ESC IV: Introduction to

Electronics and
Electrical Engineering
Unit 4
Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering: Introduction to circuit laws,
Network theorems, Amplitude, Phase, Phase difference, RMS value and
Average value of a AC signal
Circuit Theorems Linearity Property
Homogeneity property
(Scaling)
A large Simplify i  v  iR
complex circuits circuit analysis
ki  kv  kiR
Additivity property
i1  v1  i1 R
Circuit Theorems i2  v2  i2 R
i1  i2  (i1  i2 ) R  i1 R  i2 R  v1  v2
‧Thevenin’s theorem ‧ Norton theorem
‧Circuit linearity ‧ Superposition
‧source transformation ‧ max. power transfer
• A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly proportional)
to its input
i

v
V0
I0

• Linear circuit consist of vs  10V  i  2A

• linear elements vs  1V  i  0.2A
• linear dependent sources
vs  5mV  i 1mA
• independent sources
2
v
p i R 
2
: nonlinear
R
For the circuit find I0 when vs=12V and vs=24V Using KVL

12i1  4i2  vs  0
 4i1  16i2  3v x  vs  0
v x  2i1
Solving above equation we get

2i1  12i2  0  i1  6i2

vs
 76i2  vs  0  i2 
76

When vs  12V When vs  24V

24
12
I 0  i2  A I 0  i2  A
76 76
Showing that when the source value is doubled, I0 doubles
Assume I0 = 1 A and use linearity to find the actual value of I0 in the circuit in fig

If I 0  1A, then v1  (3  5) I 0  8V
I1  v1 / 4  2A,
V2 I 0  1 A  I S  5A
V2  V1  2 I 2  8  6  14V, I 3   2A
7
I 4  I 3  I 2  5 A  I S  5A
I 0  3A  I S  15A
Superposition
• The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through)
an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or
currents through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.
• Turn off, killed, inactive source:
Turn off voltages sources = short voltage
 independent voltage source: 0 V (short circuit)
sources; make it equal to zero voltage
 independent current source: 0 A (open circuit)
Turn off current sources = open current
• Dependent sources are left intact. sources; make it equal to zero current
Steps to apply superposition principle:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that
active source using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent sources.

• Superposition involves more work but simpler circuits.

• Superposition is not applicable to the effect on power.
Use the superposition theorem to find V in the circuit
Since there are two sources,

let

V  V1  V2
Voltage division to get
4
V1  (6)  2V
48
Current division, to get
8
i3  (3)  2A
48
Hence
Turn off voltages sources = short voltage
v2  4i3  8V sources; make it equal to zero voltage
Turn off current sources = open current
And we find
sources; make it equal to zero current
v  v1  v2  2  8  10V
Source Transformation
• A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source vs in series
with a resistor R by a current source is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.

vs
vs  is R or is 
R

v
vs
-is

Arrow of the current source Impossible source Transformation

positive terminal of voltage source ideal voltage source (R = 0)
ideal current source (R=)
Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit in Fig

Using current division technique

2
i (2)  0.4A
28
and

vo  8i  8(0.4)  3.2V
Find vx in Fig. using source transformation
15  5i  3  0  i  4.5A

v x  3  i  7 .5 V

Applying KVL around the loop in Fig (b) gives Appling KVL to the loop containing only the 3V voltage source,
the 1Ω resistor, and vx yields
 3  5i  v x  18  0  3  1i  v x  0  v x  3  i
Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by
an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor
RTh where VTh is the open circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent source are turn
off.
i

i
+
Any two-terminal v
Linear Circuits
Slope=1/Rth
- v
Vth
Isc
How to Find Thevenin’s Voltage Thevenin’s Resistance
Equivalent circuit: same voltage-current relation at RTh  Rin :
the terminals
VTh  voc : open circuit voltage at a  b

input  resistance of the dead circuit at a  b.

 a  b open circuited
CASE 1  Turn off all independen t sources
• If the network has no dependent sources:
• Turn off all independent source.
• RTH: can be obtained via simplification of either parallel or series connection seen from a-b
CASE 2
• If the network has dependent sources
• Turn off all independent sources.
• Apply a voltage source vo at a-b
• Alternatively, apply a current source io at a-b
The Thevenin’s resistance may be negative, indicating that the circuit has ability providing power

Simplified circuit Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the circuit

VTh
IL  shown in Fig, to the left of the terminals a-b. Then
RTh  RL find the current through RL = 6,16,and 36 .
Voltage divider
RL
VL  RL I L  VTh
RTh  RL
 RTh : 32V voltage source  short VTh :
2A current source  open (1) Mesh analysis
4  12  32  4i1  12(i1  i2 )  0 , i2  2A
RTh  4 || 12  1   1  4 i1  0.5A
16
VTh  12(i1  i2 )  12(0.5  2.0)  30V

(2) Alternatively, Nodal Analysis (3) Alternatively, source transform

(32  VTh ) / 4  2  VTh / 12 32  VTH VTH
2
VTh  30V 4 12
96  3VTH  24  VTH  VTH  30V
 To get iL :
VTh 30
iL  
RTh  RL 4  RL
RL  6  I L  30 / 10  3A
RL  16  I L  30 / 20  1.5A
RL  36  I L  30 / 40  0.75A
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent of the circuit in Fig. at terminals a-b.
(independent + dependent source case)
independent source  0
To find RTh :
dependent source  intact
vo 1
vo  1V, RTh  
io io

For loop 1,
 2v x  2(i1  i2 )  0 or v x  i1  i2
But  4i2  v x  i1  i2
 i1  3i2
Loop 2 and 3 :

To get VTh : Fig(b)

Mesh analysis
4i2  2(i2  i1 )  6(i2  i3 )  0 i1  5
6(i3  i2 )  2i3  1  0  2v x  2(i3  i2 )  0  v x  i3  i2
Solving these equations gives 4(i2  i1 )  2(i2  i1 )  6i2  0 
i3  1 / 6A. 12i2  4i1  2i3  0
1 4(i1  i2 )  v x
But io  i3  A  R  1V  6
6 Th
i o
i2  10 / 3. VTh  voc  6i2  20V
Determine the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit in Fig

(dependent source only case)

VTh  0
vo
Nodal anaysis : RTh 
io
io  ix  2ix  vo / 4
But 0  vo vo vo vo vo vo
i 
x  io  ix      
2 2 4 2 4 4
or vo  4io vo
Thus RTh   4 :
io
Supplying power
Norton’s Theorem
A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN where IN
is the short-circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent source
are turn off. i

Slope=1/RN
v
Vth
-IN
How to Find Norton Current Thevenin or Norton
• Thevenin and Norton
resistances are equal: equivalent circuit :
RN  RTh • The open circuit voltage voc across
• Short circuit current terminals a and b
from a to b : • The short circuit current isc at terminals a
VTh and b
I N  isc 
RTh • The equivalent or input resistance Rin at
terminals a and b when all independent
source are turn off.
VTh  voc IN  isc

VTh
RTh   RN
RTh
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig

To find RN
RN  5 || (8  4  8)
20  5
 5 || 20   4
25

Mesh :
i1  2A, 20i2  4i1  i2  0
To find iN short  circuit terminals a and b . i2  1A  isc  IN
 Alternative method for IN Hence , VTh
IN   4 / 4  1A
RTh

VTh
IN 
RTh
VTh : open  circuit voltage across terminals a and b
Mesh analysis :
i 3  2 A, 25i 4  4i 3  12  0
 i 4  0.8A
voc  VTh  5i 4  4V
Using Norton’s theorem, find RN and IN of the circuit in Fig To find RN
5 || vo || 2ix : Parallel
ix  vo / 5  1 / 5  0.2
vo 1
 RN    5
io 0.2

To find I N
 4 ||10v || 5 || 2ix : Parallel
10  0
ix   2.5A,
4
10
isc  ix  2 ix   2(2.5)  7 A  I N  7A
5
Maximum Power Transfer
Maximum power is transferred to the load
when the load resistance equals the Thevenin
resistance as seen the load (RL = RTH)

dp  ( R  R ) 2
 2 RL ( RTH  RL ) 
 VTH 
2 TH L

dRL  ( R TH  RL ) 4

 ( RTH  RL  2 RL ) 
V  2
 0
 ( RTH  RL )
TH 3

0  ( RTH  RL  2 RL )  ( RTH  RL )
2 RL  RTH
 VTH 
p  i RL  
2
 RL 
VTH2
 RTH  RL 
pmax
4 RTH
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit of Fig. Find the
maximum power.

6  12
RTH  2  3  6 12  5   9
18

 12  18i1  12i2 , i2  2 A
 12  6ii 1  3i2  2(0)  VTH  0  VTH  22V
RL  RTH  9
VTH2 22 2
pmax    13.44W
4 RL 4  9