Geological and Thermogeological Properties of Thermal and Sub-thermal Sources

Overview of properties of exploration fields

By
Dr. Islam Nagy El-Nekhiely
Assistant Professor of Applied Geophysics
Suez Canal University
Geological and thermogeological properties
of thermal and subthermal sources
 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Geological and thermogeological properties of thermal and

subthermal sources

• Geothermal features can be observed in areas of

active volcanism, or areas that have inactive
volcanoes.
• Subsurface magma heats groundwater, creating
steam and hot water.
• The hot, less dense water rises through fissures
and cracks in the ground.
• When it reaches the surface, features such as
geysers, fumaroles, hot springs, and Mudpots are
created.

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Geological and thermogeological properties of thermal and

subthermal sources
• Geothermal features have great benefits.
• Geothermal processes create heat and electricity that provide power and hot water several cities.
• As well as being used for energy sources, geothermal waters can also contain minerals and elements such
as sulfur, gold, silver, and mercury that can be recovered and used.

• Most Common Geothermal Features are;

1. Hot springs
2. Geysers
3. Fumaroles
4. Mudpots

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Geological and thermogeological properties of thermal and

subthermal sources
Hot springs
• Hot springs are heated by geothermal heat—heat from the Earth's
interior.
• In volcanic areas, water may come into contact with very hot rock heated
by magma.
• Hot springs in active volcanic zones may produce superheated water, so
hot that immersion can result in injury or death.
• In non-volcanic areas, the temperature of rocks within the Earth also
increases with depth—this temperature increase is known as the
Geothermal Gradient. If water percolates deeply enough into the crust, it
comes into contact with hot rocks and can circulate to the surface to form
hot springs.
• Water is at least 6-9oC warmer than the mean annual air temperature of
the locality

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Geological and thermogeological properties of thermal and

subthermal sources
Geysers
• Geysers are the most well known geothermal feature.
• Each geyser has unique characteristics due to complex internal plumbing.
• Generally, geysers require that large amounts of groundwater fill
underground cavities in an area of volcanic activity.
• The water in these deep cavities is heated by nearby magma. Suddenly, some
of the water flashes into steam and expands rapidly.
• The overlying water column is forced violently from the vent in an explosion of
hot water and steam.
• This cycle can be repeated regularly.
• Old Faithful is a geyser in Yellowstone National Park that has erupted once
every 65 minutes for hundreds of years!

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Geological and thermogeological properties of thermal and

subthermal sources
Fumaroles
• Fumaroles are also geothermal features that depend on the interactions of
released volcanic gases and the local groundwater system.
• These occur in areas where a magma conduit passes through the water table.
• The magma can be liquid or recently solidified, but still hot.
• The heat from the magma causes water to become steam.
• As the steam rises it carries volcanic gases to the surface.
• This mixture of steam and gas is erupted from vents and fissures in the ground.
• Associated chemical reactions can color the surrounding rocks.
• Areas with fumarole features are sometimes called "dying volcanoes" because
they occur near the end stages of volcanic activity as the magma deep
underground solidifies and cools.
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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Geological and thermogeological properties of thermal and

subthermal sources

Mudpots
• Mudpots are surface features that occur when limited
amounts of geothermal water is mixed with mud and clay.
Acid and bacteria in the water can dissolve surrounding
rock forming viscous pools of bubbling mud.

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

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 Overview of properties of exploration fields

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Deep geothermal reservoirs.

• Reservoir rocks are porous and permeable, preferably clastic rocks,

alternatively fractured and weathered (regionally) carbonates or
basement rocks (Volcanics). So, the reservoir volume can be defined.

• Cap rocks need to play role as in any subsurface fluid system; to stop
vertical and steep oblique migration (movement).

• Secondary migration (Recharge) (natural or artificial) is crucial for

maintaining long-lasting production, especially when large volumes
are needed (power plant).
simple model of geothermal system (ČULJAK, 2018)

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

• The objective of geothermal exploration is to obtain adequate information about the properties and
features of a prospective geothermal system before embarking on drilling. Most of the information
include but not limited to:
1. Identify areas with potential geothermal energy.
2. Estimate equilibrium reservoir temperatures.
3. Characterize thermal fluids.
4. Define the geometry (shape, size and depth) of the resource.
5. Rank the prospect areas in order of development priority.
6. Develop a conceptual model.
7. Locate suitable drilling targets.

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

• This exploration program consists of several steps that are aimed at locating the areas that are
underlain by hot rocks, estimating the volume of the reservoir, estimating the temperature of the
geothermal fluid and predicting its phase (vapor or liquid), estimating the chemical composition of the
fluid, and finally predicting the power generation potential over a lifetime of 20–30 years.

• This exploration program consists of several phases, which are described as follows:

Literature survey Previous published work (collecting information)

Airborne survey Remote sensing, and aerial photography
Geologic survey Reconnaissance stage (tectonic setting , lithologic units and structures
Hydrologic survey Understanding the recharge, flow regime and mapping of groundwater
Geochemical survey Sampling, analysis to define type of water, temperature and composition
Geophysical survey Image prospective geothermal features without drilling

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Geophysical Exploration

• The application of physical theories and measurements to discover the properties of the Earth.

• Geophysical surveys provide the only means of delineating deep subsurface features, other than drilling. They can
be used to cover large areas in a short time and at much lower cost when compared to drilling.

Purpose of the geophysical survey in deep geothermal exploration

• Image prospective geothermal features without drilling

• Define boundaries (lateral and vertical) of reservoirs

• Identify drilling targets

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Geophysical methods which use in deep geothermal exploration

Geophysical
Methods

Seismic
Electromagnetic Electrical Gravity Magnetic
reflection

Depth to Depth to
MT Sometimes VES (basement) (basement)
source of heat source of heat

Depth to the
Curie point
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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Geophysical Methods which use in deep geothermal exploration

• Magnetotellurics (MT) is a passive geophysical method which uses natural time variations of
the Earth's magnetic and electric fields to measure the electrical resistivity of the sub-
surface.

• Resistivity distribution could be obtained from depth of few 10s of meters, down to several
hundred kilometers

Why resistivity?

Resistivity depends on of both host rock and pore fluid properties

• Rocks (Temperature & Pressure - Lithology, Clays (Surface conduction) - Microstructural

properties (e.g., permeability, porosity))

• Fluid (Amount - Nature (liquid or vapor phase, other liquids and gases – Salinity))
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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Geophysical Methods which use in deep geothermal exploration

• The equipment generally consists of four current electrodes and three magnetometers.

• Electric field (E) and magnetic field (H) are measured along two perpendicular directions
(x and y)

• Magnetic field is measured with induction coils

• Electric field components are measured with grounded dipoles

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering
Geophysical Exploration
Magnetotelluric

• Magnetotellurics (MT) is a passive geophysical method which uses natural time variations of
the Earth's magnetic and electric fields to measure the electrical resistivity of the sub-surface.

• The equipment generally consists of four current electrodes and three magnetometers.

• Electric field (E) and magnetic field (H) are measured along two perpendicular directions (x
and y)

• Magnetic field is measured with induction coils

• Electric field components are measured with grounded dipoles

• Resistivity distribution could be obtained from depth of few 10s of meters, down to several
hundred kilometers

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

How are magnetotelluric data acquired?

• Source of current - changes in the Earth’s magnetic field caused by solar particles
and atmospheric phenomena (e.g. lightning charges)

• Due to changes in interaction of the solar wind (continuous flow of charged

particles from the Sun) with the magnetosphere and ionosphere

• These occurrences induces electric current flow in the subsurface, and current
flow depends on conductivity of rocks.

• Subsurface structures have the role of conductors, and the amplitude and phase
of magnetic field and induced electric field depend on the rocks conductivity

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

How are magnetotelluric data acquired?

• Time change of the Earth’s magnetic field are of period from 10-3 s to 105 s (frequency 103 do 10-5 Hz)

• Telluric currents – current of low frequency

• Depth of penetration (skin depth effect) depends on:

• underground conductivity (σ)

• frequency (f)

• Skin depth – the relative measure of the depth to which electromagnetic waves penetrate (the depth at which
the amplitude of the electromagnetic wave decreases to 1/e of the amplitude on the surface

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Interpretation of MT-data

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Interpretation of MT-data

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Geophysical Methods which use in deep geothermal exploration

Gravity method
• The gravity method exploits the density contrasts among different rock formations to map subsurface
structure, delineate faults and intrusive bodies below the surface and determine the thickness of
alluvium in sedimentary basins.
• In the context of geothermal prospecting, gravity surveys are used to define lateral density variation
related to deep magmatic body, which may represent the heat source.

Magnetic method

• Also, the idea of using magnetic anomalies for the exploration of geothermal energy is based on
calculating the depth to the basement rocks which is believed to be one of the heating sources of the
ascending meteoric or intrusion water.
• One of the most important applications for using the geophysical magnetic data is not only to delineate
the regional subsurface structures but also to calculate the depth to the Curie point, the thermal gradient
and the heat flow.
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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Interpretation of potential data

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Interpretation of magnetic data

Corrected TF
43700

43650

43600

43550

43500

43450

43400

43350

43300

43250
3227000 3228000 3229000 3230000 3231000 3232000 3233000

Total magnetic field profile at Hammam Faroun geothermal site.

2-D Magnetic model along a profile parallel to
the eastern coast of the Gulf of Suez and passing
by the hot spring
 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

59 ) EI modelling along profile E-2:

-D

Sedimentary rocks

Basement rocks

(Fig. 56 ): 2-D modelling along profile B-BI

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Geophysical Methods which use in deep geothermal exploration

Curie point depth and heat flow from spectral analysis of aeromagnetic data
• The anomalies of the magnetic field of the Earth resulting from the magnetic properties of the
underlying rocks are the purpose of magnetic survey in studying the subsurface geology.

• The Earth’s lithospheric magnetic field originates from the magnetism of rocks in the crust and upper
mantle with a temperature lower than the Curie point.

• The depth at which the Earth’s magnetic minerals lose their ferromagnetic property is known as Curie
point depth (CPD).

• A Curie point isothermal surface (called a Curie surface) is created by ferromagnetic minerals in
crustal rocks becoming a paramagnetic interface when the temperature reaches the Curie point.

• The depth to the curie point depth is extremely important when exploring for geothermal energy.
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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Geophysical Methods which use in deep geothermal exploration

Curie point depth and heat flow from spectral analysis of aeromagnetic data

• The areas which have shallow depths to the curie point are characterized by high temperature gradient
which is considered the main heating source for the groundwater, forming geothermal reservoir.

• Magnetic mineral that is very common in igneous rocks have different Curie temperatures,
(The temperature of Curie isotherm is 550 °C ± 30 °C).

• Several geothermal reservoirs got their heat from this point which is believed to be the depth for
geothermal source.

• The Curie surface varies from region to region, depending on the regional geology, the geothermal flow,
and the mineral content in rock

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Curie point depth and heat flow from spectral analysis of aeromagnetic data

• Nwankwo et al. [2009] observed that different minerals which are ferromagnetic have different Curie
temperatures, magnetic mineral that is very common in igneous rocks is within the range of a few hundreds
to 580 °C.
• The depth at which the Earth’s Fe–Ti oxide minerals lose their ferromagnetic property is known as Curie
point depth (CPD).
• The temperature of Curie isotherm is 550 °C ± 30 °C.
• Several geothermal reservoirs got their heat from this point which is believed to be the depth for geothermal
source.
• The degree of growth in temperature per unit depth in the Earth owing to the outflow of heat from the centre
is known as the geothermal gradient.
• The Curie point depth is the theoretical surface with a temperature of approximately 580oC and can be
considered as an index of the bottom of a magnetic source, due to the converting of the ferromagnetic
minerals to paramagnetic minerals (Hsien et. al., 2014).
• The Curie surface varies from region to region, depending on the regional geology, the geothermal flow, and
the mineral content in rock

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Curie point depth and heat flow from spectral analysis of aeromagnetic data

• To calculate the Curie point depth in a specific area, we need to analyze the magnetic intensity data
(Aero-magnetic maps).

• Thereafter, the estimation of the temperature gradient and heat flow values becomes an easy target.

• Its disadvantage is that it cannot directly measure the geothermal parameters at a relatively large
depth.

• There are many factors that affect the depth of a Curie surface, including the surface heat flow, the
geothermal gradient, the rock heat generation rate, mantle heat flow, fault activity, and the composition
of rock physical properties.

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Curie point depth and heat flow from spectral analysis of aeromagnetic data

• Aeromagnetic surveys are often flown at relatively low heights; thus, the magnetic fields caused by the
surface sources suppress the signals coming from the deep crust.

• The power spectrum analysis of magnetic anomalies to estimate the depth of the Curie surface (Maden,
2010; Saibi et. al., 2015; Tanaka et. al., 1999) was used in this technique.

• In the calculation process, we first divide the study area into windows of equal size.

• The size of the window should be at least 4–6 times the depth of the Curie surface (Dimitriadis et. al.,
1987; Nwobgo, 1998).

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Curie point depth and heat flow from spectral analysis of aeromagnetic data

• The area required to estimate the depth of the Curie – temperature isotherm should not less than few
hundred kilometers (Maus et. al., 1997).

• (Okubo et. al., 1985) suggested that centroid depth (Zo) estimation could be derived from data windows
as small as 40 × 40 km.

Calculation methods

• Spectral statistical methods

• Centroid method
• Fractal method
• The BSR method

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Curie point depth and heat flow from spectral analysis of aeromagnetic data

• The Curie point depth and the measurements of temperature gradient and
heat flow values can be estimated using the spectral analysis and technique
through these steps:

1. Calculate the upper boundary depth of the magnetic source (Zt) by fitting a straight line
through the high wave number part of a radially averaged power spectrum.

2. Calculate the centroid of the magnetic source (Zo) by fitting a straight line through the
low wave number part of the radially averaged frequency scaled power spectrum.

3. The Curie point depth (Zb), which is considered the lower boundary of the magnetic
source, can be calculated from the following relation (Okubo et. al., 1985 ; Tanaka et.
al., 1999):
Zb = 2Zo – Zt ,

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Curie point depth and heat flow from spectral analysis of aeromagnetic data

• The Curie point depth and the measurements of temperature gradient and
heat flow values can be estimated using the spectral analysis and technique
through these steps:

4- The geothermal gradient (dT/dZ) between the earth's surface is calculated from the
following relation:
dT/dZ = 580oC/Zb ,

5- Moreover, the heat flow (q) will be a valuable tool in studying the geothermal energy and
can be derived from the geothermal gradient as follows:
q = λ (dT/dZ) = λ 580oC/Zb ,

Where: (λ) is the thermal conductivity of the prevailing rocks. Thus, the Curie point depth
is inversely proportional to heat flow

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Case study (the Gulf of Suez region and surroundings (Sinai Peninsula & Eastern desert).)

• In the study area, aeromagnetic map of the Gulf of Suez and

surroundings including Sinai Peninsula and Eastern desert was divided
into 38 overlying blocks of size 100 x 100 km.

• Each block overlaps the adjacent blocks by 25 km in all direction.

• In each block the total field anomaly data were Reduced to the
Magnetic pole (RTP) and tapered at boundaries.

• The spectral analysis technique was applied for each square, and the
above-mentioned parameters were identified to estimate the Curie
depth point and the temperature gradient as well as the heat flow
values for the study area .

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering
Overview of properties of exploration fields
Case study (the Gulf of Suez region and surroundings (Sinai Peninsula & Eastern desert).)

Total intensity aeromagnetic map of the Gulf of Suez region and Reduced to the pole magnetic map of the Gulf of Suez region and
surroundings (Sinai Peninsula & Eastern desert). surroundings (Sinai Peninsula & Eastern desert).
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 Deep Geothermal Engineering
Overview of properties of exploration fields
Case study (the Gulf of Suez region and surroundings (Sinai Peninsula & Eastern desert).)

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Examples of using of spectral analysis technique to estimate the depth To the Curie point in blocks 1, 15, and 30.
 Deep Geothermal Engineering
Overview of properties of exploration fields
Case study (the Gulf of Suez region and surroundings (Sinai Peninsula & Eastern desert).)
Depth to Geothermal
Square Depth to top Curie depth Heat Flow
Centroid gradient
No. Zt(km) Zb(km) mW/m2
Table : Obtained results of Curie Z0(km) ̊C/km
depth, Geothermal gradient, and
Heat flow values 1 4.80 11.24 17.68 31.12 77.79
2 5.27 11.96 18.65 29.50 73.74
3 5.42 10.91 16.41 33.53 83.81
4 5.55 8.17 10.80 50.95 127.37
5 5.13 12.82 20.50 26.82 67.06
6 4.61 14.36 24.11 22.81 57.03
7 4.53 15.19 25.84 21.29 53.22
8 5.53 10.78 16.04 34.29 85.73
9 5.01 9.28 13.54 40.62 101.54
10 4.70 9.30 13.91 39.53 98.83
11 4.44 9.20 13.96 39.39 98.48
12 4.78 12.65 20.53 26.80 66.99
13 5.31 14.02 22.73 24.20 60.49
14 5.01 13.12 21.22 25.92 64.79
15 5.17 10.85 16.53 33.28 83.20
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 Deep Geothermal Engineering
Overview of properties of exploration fields
Case study (the Gulf of Suez region and surroundings (Sinai Peninsula & Eastern desert).)

Curie point depth map of the Geothermal gradient map of the Gulf of Suez Heat flow map of the Gulf of Suez region and
Gulf of Suez region and surroundings. region and surroundings. surroundings.

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Geothermal gradient and heat flow values based on well data.

• Temperature logs are usually measured while drilling

or soon after well casing process.

• Thus, these data are typically lower than the true

temperature of the formation due to the cooling effect
of drill fluid circulation.

• Therefore, correction was applied using (Horner

method, 1951) on the bottom-hole temperature data to
obtain the true formation equilibrium temperatures
which can provide useful information about the
subsurface thermal regime.
Temperature log measurements (black triangles), temperatures recorded during
production tests (red diamonds) and log temperature data corrected according
to method A (blue dots)

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

Geothermal gradient and heat flow values based on well data.
• The available well data along the Gulf of Suez consists of Bottom Hole Temperature (BHT) for 153 deep oil wells,
which provided by the (EGPC) and many of the national's largest hydrocarbon exploration and production
companies in Egypt tables. Location
no. Well Name Company Spud Date Completion Date run B.H.T Drill . Depth
lat. long.
A 198 11409
1 R GUPCO 28 17 33 .6 N 33 18 51.3 E 1/1/1975 5/14/1975
A 272 14086
A 2055
B 189 8461
2 GS 391 GUPCO 27 52 59 .5 N 33 41 4.9 E 1/24/1976 06/00/76
C 240 11430
D 272 12003
A 137 3262
3 NN89 DEMINEX 28 1 39 .3 N 33 33 31.3 E 6/26/1976 11/21/1976 B 256 11955
C 289 13151
A 147 3575
4 KK 85 SUCO 28 20 24 .0 N 33 11 20.2 E 11/25/1976 2/25/1977 B 198 10120
C 272 13272
A 100 1020
B 138 2970
5 ASHRAFI WEST(H 417 -2 ) MOBIL 27 46 53 .2 N 33 42 4.6 E 1/13/1977 3/3/1977
C 180 5329
D 194 6710
A 108 640
B 118 4315
6 GS 160 GUPCO 28 57 25 .1 N 32 57 49.1 E 7/29/1977 10/30/1977 C 236 11270
D 260 12414
E 265 13112
A 126 3605
B 180 8963
7 EE 85 SUCO 28 58 7 .4 N 33 7 41.7 E 10/1/1977 4/14/1978 C 240 11571
D 221 11876
E 250 12436
A 125 2904
8 SG 300 GUPCO 28 18 56 .4 N 33 9 30.5 E 11/10/1977 12/21/1978 B 156 6189
C 208 9790
A 120 1206.4
3/4/2024 9 ARM PETROBEL 28 25 58 .5 N 33 9 21.8 E 2/4/1978 6/6/1978
B 147 41
2607
C 198 3043.9
D 228 3745
 Deep Geothermal Engineering

Overview of properties of exploration fields

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering
Geophysical Exploration
Reflection seismic method
• Although, reflection seismic methods have been very successfully used in exploration for oil and the
theory and field procedures are well established, their use in deep geothermal reservoir exploration has
been rather limited
• The physical property of seismic methods is the density or elastic
constants.

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering
Geophysical Exploration
Seismic methods (Seismic sources)

• The artificial sources:

• Wight drop
• Explosives
• Vibroseis
 Deep Geothermal Engineering
Geophysical Exploration
Seismic methods (Seismic receivers)

Geophones:
• The receivers used on land.

Hydrophones:
• Seismic receivers at sea.
 Deep Geothermal Engineering
Geophysical Exploration
Seismic methods (Seismic reflection)

• Seismic reflection maps the structure of subsurface formations by measuring the times required for a
seismic wave to return to the surface after reflection from interface between formations having different
physical properties.

• Reflection seismic method is more commonly used in the geothermal explorations because it can give clear
information about deep subsurface tectonic configuration and identify the possible pathways for the
ascending thermal waters (Chandrasekharam et. al., 2015).

S = Source
R = Receiver or
Geophone S R S R
 Deep Geothermal Engineering
Geophysical Exploration
Seismic methods (Seismic reflection)

• Commonly used in oil and gas reservoir exploration

• Variations in the reflection times from place to place on the surface

indicate structural features in the strata below.

• Depths to reflecting surfaces can be determined from the times using

seismic velocity information.

• Data are acquired along lines (2D) or as a 3D

Two-way-time (TWT)
 Deep Geothermal Engineering
TRACE

Geophysical Exploration
Seismic methods (Seismic reflection)

cline 6300 [StructSmooth] cline 6450 cline 6550

Interpretation – focused on defining the boundaries and discontinuities
cline 6300 (faults
cline 6400 and fractures)
cline 6500 cline 6600
LINE 1 1 1 1 1
TRACE 321 401 481 561 641

-750

-1000

-1250

-1500

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500m

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 Deep Geothermal Engineering
Geophysical Exploration
Seismic methods (Seismic reflection)

In the normal seismic wiggle view, it’s difficult to

define the basement fault. Therefore, Coherence
attribute was used to enhance and delineate the
interface between the sedimentary section and
the massive basement.

In addition, attribute
Coherence the eastern is margin
an edge of the Gulf of
detection
attribute that highlightsbygeologic
Suez is characterized a majorfeatures that
rift border
have
fault, abrupt
which has boundaries. Due to throw
a considerable its ability to
(+5000
image
m.) and discontinuities, coherence
gets the Miocene andis Pre-Miocene
applicable to
many types
sections in ofjuxtaposition
structural andwith
stratigraphic events
the basement
(Abdel-Fattah
complex. and Alrefaee, 2014).