush-jagadbandhu/

HTML/dhaka.htm
844 McDaniel (1989), 72
845 Ibid, 59
846 Kapoor (1995a), 213-214, Vaiyaisaki dasa Adhikari (1999), 299-318
256
IV CONCLUSION
14. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
14.1 Summary
The purpose of this study has been to identify, examine and charac-
terise the guru institution within Gau ya Vaiavism, the devotional
Hindu movement started by Ka Caitanya (1486-1534) in Bengal,
and besides that to arrive at some more general conclusions regard-
ing interpretation of sacred texts and the interplay between canon
and charisma.
This has been done through examining the way the movement
itself presents the guru, disciple and initiation, and through looking at
the ways in which the guru interacts with his disciples, well-wishers
and broader society. This study is written from the viewpoint of the
science of religion, incorporating religio-historical, antropological
and sociological viewpoints.
My primary theoretical framework has been the concepts of cha-
risma and canon. Max Weber defines charisma as a certain quality
of individual personality by virtue of which he is set apart from ordi-
nary men and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman,
or at least specifically exceptional powers or qualities. Charisma can
be divided into personal charisma, meaning charisma that is born of
and dependent on the particular qualities of an individual person,
and institutional charisma, charisma derived from an institution the
charismatic person is connected to. Weber has further described six
different types of charismatic personages, none of which alone cov-
ers the Gau ya Vaiava guru.
Canon is defined by Heinrich von Stietencron as the result of a
deliberate attempt to collect, arrange and preserve the original mes-
sage of a religious community, and to protect it against corruption. It
transforms haphazard individual recollections into authoritative tradi-
tion or sacred scripture. According to Ilkka Pyysiäinen a canon is
257
moreover authoritative, explaining and justifying a specific kind of
life, ethics and theology. There are different ways to categorise sa-
cred texts, but they do not work very well in this case. For modern
Gau yas, the writings of the six Gosvmins of Vndvana, a group
of ascetic and scholarly followers of Caitanya, form the basis of the
canon, whose boundaries sometimes are a little vague.
Since the Gau yas Vaiavas are very much textually oriented, I
have made an in-depth study of what their canonical writings say
about the subject of the guru. For analysing the scriptural statements,
I have used Roy Rappaports hierarchy of understandings. He argues
that there are four levels of understanding theological teachings. The
first level, at the apex of the conceptual structure, he calls the ulti-
mate sacred postulates. These are postulates, that is, claimed with-
out demonstration, for example the statement that Ka is the su-
preme Lord.
The next level Rappaport calls cosmological axioms. These are
assumptions concerning the fundamental structure of the universe,
the logical basis of rules of conduct and proprieties of social life. They
can, unlike ultimate sacred postulates, change, expand or even be
radically changed, in response to changes in the environment. An
example of this is the common Hindu belief that human society is
created as a fourfold system of vara and rama.
The third level consists of rules of conduct. These are specifics
dealing with relations among persons, qualities, conditions and states
of affairs whose opposition are stated by cosmological axioms. They
govern the behaviour of everyday life. These rules can be changed,
even drastically, without affecting the oppositions they make mate-
rial. The fourth and last level consists of importations, or indicators of
prevailing environmental conditions.
One of the problems inherent in the textual sources of the move-
ment is that they are normative. Here textual criticism is important.
Moreover, I have complemented the written material with inter-
views of gurus and disciples. The interviews have been done prima-
rily in major Gau ya Vaiava centres in India, where I have also
258
done my participant observation. The interviews followed a basic set
of questions, but were kept as informal and free-flowing as possible.
In chosing interviewees, my main concern was to get as wide a spec-
trum of Gau ya Vaiavism as possible represented. The interviews
were subsequently transcribed and qualitatively analysed.
Besides the interviews, the main method of my fieldwork was
participant observation, or making observations while participating
oneself. The idea is, as first stated by Bronislaw Malinowski, to stay
long enough in the field for the natives getting used to and accepting
the fieldworker as some kind of group member, so that their behav-
iour and actions are not affected by his presence. I did most of my
participant observation in Vndvana, a major Gau ya Vaiava cen-
tre that I was somewhat acquainted with from before.
Since the theology of the Gau ya Vaiavas has already been ex-
tensively studied, I have only given a brief overview of the parts of it
relevant for this thesis. The Gau yas worship Ka as the highest
God and see all other Hindu gods as his servants and expansions.
Ka is conceived of as sagua, a personal being with divine quali-
ties, and the individual souls are considered inconceivably simulta-
neously one and different from him, but the stress is on the differ-
ence. The goal of life for all souls is not to merge into an impersonal
oneness with Ka, but to attain preman or ecstatic love for him, as
exemplified by Caitanya himself.
Following Wach, I have retained the sanskrit term sapradya to
denote the type of movement started by Caitanya. Wach defines a
sapradya as a group with special concepts, forms of worship,
and adherence to exclusive leadership excercised by an outstanding
religious personality or by his physical and spiritual descendant.
Many similar bhakti sapradyas sprung up in North India during
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. They all had some common
denominators, such as expressing themselves through the vernacu-
lars instead of Sanskrit; rejecting the religious monopoly of the
brhmaas; and encouraging an enthusiastic religion of congrega-
tional singing and dancing as a way to reach communion with God.
259
In terms of organisation, what is particular for the Gau ya
Vaiava sapradya is its loose and semi-democratic nature with
no universal authority. Rather, several different vaas (lines of he-
reditary gurus) and parivras (lines of appointed gurus) have sprung
up, all having some individual characteristics. This sapradya can
moreover be called denominational rather than sectarian, since it
usually differentiates between a religious and a social sphere of ac-
tion. In terms of influence and comparative size, the heyday of the
sapradya was in the seventeenth century, with a strong revival in
the later part of the nineteenth. Today, Gau ya Vaiavism has in
Bengal been clearly outdistanced by ®ktism, the worship of Durg,
Kl and so forth.
Gau ya Vaiava practitioners can be divided into four classes:
goswamis or hereditary brhmaa gurus; ghasthas or householder la-
ity; bbj s or renunciants; and jti vaiavas or a class of hereditary
laymen, originally stemming from wayward renunciates and persons
who had been ostracised from their own community. The last group
has during the last century to a large extent become amalgamated
with the second. There are also some modern groups of Gau ya
Vaiavas (e.g. ISKCON) that do not fit into the traditional vaas and
parivras and who have some peculiar teachings, but that still gener-
ally are held to belong to the Gau ya Vaiava sapradya.
I started part two of the thesis, dealing with the Gau ya Vaiava
doctrine of the guru, with a slightly modified version of the typology of
Hindu gurus presented by Ralph Marc Steinmann. He argues that
there are five basic types of gurus that are roughly chronological. The
first is the Vedic type. Here the guru is predominantly a teacher of the
hymns of the Vedas. He would always be a householder and a
brhmaa. Next comes the Upaniadic type, where the gurus role is
completely different: rather than only teach the disciple the Vedic
hymns, he tries to help his disciple realise otherwordly knowledge. For
this reason, he himself must be apart from learned in the scripture also
mystically realised. Now the ideal was an ascetic rather than a house-
holder.
260
The third type is the Jñna-guru of ®akara and his followers. More
emphasis on asceticism than before, and instead of retreating into a
rural rama with his disciples, this type of guru founds mahas in cities
and may have tens of thousands of disciples. He may also have politi-
cal power. The fourth type is the Bhakti-guru, divided into two
stages. Now the guru helps the disciple in drawing down the mercy
of God. In the earlier stage the guru is worshipped like God, while he
in the later stage is God. His main qualification is now his ardent de-
votion to God, a qualification that may override a low social status,
illiteracy and so forth. The climax in the merging of guru and God
comes in the Tantra-guru, where the guru may be even more impor-
tant than God. Detailed criteria is drawn up for guru and disciple,
even though they are more of ideals than actual reality.
Important to note here are two parallel lines of development. On
the one hand, the importance of the guru grows from stage to stage:
from teacher to metaphysical teacher, representative of God and fi-
nally God himself. On the other hand the criteria for determining
who is a competent guru become progressively more elusive.
As far as the ontological position given to the guru by Gau ya
Vaiava theologians is concerned, I have argued that it best can be
described as dual. The guru has two natures: as a human being and as
a devotee of a Ka he is a man, but since Ka speaks through him
to the disciple, he is also God. For the disciple, the second nature is
more important, and he is for different reasons urged to view the
guru in this light. Others, and the guru himself, will see him as a man
- perhaps on a higher level than most others, but still not God.
In Gau ya Vaiavism, having a guru is seen by most theologians
to be an absolute necessity. Different reasons are given, most based
on a cosmological axiom of bound and liberated souls. The bound
souls are engrossed in matter and need outside help to extricate
themselves. The type of theological argument emphasised has prac-
tical consequenses: for example, those who argue that one needs a
guru to function as a guide will be more prone to propose abandon-
ing the guru if he does not fulfill the expectations placed on a spritual
261
guide. For those who emphasise that the ultimate sacred postulate of
the Gau yas, Ka himself, appears through the guru, the human
side of the guru is less important, including also various types of hu-
man weaknesses.
The Gau ya Vaiava sapradya recognises two main types of
gurus: the d k- and the ik-guru. The function of the first one is to
give the disciple initiation. The second class of gurus functions as
advisors and teachers to guide the disciple in his daily spiritual life. A
disciple may have several ik-gurus, but only one d k-guru. In
practical life, any one or all these gurus will be given special rever-
ence by the disciple. Usually, the d k-guru will be most revered.
Still, it is the ik-guru who needs more qualifications or charisma
the d k-guru may have only institutional charisma. Gurus may fur-
thermore be either householders or ascetics, with traditionally the
first group functioning as d k-gurus.
Because of the different functions of these gurus, earlier defini-
tions of the guru are not appropriate here. Emic definitions, on the
other hand, are too vague. I have opted for a new definition of the
Gau ya Vaiava guru as a charismatic person who is offered spe-
cial reverence by one or several persons on account of his award-
ing him/ them initiation and/ or especially important spiritual
advice.
Describing the charisma of the guru, the theologians put great
emphasis on his personal qualities. Generally speaking, the guru is
supposed to have knowledge about the canon and about Ka, and
to himself be fixed in bhakti or devotion to Ka. Long lists are given
of desireable qualities, but I argue that they are to be taken as ideals
rather than actually necessary qualifications. For the most part, the
Gau ya guru corresponds with the first stage of the Bhakti-guru, but
he has influences from all types. Moreover, with the routinisation of
the primary charisma of the first gurus, the emphasis has changed
from personal to institutional qualifications, so much so that some
persons are viewed as fully qualified d k-gurus simply by being
born in the right family.
262
A person wishing to become initiated into the Gau ya Vaiava
sapradya will thus have to find such a guru. There are many ways
to go about this. In what I call the classic method, the prospective
disciple gets a call to renounce the world and goes searching for a real
guru. After meeting many disappointments and frustrations, he fi-
nally finds his guru. In this method, the independent endeavour of
the disciple is highlighted. Another method is to view the guru as
predestined, either partially or fully, by the disciples previous devo-
tional merits. I argue that the idea of the predestination of the guru is
especially popular amongst those who did acquire the kind of guru
they initially wanted. The third method downplays the need for indi-
vidual searching for a guru even more: here the guru is chosen on the
basis of social reasons, for example since he is the guru of the hus-
band also. In my material, this method proves to be the most usual.
Traditionally, once a disciple has taken initiation from a guru, he
can never give up his guru. That idea is also mirrored by the earliest
of the Gau ya Vaiava sources I have used: even if fallen, ignorant
or envious, the guru may never be given up. However, there is one
exception: if for some reason a person has taken initiation from a
non-Vaiava guru, that guru should be given up and a Vaiava guru
taken instead. The reason given is that while a Vaiava mantra will
lead the devotee to Viu or one of his forms such as Ka, a non-
Vaiava mantra will lead to hell. Another theologian has added to
this exception the idea of a Vaiava guru becoming a non-Vaiava,
thus opening up a debate about who is a real Vaiava guru and who
not. Contemporary gurus offer very different interpretations of this
issue. While they base their arguments on the same sources and give
seemingly theologically based guidelines for when to give up a
fallen guru and to accept a new, the basis of such arguments are
usually institutional politics.
Since giving initiation or d k is the primary function of the d k-
guru, I have devoted one chapter to this subject. D k is the ritual by
which the disciple is accepted as a member of the religious commu-
nity, given the eligibility for worshipping Ka, special rules to abide
263
by, and awarded one or several mantras. Often he is also given a new
name. The medieval sources describe very elaborate ceremonies
that nowadays are greatly simplified. Moreover, initiation is today
generally two-fold: first the candidate is given the mah-mantra
consisting of names of Ka, and later, usually at least half a year af-
terwards, the mantra(s).
Apart from this, there are two more kinds of initiation: when the
disciple is given knowledge of his spiritual identity (siddha-svarpa)
and when he is given the ascetic order of vea or sannysa. The sec-
ond is purely optional, mainly for religious virtuosi, and the first is
generally given only to disciples deemed especially advanced. Gu-
rus differ radically in defining who is qualified, since the canonical
basis is not very clear on this point.
Within Gau ya Vaiavism, there is no developed system for
punishing or correcting disciples who break the rules they have
agreed to follow at the time of initiation. Generally, no other atone-
ment than remorse and continuing on with the duties given by the
guru is demanded. Still, I have argued that there are four cases in
which special atonement is meted out to an errant Gau ya Vaiava:
1) when the offense is especially great, 2) when a small offense is
repeated several times, 2) when the reputation of the guru or the
institution is at risk, and 4) when the offender is well-known. In all
cases, the atonement asked of the offender is determined on an ad-
hoc basis.
In examining the relationship between guru and disciple and for
further investigating the charisma of the guru, I have constructed a
typology of seven roles that every Gau ya Vaiava guru will take
up in relationship to his disciples and admirers. Individual gurus may
emphasise one or several of these roles, moulding them to suit their
own and their disciples needs. All of the roles include both personal
and institutional charisma, but in different degrees.
The first role is that of a parent, usually a father. This is seen in how
the guru creates a kind of spiritual family around himself, some-
times forming much stronger ties between the member than biologi-
264
cal ones. Gurus wishing to emphasise this role may take on duties
ordinarily connected with the biological father, such as arranging
marriages for their disciples, helping them find jobs, and so on. I have
pointed out how this role is often taken up by gurus in Gau ya
Vaiava groups with a pronounced sectarian character. Here the
charisma of the guru works in an integrative way.
The second role is the feudal lord. Likening the guru to a feudal
lord helps in understanding many of the arrangements surrounding
him, such as how he can appoint subordinate gurus that function
somewhat like sub-vassals or how he himself is appointed. I have
shown how there within the Gau ya Vaiava sapradya are four
basic ways of routinising the personal charisma of a guru, all similar to
how a feudal lord may gain his throne: inheritance by primogeniture,
appointment by the previous one, appointment by a board of ex-
perts, and just appointing oneself.
A guru who wishes to emphasise this role may do so by increasing
the regalia or majestic pomp around himself, to clearly show the sta-
tus difference between himself and his disciples. Often, it leads to
distancing himself from the disciples, not to speak of society at large.
Here the charisma of the guru thus becomes isolative. This distance
need not be taken negatively by the disciples, rather, it may elevate
the status of the guru further.
In this connection I have also dealt with the power or authority
excerted by the guru, using Bernard de Jouvenels tripartite classifi-
cation into extensiveness, comprehensiveness and intensiveness of
authority. I have argued against the popular notion of gurus being
very strong in the two latter regards: in most cases, gurus do not have
very much authority even in these ways. The exception to this are
ascetic disciples, who are subjected to very comprehensive and
sometimes rather intensive authority.
The third role, that of a teacher, is especially reserved for the ik-
guru, but the d k-guru will also function as a teacher at least at the
time of initiation, when he teaches the disciple the mantra. Moreo-
ver, much of the teaching the disciple claims to receive from the guru
265
comes in a non-verbal form: through observing the conduct of the
guru, miracles performed by him, and so forth. Thus, this role is not
completely dependent on personal charisma. When a guru does
want to systematically teach his disciples, it usually takes the form of
explicating scripture, either as public readings and explanations of
some canonical work, or as more intimate sessions between guru and
a few disciples. The main difference between the two is that the sec-
ond type permits much more interaction between guru and disciple.
The disciple may - and is advised to - ask questions of the guru.
The fourth role is that of a preserver of tradition. The pan-Indian
idea of a continuous degeneration of the world gives great
importantance to the canon, where eternal truths are thought to be
encapsulated from the corruptive influence of time. However, I
have shown how the canon does not seem to be able to stand on its
own: it needs to be repeated and explicated by a living charismatic
guru to retain its authority.
Apart from passing on the canon, gurus are also expected to main-
tain the customs and tradition of the parapar they belong to. This
includes particular teachings and rituals. They may also have to main-
tain an temple or rama founded by a predecessor, usually centred
on an image of Ka. The spiritual standing of a guru and a whole
institution is often measured by how well the worship of such an
image is taken care of. Several methods have been tried for this, of
which the most successful seems to have been families taking care of
the worship in a rotating system.
Gurus who desire to enter this role more deeply often do so by
championing what they consider the correct understanding of doctri-
nal and ritual matters. Because of the absence of any one authority
ruling over all Gau ya Vaiavism, and because of the great number
of different interpretations, there is no end to the deviations and
misunderstandings such a guru will find and direct his energy to-
wards correcting. However, I have also shown how gurus nowadays
do not have the authority to do much more than notice and propa-
gate against the faults they find.
266
The fifth role is the renewer of tradition. At first glance, this seems
to be the opposite of the previous role, but on closer investigation it
is seen to be in many ways be connected with it. To preserve the
canon, the guru has to repeat and interpret it in a way accessible to
his disciples. In this minimal way, even gurus who pride themselves
on not changing one word of the traditional teachings are renewers
of the tradition.
Gurus that want to do more reforming generally busy themselves
with giving new interpretations of doctrines and rituals on
Rappaports plane of rules of conduct. It is rare that anyone will ven-
ture to try and change cosmological axioms. In practical terms,
adapting rituals and ritual behaviour are things that reformers usually
take up. They may also add details to old doctrines, even interpret
them in a radically new way, but they must not explicitly contradict
past masters.
The sixth role is that of a mediator between God and man. The
theological idea of everyone needing a guru to approach Ka was
here illustated with several examples from rituals. Moreover, I have
shown how the guru is held to act as a via medium in the other direc-
tion also: sometimes Ka takes his form to interact with the devo-
tee, especially in dreams.
While this role is very strongly a manifestation of the gurus institu-
tional charisma, personal charisma can be added by a guru who opts
for emphasising this role more. When he does so, he often empha-
sises his own unique position as Kas dearest devotee and as the
only one able to lead the disciples to salvation, much like the
prophet in Webers typology. Since humility is the cardinal virtue of
Gau ya Vaiavism, gurus will have to do so in a roundabout way,
looking sometimes rather comical to outsiders.
The seventh and last role is that of a manifestation of divinity.
This role also comes out mostly in rituals, where the guru is often
treated as a divinity even if the disciples do not emphasise the divine
nature of the guru. In order to understand the context of these rituals,
I briefly described the doctrine behind image worship in Gau ya
267
Vaiavism, where the properly fashioned and installed image is
treated as a special kind of avatra of Ka.
I gave four examples of how the guru is treated very much like
God in rituals: at the time of darana, when offered pj, when he is
thought to enter an image and when he is held to spiritualise matter.
Especially for understanding the details of the last case, understand-
ing the dual nature ascribed to the guru by Gau ya theologians is
helpful. Finally, I gave two examples of how the guru can enlarge
the scope of this role by adding his personal charisma, by becoming
the sole saviour of his disciples, and in extreme cases, by declaring
himself God.
14.2 Conclusions
Below I will restate some of the more important conclusions I have
drawn from the material at hand, the two first pertaining primarily to
the Gau ya Vaiava sapradya, and the two latter of a more gen-
eral application.
14.2.1 Characterising the guru

Max Weber locates the guru in either the category of the teacher of
ethics or as the mystagogue, both of which implement an estab-
lished social order rather than break with it, as the prophet does. In
the case of the Gau ya Vaiavism, the case is as we have seen
rather more complicated. Because of his strong link to the canon, the
Gau ya guru cannot be classified as a magician. While the
mystagogue type of guru is found in more Tantric quarters, some
Gau ya gurus are indeed teachers of ethics. However, some of the
goswami gurus are very much akin to priests, while renunciant gurus
may indeed break social norms and thus be either ethical- or exem-
plary prophets. Some gurus may even be sacred legislators. Where
then to locate the guru?
268
It is obviously not possible to find one single slot for the guru. One
has to recognise that the guru is another kind of category than
those presented by Weber. Not to speak of the Hindu guru, in the
comparatively small sapradya I have examined we find gurus
belonging to four out of six categories. I have therefore opted for just
calling the guru a charismatic person, leaving open the kind of cha-
risma he possesses. As we have seen, all Gau ya gurus will have
both personal and institutional charisma, but the proportions vary.
What characterises the guru here is that he awards one or several
people (either initiated disciples or other well-wishers and admir-
ers), initiation and/ or especially important spiritual advice. In other
words, his function can be either initiating or educative, or both. The
educative function could apply to many Gau ya Vaiava practi-
tioners, but it is not meaningful to call them all gurus. For that reason
I have added that he is shown special reverence not necessarily by
everyone (as is implied in the definition of Jan Gonda, quoted in 1.1),
but by one or several followers and disciples. When all these condi-
tions apply, we have found a guru.
I believe that this definition will also apply to other sapradyas
than just the Gau ya Vaiava. Many sapradyas have different
types of gurus, not all of whom necessarily give their followers initia-
tion, but who still are considered and treated as some kind of guru.
14.2.2 The charisma of the guru

In describing the personality of the guru, I have called him charis-
matic, further adding that this charisma may be either personal or in-
stitutional. I recognise the danger in imposing this external scale on a
phenomena that does not recognise such distinctions. Neither the
gurus nor their disciples distinguish between these types of cha-
risma; rather, for them the guru is simply a heavy, authoritative
person.
Furthermore, the material has shown that both types of charisma
are held by all gurus. The following chart illustrates the predomi-
269
nance of either type of charisma, P standing for personal charisma,
and I for institutional, in my scheme of seven roles of the guru.
Renewer Feudal lord Preserver of tradition Mediator

P I
Parent Teacher Manifestation of Divinity
Important to note is, again, that every role includes some amount of
both personal and institutional charisma. Even though the role as
renovator of tradition is the one that rests the least on institutional
charisma, and the role as meditor between God and man the least on
personal charisma, the opposite types of charisma are present also in
these roles. Moreover, the more to the left a role is, the less the guru
has to enter into it. A guru need only be a renewer of tradition, for
example, in a minimal way, while every guru very much has to be a
mediator between God and man.
Still, the distinction between the two types of charisma is useful. It
helps in highlighting the ways in which a special guru will differ
from other, ordinary gurus. This is brought out well, I believe, in my
typology of seven roles of the guru, where all roles are mandatory for
every guru, but all have aspects that can be emphasised by person-
ally charismatic gurus, some more than other. Granted, there is some
overlap between the roles, but not so much as to invalidate the
scheme.
14.2.3 The interplay between canon and charisma

I have many times stated and shown how the guru is bound to the
canon, even if he himself is a very charismatic and innovative person.
The interplay between the two is nicely shown in how new interpre-
tations succeed. For a new interpretation to be accepted outside the
circle of disciples and other followers, I have argued that three factors
must be in balance. This is best illustrated through the following dia-
gram:
270
Social or theological need
Canonic suitability Charisma of innovator
The three points of the triangle represent the tree factors that must
be in balance for the innovation to succeed. The three points must all
draw the o of the innovation towards themselves with equal
strenght. If there is too little pull from the direction of for example
canonic suitability as in the example I have given of Bhaktivinodas
interpretation of the three levels of eligibility for devotion the inno-
vation will likely fail. For a change of a cosmological axiom to be suc-
cessful, it must have very strong support from all three sides.
However, there is one more factor that has to be taken into consid-
eration. Within the Gau ya Vaiava sapradya, an innovation can
become recognised as a part of canon within a very short time. As
part of canon, it is no longer as dependent on somebodys charisma
as it was before, and may survive even if the innovator subsequently
loses his charismatic position.
While the two concepts of canon and charisma thus are useful, we
do best by not separating them too much, just as in the case of the
roles of preserver and renewer of tradition. The sapradya itself
generally does not distinguish them, but rather sees some modifica-
tion of the message as necessary for the successful preservation of its
essence. In the same way, in the Gau ya Vaiava sapradya,
there is no real meaning to canon without charisma. First of all, the
canon is recognised to have its origin in the visions and realisations of
charismatic persons, and secondly, without being explicated by a
contemporary, living charismatic person, it does not fully open up to
271
the reader. Similarly, even in the Hari-bhakti-vilsa, where personal
qualifications of the guru are given great emphasis, knowledge of
the canon is declared to be of paramount importance. Furthermore,
when charismatic innovators want to propagate their ideas, they al-
most always do so using the medium of interpreting the holy writ.
What I want to argue is that in this case, and probably also in other
Indian contexts, canon and charisma must not be taken as polar op-
posites. In the writings of Weber and others who have studied a
Western context, the impression is sometimes given of charisma as
an immensely revolutionary and disruptive element. Here, the two
work in a rather symbiotical relationship. This is because of the na-
ture of the system of guru-parapar: to preserve the essence
(however that is defined) while allowing rules of conduct and impor-
tations the change needed to keep the sapradya from losing its
relevancy. New charisma is often surprisingly quickly routinised and
preserved until the next renewer comes along.
However, the parapar system also has inborn weaknesses: in
the absence of personally charismatic renewers, it responds slowly
to changes in the environment. Generally, this has been no problem,
but in the present day, when Gau ya Vaiavism has become a
world religion, with all the challenges connected with that, and when
changes in Indian society happen quicker than ever, Gau ya
Vaiavism seems to be losing terrain. On the other hand, organisa-
tions founded by charismatic renewers (such as Bhaktisiddhnta
Sarasvat ) tend to become plagued by problems of succession after
the death of the founder, since there are often no sufficiently person-
ally charismatic disciple to take over, or then too many. It remains to
be seen what the best organisational model for Gau ya Vaiavism
in the 21st century will be.
14.2.4 As Good as God

Early Gau ya Vaiava authors were faced with a delicate theologi-
cal dilemma: one the one hand, scriptures commonly held to be ca-
272
nonical spoke of the guru as being one with God, and on the other
hand, Caitanya clearly eschewed the monistic idea of any individual
soul ever being or becoming God. Somehow, both views had to be
harmonised.
While different approaches were tried, the view that gradually
won prominence was that of the two natures of the guru, or that by
himself, the guru was a devotee of Ka, but that for his disciple he
was a manifestation of Ka.
Such theological wranglings may seem rather meaningless. When
Amma, a popular contemporary Hindu guru, is ritually worshipped
as Dev by her followers, it is condemned as myvda by Gau ya
Vaiavas, who are quick to point out that there is only one Dev , and
that the scriptures say nothing about her taking the form of a south
Indian woman in kali-yuga. Still, the same Gau yas worship their
own gurus as Ka on a daily basis. Does it make any difference
whether one sees the guru as directly the divinity or as a channel
through which the divinity reveals itself? At first sight no: the pj will
look the same in both cases, but when we take a closer look, such
theological details do influence rituals and day-to-day behaviour, as I
have shown above (13.1.4) with the case of offering the guru food.
As we have seen, this solution made it possible for theologians to
both agree and disagree with the two propositions above. Moreover,
this model could explain sometimes seemingly wild statements
about the power of the guru that he is capable of liberating or de-
stroying, and so forth without compromising the authority and
truth of the scriptures.
I believe that the last point is of paramount importance. Through-
out the history of the Gau ya Vaiava sapradya, its theologians
have been constantly reinterpreting, modifying and even contradict-
ing the views of previous authorities but very rarely explicitly say-
ing that they disagree. Rather, they have been bringing forth hidden
meanings, unearthing what he actually wanted to say, but was un-
able to say for social reasons, what his disciples were not ready to
hear, and so forth. All of these reasons are of course excuses. Duc
273
de la Rochefoucauld said that hypocrisy is the homage vice pays to
virtue, and in the same way, refuting the opinions of previous au-
thorities without being able to say that one does so, is perhaps the
clearest sign of how important canon is to the Gau ya Vaiava guru.
There is, finally, another reason for not contradicting the state-
ments about the divinity of the guru. When submission to the guru is
held as such an important principle for advancing on the path to-
wards God, stating that if the guru is not exactly God, he should at
least be regarded as God, will invest the guru with very strong institu-
tional charisma. In this way, for his disciple, the guru will indeed be-
come as good as God.
274
GLOSSARY OF NAMES
Acyutnanda 16th century. The most famous of

Advaitas sons.
Advaita 1454-1550. One of Caitanyas main companions,
considered an avatra of Mah-viu or ®iva.
Ananta Dsa Bbj The present mahanta of Rdh-kua
and a well-known Gau ya Vaiava scholar and guru.
Ananta Vsudeva Dsa 1895-1959. Disciple of
Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat who was elected his successor in
1937, but later gave up his post.
Baladeva Vidybhaa Eighteenth century. Gau ya
Vaiava scholar of the ®ymnanda parivra best known for
his Govinda-bhya commentary on the Vednta-stra.
Balarma Kas brother and first expansion.
Bhakti Prajñna Keava Mhj. 1898-1968. Disciple of
Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat and founder of the Gau ya
Vednta Samiti.
Bhakti Prajñna Yati Maharaja 1929-. Granddisciple of
Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat . crya of ®ri Caitanya Maha.
Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat 1874-1937. Son of Kedarntha Datta
and founder of the Gau ya Maha.
Bhaktivednta Nryaa Mhj. 1921-. Disciple of Bhakti
Prajñna Keava Mahrja. Co-crya of the Gau ya Vednta
Samiti.
Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda 1896-1977. Disciple of
Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat and founder of ISKCON.
B.H. Bon Mahrja 1901-1982. Disciple of Bhaktisiddhnta
Sarasvat and founder of the Rdh-Govinda Trust.
Caitanya 1486-1533. Considered a combined avatra of Rdh
and Ka by the Gau ya Vaiavas.
Gaddhara 15th-16th century. One of Caitanyas closest associ-
ates. Considered an avatra of Rdh.
275
Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin 1505-1586. One of the six
Gosvmins of Vndvana. Author of the Hari-bhakti-vilsa and
founder of the Rdh-ramaa temple.
Gopnanda Bon Maharja 1930-. Disciple of B.H. Bon
Maharja and present crya of the Rdh-Govinda Trust.
Gop ntha 1) Lit. Lord of the cowherdesses, name of Ka, 2)
a particular image of Ka in Puri.
Haridsa Dsa 1901-1957. Renunciant and scholar, best known
for his monumental dictionary Gau ya-vaiava-abhidhna.
vara Pur 15th-16th century. Caitanyas guru.
Jagadbandhu 1871-1921. Charismatic preacher. Considered
Ka himself by his followers in the Mahnma sapradya.
J va Gosvmin 1516-1608. One of the six Gosvmins of
Vndvana. Author of the Bhakti-sandarbha and founder of the
Rdh-damodara temple.
Kavi Karapra 16th century. Poet and theologian, author of
the Gaura-ganoddea-d pik.
Kedarntha Datta Bhaktivinoda 1838-1914. Prominent re-
former from the Jhnava parivra.
Ka The supreme God of the Gau ya Vaiavas.
Kadsa Kavirja 1517-1610. Author of the Caitanya-
caritmta.
Ka Goplnanda Deva Goswami 1959-. Goswami coming
in the Rasiknanda vaa. Adhikarin in charge of the Rdh-
ymasundara temple in Vndvana.
Ka Keavnanda Deva Goswami 1949-. Goswami coming
in the Rasiknanda vaa. Head of the ®ymnanda parivra.
Lalit One of Rdhs intimate girlfriends.
Mdhavendra Pur 15th century. Caitanyas gurus guru. Pioneer
of the kind of bhakti Caitanya popularised.
Mah-viu Lit. Great Viu, Kas first Viu expansion.
Narottama Dsa 17th century. Famous preacher and author of
Bengali devotional songs. Originator of a new parivra.
Nitynanda 1473-1545. One of Caitanyas main companions,
276
considered an avatra of Balarma.
Padmanbha Goswami 1956-. Goswami in the Rdh-ramaa
temple vaa.
Puruottama Goswami 1920-. Goswami in the Rdh-ramaa
temple vaa.
Rdh Kas cowherdess girlfriend and primary akti.
Rdh-ramaa Caraa Dsa Bbj 1853-1905. Charismatic
preacher and founder of the Rma Dsa parivra.
Rghuntha Dsa Gosvmin 16th century. One of the six
Gosvmins of Vndvana, best known for his intense austerities.
Rasiknanda 17th century. Chief disciple of ®ymnanda and
famous preacher.
Rpa Gosvmin One of the six Gosvmins of Vndvana. Au-
thor of the Bhakti-rasmta-sindhu.
Santana Gosvmin Eldest of the six Gosvmins of Vndvana.
®akara 9th century. Founder of the advaita or monistic school
of Vednta and the Daanmin order of sannysins.
Satyanryaa Dsa Bbj 1955-. Disciple of Haridsa ®str
of the Gaddhara parivra.
®r vsa 15th-16th century. One of Caitanyas closest associates.
®r vatsa Goswami 1952-. Goswami in the Rdh-ramaa tem-
ple vaa son of Puruottama Goswami. Director of ®r Caitanya
Prema Sasthna.
Swami B.V. Tripurri 1949-. Disciple of Bhaktivednta Swami
Prabhupda and founder of the Gau ya Vaiava Society.
®ymnanda 1556-1634 (?). Charismatic preacher and origina-
tor of a new parivra.
Vijaya Ka Goswami 1841-1899. Charismatic preacher of the
Advaita-vaa.
Vivantha Cakravartin 18th century. Theologian, best known
for his commentaries on Rpa Gosvmins works.
Vivambhara Mira Pre-sannysa name of Caitanya.
277
GLOSSARY OF PLACES AND TERMS
Several of the terms below have many meanings, of which only

those relevant in this thesis are given.
crya 1) Synonym for guru, 2) type of guru found especially

in the Gau ya Mahas.
Adhikrin See 8.1.2.
Advaitin Follower of the monistic philosophy of ®akara.
gama Class of Hindu scripture, usually in the form of discus-
sions between ®iva and ®akti.
Anuccheda Passage of the Bhakti-sandarbha.
rama 1) Religious commune or school, 2) Four stages of life:
brahmacarya, celibate studenthood; garhastya, married life;
vnaprasthya, retirement; and sannysa, renunciation.
Avatra Lit. descent. Form of God that has descended to this
world. In Gau ya Vaiava theology not an incarnation in the
sense that it would have a material body or be bound by material
laws.
Bbj Lit. respected father, Gau ya Vaiava mendicant.
Bhva 1) Spiritual emotion, 2) type of relationship between
devotee and Ka.
Brahm sapradya The sapradya said to come from
Brahm, also known as the Madhva-sapradya.
Brahmacrin 1) Person in the first rama, 2) novice residing in
an rama or maha.
Caitya-guru The guru in the heart.
Cmara Hand-held whisk traditionally made of a yaks tail.
Dakia A gift offered to the guru, usually money.
Daanmin The institution of ten different orders of sannysa
introduced by ®akara.
D k-guru Initiating guru.
Dhot Traditional Indian garment worn by men, a cloth wrapped
around the waist.
279
Dvaita Madhvas Vedntic philosophy of dualism.
Ekda The eleventh lunar day, observed by especially
Vaiavas through fasting and increased religious activities.
Gau ya Maha Institution founded by Bhaktisiddhnta
Sarasvat , now split into many branches.
Gau ya Vaiava A person initiated into the sapradya of
Caitanya.
Gau ya Vaiavism The sapradya stemming from the as-
sociates of Caitanya.
Gay Town in Bihar, famous for the temple of Vius footprint.
Gop Cowherdess of Vndvana, expansions of Rdh.
Gosvmin Lit. master of the cows/ senses, title of Gau ya
Vaiava renunciants.
Gosvmins of Vndvana Group of six ascetic sixteenth-cen-
tury followers of Caitanya who settled in Vndvana, wrote im-
portant theological works and founded temples.
Goswami A guru coming in a seminal line of gurus.
Ghastha Householder, lay member of the Gau ya Vaiava
sapradya.
Homa Fire sacrifice.
Japa Silently reciting prayers or mantras, often with the help of
a rosary.
Jti Vaiava Class of hereditary Gau ya Vaiavas stemming
perhaps from fallen bbj s and mtj s.
Jñna Knowledge.
Kaupina Type of underwear consisting of two strips of cloth tra-
ditionally worn by Hindu ascetics.
K rtana Congregational chanting of religious songs or mantras,
accompanied by singing and dancing.
L l Divine play.
Mah-mantra Lit. great mantra, the most important mantra in
Gau ya Vaiavism: Hare Ka, Hare Ka, Ka Ka, Hare
Hare/ Hare Rma, Hare Rma, Rma Rma, Hare Hare, gener-
ally interpreted as an invocation adressed to Rdh and Ka.
280
Mahanta 1) See 2.3.2, 2) the leader of an rama or maha.
Maala Mystic, circular diagram generally drawn on the floor.
Mtj Lit. respected mother, female Gau ya Vaiava men-
dicant.
Maha Monastic community.
Mypra Small town on the opposite side of the Ganges from
Navadv pa. Contested birthsite of Caitanya.
Myvda Deprecative name for ®akaras Vednta-philosophy
of monism.
Moka Liberation from material bondage.
Ngara-k rtana K rtana moving through the town streets.
Navadv pa Town about 130 kms north of Calcutta in West Ben-
gal. Centre for Gau ya Vaiavism and (contested) birthsite of
Caitanya.
Pañcartrin A follower of the ancient Pañcartra doctrine of
Vaiavism.
Parapar Succession of gurus.
Parivra See 2.3.3
Pj Worship.
Pjri Altar priest.
Pura Class of Hindu scripture dealing with mythology, rituals,
vows, history, etc.
Puri City on the shore of the Bay of Bengal in Orissa. Centre of
Gau ya Vaiavism. Famous for the temple of Jaganntha.
Caitanya spent his last years there.
Preman Ecstatic love of God, the ultimate goal of life according
to Gau ya Vaiavas.
Rdh-kua The pond of Rdh, the most holy of Gau ya
Vaiava sacred sites. Situated ca. 30 km to the West of
Vndvana town.
Rgnug-sdhana The path of spiritual practice that follows
the rga or intense attachment of one of the eternally liberated
followers of Ka. See 9.2.1.
281
Sdhaka-deha The physical body of a practitioner.
Sdhana Spiritual practice.
®aiva Devotee of ®iva.
®kta Devotee of one of the forms of ®akti, e.g. Durg.
®akti 1) Power, 2) The consort of ®iva.
Samdhi The grave monument of a buried saint.
Sapradya See 2.3.1.
Saskra Hindu sacrament.
Sannysin Renunciant; a person in the fourth stage of life (see
rama).
®stra Type of Hindu scripture.
Siddha-deha The perfected spiritual body of a practitioner.
Siddha-initiation Type of initiation where the disciple is given
knowledge of his perfected (siddha) spiritual identity.
®ik-guru Instructing guru.
Smrta Follower of the Smtis; so-called orthodox Hindu, gener-
ally adhering to the philosophy of ®akara.
Smti 1) Lit. remembered. Class of Hindu scriptures not ac-
knowledged as authoritative by all Hindus. 2) Book of laws.
®rddha Ceremony of offering oblations and rice to the ances-
tors.
®ravaa-guru A guru from whom one hears scriptural teachings.
®r -sapradya The sapradya said to stem from ®r , also
known as the Rmnuja-sapradya.
®r pat Residence of a gopla or mahnta. See 2.3.2.
Stras Works on particularly philosophy written in terse code,
not considered authoritative by all Hindus.
®ruti Lit. heard. Class of Hindu scriptures comprising for ex-
ample the Vedic hymns and thought authoritative by all Hindus.
Tattva Category or class, e.g. guru-tattva, the category of the
guru.
Tilaka Secterian mark generally made of clay worn on the
forhead and other places of the body. Distinguishes members of
different parivras from each other.
282
Tulas Occimum sanctum, a shrub considered dear to Ka
and whose leaves are used in his worship.
Upacra Article of worship, such as flowers.
Upanayana The ceremony of investing a child from the three
higher varas with the upav ta or sacred thread.
Uttar ya Upper garment traditionally worn by Hindu men. A
square piece of cloth simply wrapper around the body or worn
loose over the shoulders.
Vaidh -sdhana The type of spiritual practice that follows the
injunctions of scripture.
Vaiava Devotee of Viu or one of his avatras.
Vaa See 2.3.3
Vara Fourfold division of so-called civilised humanity into
brhmaas or the priestly, intellectual class, katriyas or the
princely, administrative and martial class, vaiyas or the
merchantile and agricultural class and dras or the labour class.
Vartma-pradaraka-guru Guru who first introduces a person to
spiritual life.
Varrama The social system based the four varas and four
ramas.
Vednta One of the six orthodox Hindu schools of philosophy,
based primarily on the Upaniads and the Vednta-stras. Di-
vided into several branches.
Vednta-stra The earliers known treatise on Vednta philoso-
phy, written by Bdryaa (4th century BC?), considered authori-
tative by all schools of Vednta. Also known as Brahma-stra.
Vea 1) The loincloth of a bbj , 2) the position of bbj .
Vilsa Chapter of the Hari-bhakti-vilsa.
Viidvaita Rmnujas Vednta-philosophy of qualified
monism.
Vrndavana Town six miles north of Mathur in Uttar Pradesh, In-
dia. Also denotes the highest abode of Ka in Gau ya Vaiava
theology.
Yantra Mystical diagram.
283
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Dasa, Gadadhar Prana: Paratattva-sima Rasaraja Sri-Sri-
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2.3 Letters
Das, Atul Krishna: e-letter to author, 9.11.2001
Dsa, Mdhavnanda: e-letter to author, 27.8.2002
Dsa, Mdhavnanda: e-letter to author, 21.3.2003
Deva Goswami, Sri Krishnagopalananda: letter to author, June
2002
Goswami, Bir Krishna das: e-letter to author, 30.9.2002
Narasimha, Swami B.G.: e-letter to author, 29.8.1998
2.4 Interviews
(kept in the archive of the Department of Comparative Religion and
Folkloristics, Åbo Akademi)
IF 2000/14a-e
IF mgt 2000/66-93
IF mgt 2001/78
IF mgt 2002/9a-14
307
2.5 Notebooks
Diary, 25.9.1998-21.12.1998
Diary, 9.10.2000-15.1.2001
Field diary, 11.10.2000-13.1.2001
Field diary, 24.2.2002-22.3.2002, 20.7.2002
308

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AS GOOD AS GOD

2. Overview of Gau ya Vaiavism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

II THE GURU DOCTRINE OF

3. General characteristics of the guru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4. Qualifications of the guru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

III R O L E S O F T H E G U R U . .................... 181

8. Feudal lord. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

10. Preserver of tradition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

11. Renewer of tradition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

13. Manifestation of divinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

14. Summary and Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Glossary of names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

It is due to the generous help of many individuals and institu-

gopnanda-vanasya saukhya-karaa r mat-suhotrrpita

I have followed the standard international system for transcrib-

a is pronounced like the short u in English cup

c is pronounced like the English ch, as in cherry

1.1 Purpose and scope of the study

1 E.g. Rosen (1992), i

12 E.g. Dalmia, Malinar & Christof (2001)

14 von Stietencron (2001), 15

24 Weber (1965), 49-55

1.2.3 A hierarchy of understandings

39 Rappaport (1999), 263-281

51 Alasuutari (1999), 107

1.2.6 Participant observation

53 Alasuutari (1999),, 44-48

56 Brooks (1989), 237-238

1.3.1 Printed sources

60 Bhgumuni Dsa (2001), xii-xvi

62 Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda (1975a), 21

63 Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat in the preface to Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin (1991)

67 ®r vatsa Goswami of the Rdh-ramaa temple in Vndvana holds that Gopla

73 Mukherjee & Wright (n.d.), 310

An important part of the primary material are the interviews I

1.3.3 Field studies

1.3.5 Other sources

1.4 Overview of the thesis

1.6 Ethical considerations

2.1 General characteristics

80 In keeping with common usage, I have translated bhakti as devotion. It should,

83 E.g. Haberman (1988), 169

...implying a group with special concepts, forms of worship, and ad-

Within one sapradya there will be many different parapars or

93 It is used by for example De (1961), Elkman (1986) and Haberman (1988)

103 E.g. De (1961), Gupta [n.d.], Eidlitz (1968), Kapoor (1994).

108 Kapoor (1994), 132-137

2.2 History of the sapradya

2.2.1 Caitanya and his contemporaries

125 Kapoor (1997), 617

133 Chakrabarty (1985), 122-132

2.2.2 Later developments

145 Growse (1979), 241

151 Chatterjee (1983), 76-77

...the popularity of Vaiavism at the end of the seventeenth century

The conception of Gau ya Vaiavism was usually also not very

Starting from a basis of religious brotherhood and perfect equality,

159 Chakrabarty (1985), 385

Faced with such criticism, reformers such as Kedarntha Datta

2. Overview of Gau ya Vaiavism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

gopnanda-vanasya saukhya-karaa r mat-suhotrrpita

60 Bhgumuni Dsa (2001), xii-xvi

62 Bhaktivednta Swami Prabhupda (1975a), 21

63 Bhaktisiddhnta Sarasvat in the preface to Gopla Bhaa Gosvmin (1991)

67 ®r vatsa Goswami of the Rdh-ramaa temple in Vndvana holds that Gopla

Within one sapradya there will be many different parapars or

2.2 History of the sapradya

...the popularity of Vaiavism at the end of the seventeenth century

The conception of Gau ya Vaiavism was usually also not very

Faced with such criticism, reformers such as Kedarntha Datta

Mantras without a sapradya are considered fruitless. Therefore, in

176 Sunderananda Vidyvinod, quoted in Kapoor (1976), 45

2.3.2 Early descriptions of Caitanyas sapradya

The Lord thought: I bear the name Vivambhara, the maintainer of

2.3.3 Parivra and Vaa

214 For an excellent study of rgnug-sdhana-bhakti, see Haberman (1988)

After the overview of Gau ya Vaiavism given in the last chapter,

In other words, Kadsa Kavirja considers the guru to have a dual

What is expressed here is one of the main Upaniadic teachings: that

In the prayers of the ®ruti in the tenth canto of the Bhgavata

268 HBV 1.36-37. r bhgavate daama-skandhe (87.33) ruti-stutau viji-h ka-

The commentator, Santana Gosvmin, writes that praised by ®iva

275 HBV 2.3-5. game dvijnm upetn svakarmdhyayandiu/

In the same book, in the discussion between Rukmgada and

277 Dig-darin commentary to HBV 2.3-5

The words worldly guru refer to common authority persons like

When Ka shows his mercy to some fortunate person, he personally

In other words, it is Ka who is speaking through the guru to a per-

3.3.5 Practice Ka

3.3.6 Dependence on Kas grace

The attitude of a Vaiava should always be that he is a humble serv-

Although in the opinion of the sacred Bhgavata the altar worship of

295 BS 283. yady api ribhgavata-mate pañcartrdi-vad arcana-

In connection with the quotation above, the Bhgavata Pura tells

298 BS 203. evambhta-guror abhvd yukti-bheda-bubhutsay bahnapy

307 ®ivarma Swami (1999), 20

311 ®ivarma Swami (1999), 43-44, K rtannanda Swami Bhaktipda (1987), 41

316 E.g. Bhaktivednta Vana Maharja in www.vnn.org/editorials/ET0208/ET05-

vartmapradaraka d k vea ik crya caitya

327 ®ivarma Swami (1999), 33