UNIT 2 .

STORM WATER DRAINAGE

Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Estimation of Storm Runoff
9 2.2.1 Rational Method
2.2.2 Computation of Peak Discharges by Empirical Formulae
\
2.2.3 Soil Conservation Service (*s) Method
2.3 Effects of Land Development
2.4 Storm Sewer Systems
2.4.1 Layout and Design
2.4.2 Design Procedure
2.5.t: h r m Water Detention '
:.
2.5.1 Design Considerations for a Detention Basin
2.5.2 Preliminary Design com~utations

. 2.6, Management of Flood Plains

. - 2.7 Summary
2.8 ~ n s w e i to
s SAQs

2 . INTRODUCTION
Uncofitrolled storm water and surface runoff can cause significant environmental
problems. Flooding is one obvious example of such a problem that is accompanied by
loss of property, and sometimes human and animal life too. Moreover, water pollution
problems c p be severe, such as : soil erosion and consequent sedimentat'ton in tanks, and
natuml drainages. It is well recognised that stom runoff is a major non-point source of
water pollutants : fertilizers, pesticides, oil, organics, and other substances.
Land development and urbanisation both increase the frequency and severity of these
problems. It is, therefore, necessary to provide storm drains for the removal of excess
water from streets, parking lots, parks and gardens. In fact, storm water is increasingly
being viewed as a natural resource for use in a manner beneficial to the community.
Therefore, its generation, estimation, and appropriate disposal constitute a complete
waste water management. Sometimes, in a combined sewerage system both storm water
and municipal out flow are carried by a single net work of the sewerage system.

Objectives
This unit aims at providing the following basic information to the student regarding :
estimation of storm runoff,
effects of land development,
basics of storm water detention, and
management of flood plains.

2.2 ESTIMATION OF STORM RUNOFF

The design (or analysis) of storm water control system begins with an estimate of the rate
and volume of surface runoff that is expected to be generated. When a storm (rain) falls
''on a given catchmint (watershed), a pirt of the precipitation is intercepted by the vegetal
cover (if any - in built up areas no such interception is a significant factor) which mostly
evaporates, some part hits the soil (and some of it percolates down below), and the rest,
as is obvious,.flows overland towards valleys. Since the storm discharge has to be
harvested through drains, the drinage engineer has to evaluate the rate of flow
corresponding to a given storm (intensity and duration) over the given area. More the
intensity of rain, the more will be the peak runoff rate. Therefore, an appropriate design
wastewater Collection value of rain (with reference to the risk involved to life and property), vis-a-vis, its
and Chatacteristics frequency (i.e., recurrence interval) has to be chosen for the drains to be designed for.
The-frequency of rainfall to be adopted as a design input should neither be too large to
cause heavy investments (greater discharges neectbigger sized drains), nor should it be
too small to cause frequent over-flowing of the system. In most cases a designer may
have to rely on local rainfall data, and use acceptable empirical formulae relating rainfall
intensity and duration to the volume or rate of surface runoff.
The peak rate of run-off produced, while a storm hits a particular catchment depends on
following prominent factors :
(a) type of precipitation,
(b) intensity and duration of rainfall, .
(c) direction of the prevailing storm,
(d) distribution (pattern) of rainfall over the catchment,
(e) soild moisture deficiency prevailing at the time of rainfall,
(f) prevailing climatic conditions,
(g) shape, size, slope, soil type, vegetal cover, etc. of the catchment.
In fact, in addition to the above mentioned important parameters, there are several other
1;
factors that influence the runoff, in general, and peak value in particular - near about 15
to 20-variables in all, depending upon the practical situation. Therefore, it is not possible
to precisely determine the peak flow, the variables being interdependent. To obviate the*
difficulties, previously the peak runoff rate used to be estimated by empirical formulae
I
only (even in the developed countries like USA). Different empirical formulae were I

developed for different regions (i.e., they were region specific) that were based on actual -
observed storms and related floods.
-
In recent years, a method, known as rational method, was developed t o estimate peak
drainage discharge. However, the results given by this method in respect of areas greater
than 100 to 500 ha or so are generally erroneous. This method is suited for smaller area
(less than 50 ha or so) - for larger arqas empirical formulae seem to be suitable. Most
modern method for urban storm drainage comprises what is known as digital computer
simulation.

2.2.1 Rational Method

Applying a rainfall, at a constant rate, to an impervious surface, would, after the elapse.of
some time, result in a runoff rate that would equal the rainfall rate. In the beginning
stages, only a fraction of surface water will be reaching the outlet of the catchment, but
with the due passage of time the entire basin would be contributing to the flow at the
outlet - this fact being responsible for the equilibrium condition of the two rates of flow
(rainfall and surface runoff) becoming equal. The time period after which the entire area
begins contributing to the total runoff, at a given monitoring point, is known as the time
of concentration, vis-a-vis, that point - it is also obviously defined as the time it takes a
drop of water to flow from hydra*ically most distant point of the basin to the outlet of
the basin. It is appropriate to point out that runoff is also not maximum even when the
duration of rain is greater than the time of concentration, because, as is mostly the case,
the intensity of rainfall falls with the increase in its duration. Thus, the duration of rainfall
that is equal to the time of concentration is known as the critical rainfall duration. ' ,
Based on these considerations, the rational formula expresses the relationship between
peak runoff, and rainfall, as follows :
Q = C x i x A . . . (2.1)
where, Q = peak (i.e., maximum) rate of runoff,
C = a dimensionless runoff coefficient,
i = intensity of rainfall, and
A = drainage basin area. a

It may be reiterated that Q represents only the maximum discharge caused by a particular
- it can be visualised as the peak of the hydrograph generated by the storm
 * - -
Storm Water Drainage

7 Maximum Q = C x ix A
s stormwater
c flow rate,
h Q

Time

Figure 2.1 :The Rational Formula is Used to Estimatie the Peak of

Surface Runoff Due to a Particular Storm In a Specific Drainage Basin

Co-efficient C can be written as

($1 K, and Eq.( 2.1) takes the following form :

where, Q is in cumec, K is a transformed coefficient of runoff, A is in hectare, and i is the

critical rainfall intensity (i.e., of design frequency) - during the critical rainfall duration
(equal to the time of concentration) - in cm/h.
Coefficient of Runoff (K)
The coefficient of runoff ( K ) is, in fact, the impervious factor of runoff, which
represents the ratio of runoff to precipitation. Obviously the value of K increases as
the imperviousness of the basin increases - greater the imperviousness, lesser
would be the infiltration, and therefore greater the runoff. Hence, for ideal
imperviousness, K should be 1. Values of K have also been worked out for
different localities depending upon the applicable population densities. Tables 2.1
and 2.2 present typical values of K for use in designing drains.
Table 2.1 :Values of K for Various Surfaces
r I
ISL No. / A
I I

> f Surface Value of K

I
1 Water-right roof surfaces 0.70 - 0.95

1 2
I
I

Asphalt pavement in good order

I

I
0.85 - 0.90 1
3 Stone, brick, wood-brick pavement 0.75 - 0.85
with cemented joints
I f
4 1 Same as above with uncernented
5 1 Water bond macadam roads -
0.25 0.60
1 6 1 Gravel roads and walks 1 0.15 - 0.30 I
7 Unpaved streets and vacant lands 0.10 - 0.30
8 Parks, lawns, gardens, meadows, etc. 0.05 - 0.25
9 Wooden lands 0.01 - 0.20

Table 2.2 : Vales of K for Various Localities

Qpes of Locality Average Approximate Value of K
Population Density

I 1 I Exmme suburban areas with 20 to I -

75 125
40 per cent parking and widely '
detached houses
2 Suburban areas with widely -
125 150
datached houses
3 Areas with 50 per cent attached 375 - 500
houses and 50 per cent detatched
houses
4 Areas closely built up 500- 625 .
5 Business areas more than 625
 Wastewater Collection When several different surface types or land uses compris&l'Ge'watershed,a
1 and Chatacteristics composite or weighted average value of the runoff coefficient can be computed,
such as :

where, the subscripts refer to respective sub-basin types, and A obviously is the
total basin area.
T i e of Concentration (T,)
Total time of concentration ean be visualised as composed of two parts : overland
flow time (also known as inlet time, or time of equilibrium), and channel flow time
(or gutter flow time), as shown in Figure (2.2).

4 I Discharge

Figure 2 3 :The Time of Concentration for a Drainage Basin Includes

Overland Flow Time and Channel Flow Time
Overland flow time (Ti) is the time taken by water to flow over the land surface
from the critical point (generally the most distant point) upto the point where it
enters the mouth of the drain. It may be estimated by the following formula :

where, Tiis in hours; L, the length of overland flow, in kilometers; and H, the total
fall of level from the britical point to the mouth of the drain, in metres. L and H can
be obtained fromthe wntour plan (survey plan) of the area. Moreover, several
charts 1 nomographs are available that correlate overland flow time with ground
slope and runoff coefficient (or land use). One such chart is presented in
Figure 2.3. Here, the chart is entered on the left with the known overland trav&
distance, along a horizontal: then a vertical path is traced to the known values of-
slope and runoff coefficient curves, respectively; and, finally, the overland travel
time is read from the vertical axis on the right side of the chart.
 Storm Water Drainage

Figure 2 3 :A Typical Chart Relating Overland Flow Time with Average

Travel Distance, Ground Slope, and Runotr Coeffcied
The channel flow time (Tf) is the time taken by water to travel in the drain channel
(provided for the purpose) from its entry point to the exit point at the basin outlet.
It is easy to visualise that Tf is given by dividing the length of the drain by the
expected flow velocity in the drain (which can always be estimated, depending
upon the relevant factors - expected depth of flow (considering the expected
inflow due to the storm), roughness characteristics of the drain and its hydraulic
slope) -we can thus calculate T, as the sum of Ti and Tf.
Rainfall Intensity (i)
As we knowbthe rainfall intensity depends on the storm recurrence interval and the
storm duration. The intensity is determined from local rainfall
intensity-duration-frequency relationships, such as shown in Figures 2.4 and 2.5.
*

-0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
. .
Duration in minutes -------c

Flgure 2.4 :Typical Intensity Duration Curves

The first step towards establishing the value of i is to select the design storm
frequency (i.e., recurrence interval). Generally, the recurrence interval is specified
by the relevant local / regional authority for such projects. Longer recurrence
 -- -
Wastewater Collection intervals, it is obvious, reduce the possibility of the selected storm intensity being
and Chatacteristics equalled or exceeded in any given year. Sometimes a 5-year return period, for the
design of storm drams, in a middle-class residential neighbourhoodis adopted -
this implies a willingness to accept some occasional street flooding, in order to -
have a reasonably economical system. However, a high-value commercial district
may have storm sewers designed for a 15- or 25-year storm - this design value
reduces the chances of flooding, but increases the cost of construction.
The valueof rainfall intensity that may be adopted is still the intensity as registered
'
at the given rain gauge station, and is termed the point rainfall intensity. It is, '
therefore, necessary to multiply it by a factor called dispersion factor or areal
distributionfactor (as applied to a given area), in order to account for the
non-uniformity of rainfall over the basin, particularly for larger basins.

l ~ I I * 3 ~ I I I l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ..as ~I I I
~ I j
~ ~ ~
o 2 L 6 a 10 R . U 16 18 20 2 2 24 26 28 30 50 -I62 n
DURATION I N HOURSL

Figure 2.5 : Qpical Standard Depth Duration Curves

In the absence of standard intensity-duration cukes, the vqlue of critical rainfall.
intensity of the given design frequency can be determined in the following two
ways :
(i) Charts are available that present hourly maximum rainfalls, in cm, as contours
over the subcontinent, having a given frequency of occurrence. Any particular
contour value is termehone hour rainfall, with reference to the particular place
through which the contour passes. Interpolations can be made to cover the areas
falling between the two adjacent contours. The value of 'one hour rainfall' is
niultiplied by the appropriate areal distribution factor to obtain i, (maximum
hourly llesign rainfall) and i (the critical value) is computed
expression :

where, T, is expressed in hours.

(ii) Since the intensity of a storm (rainfall) is inversely proportioAal to the duration
of rain, it can be expressed in its generalised form as : !
l

t = -
a
T+b . . . (2.5)
where, i is in cm 1 h, T (given duration of the storm) is in minutes, and a and b
are constants depending on T itself. Using T, in minutes for T, the value of i as
its critical value can be computed.
Besides this generalised equation, certain other empirical equations are .
available for the determination of rainfall intensity for various regions. It is to
be stressed that the use of these equations is best avoide&however, when there
is absolutely no rainfall record atailable they may be used for very ordinary
works.
 - - - -

2.2.2 computation of peak Discharges by Empirical Formulae Storm Water Drainage

1 For the design of drains catering to large catchments (greater than 400 to 500 ha), some
empirical formulae are available for ready use. Some of them are based on local
conditions, and are used only when specific requirements are fulfilled. However, some
I
formulae, based on experimental studies over wide areas, are adopted for many localities.
Y (i) Burkli - Ziegler Formula
This is a very old empirical formula in use for the determination of peak rate of runoff.
It was developed by a Swiss engineer for particular local conditions; however, it was
soon followed in the entire USA. The formula is written as :

where, Qp = peak runoff in cumecs,

K' = runoff coefficient depending upon the permeability of the surface - its
I average value is taken as 0.7,
i = maximum rainfall intensity over the entire area - usually adopted
as 2.5 to 7.5 cm / h,
A = area of the basin (drainage area) in ha, and
So = the slope of ground surface of the basin in m per thousand metres.
(ii) Dicken 's Formula
This formula is considered useful for Indian catchments, particularly for North India.
The formula is written as follows :

where, M = catchment area in km2(in Eq. 2.6, the value of A is expressed in ha), and
C = a constant depending upon all those factors that influence the amount of
runoff as discussed earlier.

- ~ i i u r 2.6
e :Values of C, in Dicken's Formula for Various Zones of India
..It is imperative that the value of C should be appropriately ascertained for a given
catchment. It depends on the characteristics of the catchment, asbell as the intensity
 Wastewater Collection of T::;I::c~' - its nicrsge value is generally taken as 11.5, and has to be increased for
and Chatacteristics hilly terrains and decreased for plainer areas. For the same basin its value will be
@ higher for higher rainfall intensity. Figure 2.6 presents the values of C as applied to
different zones of India.
(iii) Ryve's Formula
This formula is similar to Dicken's model, except for the values of C and index M. It it, -
generally applicable to South Indian basins, and is written as follows :

Table 2.3 gives some average values of C1.

Table 2.3 :Values of C1in Ryve's Formula

--Location
- of Catchment Value
--of C1-
Areas nearly 24 km from the coaqr 6.8
Areas within 16-24 km from the coast 8.8
Limited areas near the hills 10.1

There are other empirical models also available for use, such as, due to Inglis, Nawab
Jung Bahadur, etc. I
2.2.3 Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Method
The Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture has developed
methods for estimating the volume and rate of storm runoff that are applicable to the
developing suburban areas of U.S. This method places emphasis on the correlation
between the type of soil cover in the basin and the runoff. Herein an outline of the SCS
Graphical Method, which is relevant to relatively small watersheds, is presented (using
American units for the concerned quantities) to bring out the basic approach adopted in
this procedure.

1
Four hydrologic soil groups are defined for use in this method, such as :

Soil Group ~ Description

High infiltration rate (i.e., low runoff
potential)
1
Moderate infiltration rate
Slow infiltration rate
D Very slow infiltration rate (i.e., high runoff
~otential)

It is obvious that soil survey maps and measured infiltration rates are needed to identify
the appropriate soil group in a given area. It is to be understood that the volume and rate
of runoff also depend on the type of land-use in the watershed. Therefore, in the SCS
-

Figure 2.7 :SCS Rainfall-RunoffRelationships for

Various CN Values for Small Watersheds
 method, the combined influence of soil group and land use is represented by a runoff Storm Water Drainage
curve number (CN). It is easy to appreciate that the values of CN for pavements and roofs
are not related to the type of soil. A totally impervious surface would have a CN = 100,
with the implication that all the rainfall would become runoff. Decreasing values of CN
signify decreasing amounts of direct runoff. Composite or weighted CN values can be
computed for basins consisting of several soil groups, and varying land-use patterns - a
v . procedure adopted in the Rational Method. Figure 2.7 depicts relationships in American
units among rainfall depth, the amount of runoff, and CN values.
The chart in Figure 2.7 is entered on the horizontal axis with the depth of rainfall related
to a given return period of the storm of 24-hour duration; and, then moving vertically up
to the curve whose CN matches with that of the basin (or, that of the estimated curve
position if it lies between the values shown on the graph), and next moving horizontally
to the left to read the volume of runoff (over the area of the basin) on the vertical axis.
To determine the peak rate of runoff a graph like shown in Figure 2.8 is used.

Figure 2.8 :Unit Peak Discharge of Runoff vs Tc,for

a 24-Hour Storm Duration -for Small Watersheds
1
i The horizontal axis represents the time of concentration (Tc) for the waterihed; and the
vertical axis gives the corresponding peak discharge in cubic feet per second per square
1 mile of the watershed, per inch of runoff (csm / in). This value is then applied in the
following equation to compute the peak rate of runoff.
Q = q x A x R . . . (2.9)
where, Q is the peak rate of runoff (ft3 / s), q the unit peak discharge (as read along the
vertical axis in Figure 2.8) in csm / in, A the drainage area (square miles), and R is the
1 direct runoff (in) & read in Figure 2.7.
r This method is generally applicable to drainage areas upto 3 square miles. It is considered
It more conservative than the the Rational Method, resulting in higher estimates of runoff.
Example 2.1
r Estimate the peak rate of runoff generated from a basin whose area is 2.1 ha with a
runoff coefficient of 0.4 for a rainfall intensity of 76 mm / h.
Solution

.'.

Using Rational Formula, we have :

Wastewater Collection
and Chatacteristics

Example 2.2
In an aerial photographic survey of a 15.5-ha catchment following, area
classification was determined :
Description
(i) flat densely wooded = 6.6ha ; C = 0.01
(ii) lawn = 6.2ha ; C = 0.19
(ii) paved roadway and parking area = 2.7 ha ; C = 0.93
Complete the composite runoff coefficient (K) for the total area of the catchment.
Solution
1
3 K = - [ c ~ +AC2A2 ~ +c~A~]
A
Here, A = 6.6 + 6.2 + 2.7 = 15.50 ha (as also given as a data item)

Hence, K = ---
15.50
[0.01 x 6.6 + 0.19 x 6.2 + 0.93 x 2.71

Example 2.3
A 0.27-km2 basin has its composite runoff coefficient, C = 0.25. It has been
observed that the overland flow distance to the point of commencement of the
main stream, that drains the catchment, is 175 m, and its slope is 7.5%. This stream
is 650 m long, dropping 32 m in elevation by the time it leaves the watershed.
Estimate the peak rate of runoff for 5 year storm and also for 100-year storm,
given the typical rainfall intensity-duration-frequency curves (Figure 2.9) for the
region.
z -
s
E 5
250 (10)
225 (9)
f
& 200 (8)
175 (7)
c
2 150 (6)
E
2
z 125 (5)
lCQ(4)
C
- 75(3)
50 (2)
25(1) \ [ I I W L I I I I I I I I I I I , I I I I I [ l l
0 ~ l l ~ l T ~ l l ~ ~ l l ~ l ~ l l ~ l i l l ~ ~ ~
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110120
Ramfall duration, mln

Figure 2.9 :Typical Rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves for the Given Region
Take the value of n of the stream as 0.035, and its hydraulic radius (when running
full) as 0.087 m for both the events for the sake of first approximation. (It may be
pointed out that nornographs are also available relating drop in a channel bed,
length of channel, and channel flow time - these can be used for a rough
approximation of channel flow time.)
Solution rd

km2 = 270000 km2

. 3 175 rn (overland travel distance), and move horizontally to
Enter ~ i ~ u r e 2with
the right reaching into the 7.5-slope curve (by interpolation); then move down
vertically to strike the position for C = 0.25, and turning to right (horizontally)
 -
read 23 min as the time of overland travel on the right hand vertical axiC Storm Water Drainage

Using Manning's formula, we have :

= 1.246 m / s = 1.246 x 60 = 74.76 m / minute

:. ~ h a * n e lflow d m =
- 650 - 8.69 = 8.7 minutes
74.76 . .
:. T, = 23 + 8.7 = 31.7 minutes = 32 minutes
From Figure 2.9, the rainfall intensity for following storm frequencies can be read,
as noted below :
(i) 5-years storm (32-minute duration) + 69 mm 1 h
(ii) 100-year storm (32-minute duration) 144 mm / h
Applying the Rational Formula, we write :
5-year storm

2.3 EFFECTS OF LAND DEVELOPMENT

It is straight forward proposition that the construction of homes, roads, factories, etc. for
a growing population, in a given area changes the patterns of land use - therefore, the
runoff patterns of the catchment must change accordingly. Unless appropriate measures
are taken, land development necessarily increases the frequency and severity of flooding,
and therefore of water pollution as well, due to storm watkr runoff. With the development
of land due to urbanisation, the original farm land, meadow, and woodland gets covered
with relatively impervious surfaces, such as, paved roads, parking lots, and buildings.
Obviously, this situation changes the local hydrology in two ways, as outlined below :
(i) the amount of infiltration registers a decrease; in turn it increases the volume of
direct surface runoff, and hence the volume of flood.
(ii) since the surface flow assumes faster velocities due to the modified
characteristics of the land surface, the time of concentration of the basins
decreases.
Wastewater Collection As the time of concentration comes down, even a shorter duration storm can cause the
and Chatacteristics flow to attain ,the peak value - and, it is to be remembered that the rainfall intensity is
greater vis-a-vis a shorter duration storm, which compounds the situation. Thus,
urbanisation leads to undesirable hydrological response so far as convenience and safe'ty
of a community is concerned (Figure 2.10).

Peak runoff discharge aner land development

1
?!
Peak runoff discharge before land
development
c
.-P
0

Time -
Figure 210 :Land Development Changes the Hydrograph Characteristics Adversely
Moreover, urban runoff generally carries lawn fertilizers, oil, organics, etc. into the main
drainage as well. Chances of occurring of severe floods, are in fact long-run effects,
while on a short-term basis soil erosion, and stream siltation result during land
development and construction period.
Modern land planning practices are designed to mitigate the long-term effects of
'
urbanisation, such as : temporary artificial storage of storm water, growing grass on open
lands to retard the flow velocity, etc.
Example 2.4
' The 0.27 lun2 catchment as described in Example 2.3 is proposed to bl developed
as residential and business locality. The resulting composite runoff coefficient C is
computed to be 0.60. Part of the flow is to be carried through a pipeline; and the
new channel flow time, after the above mentioned development, is projected to be
only 6.0 minutes.
For both the 5-year and the 100-year storms, estimate the expected peak flow rates
under the developed conditions, using the Rational Method. Compare the increases
in peak discharges with those occurring during the predevelopment conditions.
Solution
Entering Figure 2.3 with overland flow distance = 175 m, slope = 7596, and
C = 0.60, we read the corresponding overland travel time = 13.5 minutes.
.: . T, = 13.5 +6= 19.5 minutes for the developed basin.
Considering Figure 2.6, we read rainfall intensity values as under :
For 5-year storm, i = 86mrnIh
For 100-year storm. i = 1.8lmmlh
Applying the Rational Formula, we have :
5-year storm
Q = 0.6 x 0.086 (m / h) x 27000 m2

Under predevelopment conditions, we recall, the corresponding peak flow was

estimated to be 4658 m3 / h. Therefore, we can say that, as a consguence of
proposed land development, the peak stormwater flow may increase by a factor
of 13932 / 4658 = 2.99 = 3.0, for the 5-year storm.
100-year storm

Thus the land development will increase the peak flow by a factor of
29322 / 9720 = 3.0, for 100-year storm.
 Storm Water Drainage
2.4 STORM SEWER SYSTEMS
! Storm drainage system is put in place to convey surface runoff to the designated point of
storage, or disposal. It may be pointed out that sometimes storm sewer system is
1
combined with sewage sewer system - same sewer catering to the carriage of both these
types of waste water. In separate sewer system, obviously, sanitary and industrial waste
*
waters are excluded. There are some basic differences between storm and sanitary sewers
in so far as their designs are concerned.
Storm drainage system is allowed to periodically surcharge and overflow causing local
flooding, with a predictable recurrence interval. It is the result of having selected a storm
return period for estimating the magnitude of corresponding peak flow, and then basing
the size of the pipeline on this data. Obviously, this limits the capacity of the system, and
this has to be accepted with reference to economy; and. one has to understand that the
chance of sewers overflowing can never be completely eliminated. Sanitary sewers, on
the other hand, are designed to carry a peak flow for a given projected population; and,
thus, without overflowing. However, it may be mentioned that a sanitary sewer does
overflow usually due to excessive inflow of ground or surface water because of poor
construction or maintenance.
Storm sewers are usually having a much larger diameter than the separate sanitary sewers
for the same area that they serve - it is so because storm sewers have to be sized to carry
larger peak flows, though these carry no flow during dry weather season. Further, storm
sewers are placed at shallow depths to minimise excavation : whereas, sanitary sewers are
placed in relatively deeper trenches to accommodate service connection.

2.4.1 Layout and Design

A storm water (sometimes also referred to as storm sewage) collection system is a
network of inlets, and pipes that are laid along the street, etc. The usual location of the
sewers is near the kerb / edge of the pavement - it allows connecting the inlet boxes with
fewer manholes and using less pipe lengths. Drains carrying storm water are laid to
produce gravity flow to the designed water bbdy, or a storage facility or as in some
instances to a special treatment unit. Installation of a pumping facility is, in the first
instance, avoided due to a very large peak flow capacity required to deal with maximum
storm water flow.
Present day design concepts stress the full use of available open channels, streams, etc. to
carry surface runoff upto a stage from where use of buried pipes may become necessary.
This approach allows slowing down the flow and increasing the time of on-site detention
(without accounting for basin storage) - thus, the magnitudes of peak flows are reduced
on the downstream sites. However, this plan of action may require putting in place
drainage crossings to carry roadways, etc. Generally, a culvert (say, a short section of
pipe, etc.) serves this purpose.
Storm sewers are generally made of circular reinforced concrete pipes. Sometimes
elliptical sections are used when the depth of pipe (from the ground) is very shallow, in .
order to achieve ease for covefing the pipe with soil over the minor axis of the pipe.
Other material for storm pipes can also be used, such as, corrugated metapipes.
Inlets
*In a storm water system, an inlet is a device (a structure) that intercepts the surface
runoff, and directing it into the underground sewer system. Apart from their

w , Str

Figure 211 :Typical Position of Storm Water Inlets at a Street Intersection

 - -

Wastewater Collection appropriate location and spacing, inlets should be provided with sufficient capacity
aqd Chtacteristics to entrap and direct surface water as fast as possible with a view to avoid backups
on the ground surface after taking into account factors like, clogging, nuisance to
traffic, hydraulic capacity, and desired safety. It is within this context that flooding
across street intersections is avoided (Figure 2.11).
There are three basic types of inlets that are in ose, such as, kerb inlets, gutter (or 1
grate) inlets, and combined inlets (Figure 2.12). i

Vert~cal
Curb curb openlng Curb -
'f - I
I
d f fl

Figure 2.12 :Basic Types of Storm Water Inlets

A kerb inlet has a vertical opening along the kerb itself. It is through this opening that the
runoff flow finds entry into the sewer system. With reference to child safety the kerb
opening should be less than 150 mm high which, however, limits the intake capacity of#
the inlet. A gutter inlet is a horizontal opening provided directly in the pavement itself;
and, it is covered with a cast iron grating to obstruct the entry of large-size debris. The
gutter type inlet, however, obstructs the smooth flow of traffrc (particularly bicycles,
etc.), and the grating is subject to being plugged with debris.
A combination inlet, as is clear from Figure 2.12 incorporates both a kerb and a gutter
opening in its design. The gutter grating can be depressed to gain additional hydraulic
capacity. The combination inlet is, obviously, the least subject to the menace of clogging. ,

Figure 2.13 gives a cross-sectional view of an inlet basin to receive water from the inlet
and direct it to the storm drain. If the drain invert happens to be above the bottom of the
inlet basin (a position shown with the dashed lines), than this inlet basin is termed catch
basin. In fact, the catch basin is meant to trap the grit, sand, and leaves etc. that may be
washed into it. Sometimes catch basins are discouraged to be incorporated as a feature of
storm water collection design due to requirement for periodic cleaning, odour menace,
and mosquito problem - and, therefore, only inlet basins are adopted as the design feature
of the collection system at the inlet point. Approprigte design, and adopting self-cleansing
drain slopes m u l d in that case maintain the collection system free from blockage
problems. '
Cyrb Inlet

Gutter mlet erate \-

.Inlet basin

Stormdram
I I
I I
I I Debris .
II I I
I I
I :; ....:,,::..;.:. . . .. , .. , .. , . k ( C a t c h basin)
I '. I

Figure 2.13 : Cross-sectionalView of a Typical Storm Water Inlet Basin

 ; ?
r
#"...&"& $-je\:g~~
j*~'~~t"q;$i~~
. .
t Iiie first illput in the sew!. $y,!:!-!achlgn c:cer~,iseis a detailed topographic map ot the
:irca of interest. To begin with, itl.icts are located at street intersections, low points, and
also at required intervals along the streets of the area. The drainage lines are located
within the public right-of-way (or in drainage easements), and, to maintain gravity flow,
. the natural slope of the land is followed. The boundary of the catchment (to be drained
off) is drawn on the topographic map. Next for a given storm sewer reach (i.e., the reach
with constant diameter and slope, usually between two inlets) the boundary of the
sub-catchment that contributes to each inlet and downstream-reach is drawn. Each such
. area is measured out with the help of a planimeter.
Using a suitable procedure (most commonly Rational Method) the peak design flow is
computed. The storm recurrence interval is to be selected, or may already stand specified
by locally / regionally applicable laws or rules. Inlet time (i.e.,overland flow time) is to
be estimated for each tributary area to an inlet - as a general guideline, inlet time should
not exceed about 10 minutes.
In fact, consideration of the system for purposes of design begins at the uppermost inlet,
proceeding downstream, inlet by inlet. Cumulative areas and composite runoff
cueft'icients are computed for each successive reach of the system. With the progress of
development one would encounter gradually increasing travel time, vis-a-vis, the reach
under consideration, and a new value of time of concentration has to be found for each
section of the system. It need not be stressed that at any inlet, the longest time of flow of
water entering it must be adopted as the relevant time of concentration for that particular
reach, in order to cater to the entire runoff coming from the whole basin.
In a modern separate sewerage system, as mentioned earlier, storm water is not rnix~rli
with the sewage discharge from the area. After collecting the storm water through street
inlets and admitting into the link drains (often kept under cover), the discharge is directcd
into the main drain which are generally kept open. These main drains finally discharge
the water into the designated water body, such as, a stream, lake, or sea. As said earlier,
gravity flow in the system is always preferred, provided the FSL of the stream and the
main drain permit.
It is again with the help of contour maps that the positions of link drains and major drains
are appropriately planned with due consideration to achieving gravity flow as far as
possible - gravity flow with flatter pipe 1 drain gradients is obviously an economical
solution. Fixing of alignments of all the drains, allows marking of the sub-basins that are
to he drained off by each drain.
?iext an L-section of each sub-basin main drain is drawn, allowing the designer to fix the
Cul! supply line / level (FSL) of the drain. FSL is, basically, fixed within the limits
prescribed by the natural surface level (NSL) of the area to be catered to and the
permissible outfall full supply level. It is understood that the FSL at no place along the
Icngth of the drain must, as a rule, remain above the NSL of the low lying area that' may
be under consideration to avoid water-logging. But, sometimes, one is constrained to
allow FSL to remain above the NSL; and pumping has to be resorted to carrying the
storm water to the next gravity-flow drain - which may be the major discharging drain i ; i
the catchment. Fixing of FSL leads to the determination of the slope of free water surf:\..-:
in the drain; and then after fixing the depth of the drain, the bed line of the drain gets
automatically fixed. The deterinination of the depth of the drain is influenced by the
following considerations :
(i) The bed level of the drain under consideration, at the outfall point, should no!
lie below the bed level of the water body receiving the storm water.
(ii) When the available width of land is less than normally required, the width ol'
the drain has to be restricted -therefore, to carry the required discharge a .
deeper section of the drain would have to be provided to make up the necesw i
flow area.
(iii) It is advisable to limit the depth of an uncovered drsin to less than a human
being's height to avoid danger of drowning in case a of Sudden fall or going
into it for inspection, etc.
(iv) The section of the drain should be so designed as to be economical; as.wel1as,
it should generate non-silting and non-scouring velocities throughout the range
of flows the drain has to sustain. There. are some empirical formulae that are
';t :~,te\vaterCollection available relating the width, and the depth of the drain, as presented below :
and Chatacteristics
(a) For drains carrying upto 15 cumecs
Depth of drain = 0.5 $width of the drain) . . . (2.20)
(b) For drains carrying a discharge greater than 15 cumecs
Depth and flow are related as under :

Maximum Flow (cumec) Depth of Drain (m)

15 1.7
30 1.8
75 --
2.3
150 2.6
300 3.0

(c) A general graphical relation presented by Central Water Commission

This relation is applicable to unlined drains,'and is presented in
Figure 2.14.

DISCHARGE IN CUMECS (LOG)

Figure 2.14 :Bed Width to Depth Ratio vs Discharge in Unlined Drains
The self-cleansing velocity for a storm water drain as adopted in USA is about 0.9 m/s -
it is higher than that for sewage drains because storm water generally carries heavier (and
more settleable) solids than the former. Table 2.4 presents maximum permissible
velocities in lined and unlined drains.
Table 2.4 :Maximum Permissible Velocities in Storm Water Drains

SI. No. 'Qpe of Material Maximum Permissible

-
Lined Drains

I Bumt-clay-tile lined
I 1.8
3. Cement concrete lined 2 to 2.5
Unlined Drains
/ 1. I Ordinary soils I 0.6 to 0;9
I
11 1( 3.
Very light, loose sand to an average
sandy soil
Black cotton soil, sandy loam, etc.
I1 0.3 to 0.6

0.6 to 0.9
I
1 1 Murram, hard soil, etc.
Rock and v e

Hydraulic Formulae for Determining Flow Velocities (Hydraulic Design)

1 l'°FSl'l 1
Sewers and drains are generally designed as open channels : however, when they
have to flow under pressure (such as, while working as inverted siphons), or work
 as discharge pipes coming out of sewage pumping stations, these~ifedesigned as Storm Water Drainage
pipes under pressure. Various empirical formulae are available to deternine the
flow velocities, under open flow conditions, as discussed in other units. Generally, *

for the design of an open-channel-flow sewer (with a circular or a trapezoidal -

lined or unlined - or a rectangular section) covered and lined, Manning's formula
is used. A free board (as per Table 2.5) is then provided, and then fixing the bank
levels of the drain is easily done.
Table 2.5 :Free Board for Storm Water Drains

r Peak Flow (m3/ r)

--
Free Board (m)
-

Pipe'locations, diameters and slopes must be indicated on the plan of the area; and
the invert levels are determined in much the same fashion as for sanitary sewers.
An outfall structure by way of dissipating the excessive energy of flow at that
place (drain falling into another major drain, etc.) is also required. Moreover, a
regulator may sometimes have to be provided at the outfall point (say, a river) to
avoid back flow into the drain as could happen at high stages of flow of the
receiving water body.
Example 2.5
There is a proposed storm drainage system of an area whose total catchment has
been divided into several sub-catchments. Each sub-catchment has been suitably
provided with an inlet at its end point. The proposed drain connecting inlet 1 with
inlet 2 is designed as reach 1, and so on. Following data about first three reaches is
given :
(a) Sub-catchment I
Area, Al = 1.1 ha
Runoff coefficient, C1= 0.4 1
Inlet time = 4.9 minutes
(b) (i) Sub-catchment 2

Inlet time = 5.8 minutes

(ii) Reach 1
Length = 121 m
Bed Slope, s = 0.0036
(c) (i) Sub-catchment 3
A3 = 2.2 ha

Inlet time = 11.00 minutes

(ii) Reach 2
/

Length = 178 m
Bed slope, s = 0.0019
 C:o!lrction
iL.~:;!c~\ater
. >
! { o ; ~ : / t.j ( c ( ~ r ~ n : , ~ y l ~ ;:!;LC;
;:
,.
5 tc ; I L ! P ! 4,)
(L!)
itnil Chutacteristics .
Bed slope, s = 0.0016
Determine the diameters of pipe drains for the respective reaches ( ~ n n i n full),
g
using Rational Method for computing the design flows. Assume Manning's n as
0.013 for all the drains, and consider a 10-year storm for determining design
rainfalls.
Solution
Reach 1

-
*
Taking the inlet time (4.9 minutes), for area A,, as the time of concencation, we
read from Figure 2.9, i 153 mm / h for the 10-year storm. Using Rational
Formula, we have :
Q = 0.41 x 0.153 x 11OOO

= 690m3/h

= 690 / 3600 rn3 / s

= 0.i92rn3/s
Using Manning's equation, we write :

0.192 = ,.;,,
-. :d2 (!TI3

where, d is the diameter of the circular pipe, in metres.

.: d = 0.47 m

= 47.0 cm
Hence, velocity of flow in the pipe,

Reach 2
This reach connects inlet 2 and inlet 3. Before proceeding further, we first
compute the composite mnoff coefficient for areas A1 and A2 as follows :

Now, the time of flow, through reach 1

- 109 seconds = .18 minutes
- Length - 121 -
Velocity 1.11
Thus, the total time of flow upto inlet 2 is the sum of the inlet time with
reference to areaA1 and the channel flow time in reach 1, i.e., 4.9 + 1.8 = 6.7 m.
This time is greater than the inlet time for areaA2 (namely, 5.8 minutes); hence
we adopt a time of concentration, T, = 6.7 minutes for the composite area
draining into inlet 2. Entering Figure 2.9 with this time of rainfall duration, we
read i = 147 mm / h for the 10-year storm. Applying Rational Formula, we
have :
 Storm Water Drainage

and,

Reach 3
Total tributary area to inlet 3
= 1.1 + 1.4 + 2.2

Composite runoff co-efficient, K

178 - 175s
Now, the time of flow in reach 2 = -
1.02
= 2.9 minutes
Thus, the total flow time to inlet 3 (= inlet time for A1 + travel time for reach 1
+ travel time for reach 2)

= 9.6 minutes
This time is less than the individual inlet time for A3 (i.e., 11.0. minutes);
therefore the 11-minute inlet time becomes the governing factor. Thus, adopting
11.0 minutes as the time of concentration (i.e., storm duration) for the design of
reach 3, We enter Figure 2.9 with T, = 11.OO minutes, and read i = 136 mm / h
(i.e., 0.136 m / h) for the 10-year storm. From Rational Formula, we get :

Note :(1) The diameters computed for various reaches can respectively, be
rounded off to the nearest (higher) available standard sizes.
(2) The velocities computed for various reaches lie within the permissible
limits; hence, these values are acceptible.
Exat,jpil: 2.6
Design a trapezoidal-sectioned (unlined, with n = 0.025) storm water outfan
channel, for a basin whose area is 125 ha, within following parameters :
(i) Co-efficient of runoff = 0.53
(ii) Inlet time = 17.5 minutes
(iii) Flow time in the reaches upstream of the proposed channel = 27 minutes
(iv) Proposed water surface slope of the channel = 1 in 3500
(v) Maximum permissible flow velocity in the channel = 1.0 m I s
(vi) Design rainfall frequency = 5 years
(vii) Relevant data from depth duration curves that are available with reference to the
area under consideration are given as follows :

Rainfall Frequency Duration Rainfall .

(Years) (minutes) (cm/ h)

(viii) Adopt the side slopes of the drain as 1 V : 1.2 H

Solution
Time of concentration, T,
= Inlet time + Flow time
= 17.5 + 27 = 44.5 minutes

Therefore, the critical rainfall intensity corresponding to a storm duration

44.5 minutes with a 5-year return period (by simple straight line interpolation,
vis-a-vis, the given data at item (vii))

Using Rational Formula (Eq. (2.2)), we have :

Peak storm runoff,

a = (hx o s i j x 7.03 x in
= 12.94cumec

Now, adopting a depth of flow Cy) as 1.5 m, we have from Eq. (2.2) :,
1.5 = 0.5

where, W is the base width of the trapezoidal section.

 Considering the trapezoidal section, we can write : Storm Water Drainage
I

= (W +1.2~)~
=(9+1.2x1.5)1.5 .
= 16.25 m2
Wetted perimeter, P
= W + 2 m x 1 . 5
= 9 + 3 m T

= 13.68m
:. The hydraulic radius, R

.Applying Manning's equation, we write :

= 12.34 cumec < 12.94 cumec

Thus, we need an increased area fo flow; and, hence adopting a bed width of
9.5 m, we recalculate the necessary quantities as under :

Hence,
i
I = 12.94 cumec (which is satisfactory)
Check for Permissible Maximum Velocity

Actual velocity of flow in the drain = 116.95

2.94 = 0.76 m / s
This velocity is less than the given maximum permissible velocity, i.e., ,l.O m 1 s.
Hence, the following trapezoidal section is adopted :
Bed width = 9.5 m
Depth of flow = 1.5 m
(provide suitable free board, i.e., 0.75 m - thus the gross depth of the section will
be 2.25 m)
Side slopes = 1 V : 1.2 H
Longitudinal slope of the drain = 1 : 3500.
 ..,:,Ii
. r2f.L'CS;:C:
to 3 cer:zin urban basin, whose area is 250 ha, the maximum hourly
design rainfall is 5.3 cm / h for working out the dimensions of an open trapezoidal
drain (stone pitched; n = 0.02) required to carry off the storm water flow. Assume
the time of concentration as 1.2 h, the longitudinal slope of the drain (for a uniform
flow condition) as 1 in 2500, runoff coefficient = 0.53, and side slopes of the drain
section as 1 : 1.2.
Solution
Writing Eq. 2.4, we have :

i , the critical rainfall intensity (cm / h) = io -

[l :TJ
where, io = 5.3cmIh

:. Peak storm flow rate,

= 17.74 cumec

Referring to Figure 2.14, we have, corresponding to a discharge of 17.74 m3 / s :

Adopting y = 1.5 m, W works out to be 9.75 m. Fixing W = 10.00 m, we calculate

the following quantities :

Hence, adopting only 9.00 m as the bottom width of the section, we have : . .

= 18.1 curnec
 This value is about satisfactory, being very close to 17.74 m3 / s - :Lit: ;.xpc:~-,: Storm Wstcr Drui~:.qc
peak flow value.
Check for Maximum Velocity
17 74
Maximum average velocity generated = -- = 1.1 m 1 s
16.2
It is less than the permissible value (= 1.5 m / s) for a stone pitched section.
The final important parameters that are to be adopted are summarised as
follows :
Bed width = 9.0 m
Side slopes= 1 : 1.2
Bed slope = 1 in 2500
Adopt the appropriate value for the free board to amve at the working section
of the drain.

A storrn druil; system is laid o u r E\. i;l; ~ l l t lftoiloix irig pect?jij:lries :

Ciitchment area,A3 = 3.0 ha, L'? -5 0.2, inlt:: ri!;ie =: 7 n?i:i!.;r;s~.

Reach I (inlet 1 to inlet 21, L = !Oil m, bed dopr :- i f t F i 15

Reach 2 (inlet 2 to inlet 3 ) , I, = 120 m. brd sl:lpe -= ir c?!;?

Reach ? (inlet 3 to inlet 4), bed slope = :).(I1
Take M;innlngs coeftic~ent= G.0 1.3
Cori~putethe design flow anti the required pipe (liarA L .--c~ ~ ~!.<>c
. . . &i<.l?,
a fi:b<;i '

considering a 5-year storm for purposes of eslinlating rainiclii i:ltiri~,>;r.;

-
.
.-
a
,
-. -----.--.- . ~ .- . . -
2 5. STORM
----
WATER DETENTION
"

: !~:idemstorm water strategy favours a temporary engineered storage of water in the

it;.

preference to immediate conveyance to the nearest designated water body or any

,.P .n :[I
*.;!her outfall point.
It obvious that this storage is over and above the natural detention that does take place
1s
-11 an! given basin. It has been observed that ponding of rain water by design on roof
i*j1>>,a r over parking lots, of course for a short duration, does amount to enough storage
;!,,it the peak runoff rates are reduced perceptibly. In this context, it may be pointed out
J

:1 : :he physical features of roughness elements in a channel seetion, such as grass-lined

;-* :: drainage channels, are important to retard the flow of storm water - thus,
t r.:nbuting to the on-site storm water detention in the form of valley storage.

'I ,ht- concept of ionstructing smaller reservoid to detain, for sometime, water coming
: un streets, parking lots, etc., and then releasing under controlled conditions as required
(. saining growing acceptance. These devices are best suited to manage h e runoff from
~rrlativelyshort and intense local storms, that would otherwise cause frequent flooding
,Imid severe erosion, with the consequent effects. Some particular becefits ot storm water
rtorage through engineered detention can be listed as under :
(i) Peak runoff rates are reduced. -
(ii) Both the frequency and severity of flooding are attenuated.
Wastewater Collection (iii) Surface water quality is maintained to a satisfactory standard.
and Chatacteristics
(iv) Sedimentation in streams gets reduced due to the reduction of soil'erosion.
(v) While water stands detained, the chance's of recharge of acquifer increase;
however, much depends on the permeability of the soil.
However, the on-site storm water detention basins need to be looked after for appropriate
-maintenance. They are subject to sedimentation and deposition of debris being the first
stop that is applied on the surface flow; and their outlet structures, therefore, generally
get easily clogged. Another problem relates to weed control, and breeding of mosquitoes
in stagnant waters; moreover, the safety of children of the locality cannot be left
unattended. The beneficiaries must be motivated to share the responsibility of
maintenance; or any appropriate agency, like area municipality, can attend to this aspect.
Figure 2.15 depicts one of 'the types of a detention basin, where the outlet structure acts as
a bottleneck that is restraining the flow rate out of the pond.
A storage basin may retain water for all the time (i.e., with no outlets provided) forming a
permanent pond, and can also be harnessed to provide aesthetic and recreational
advantages to the community. Such a storage is known as retention basin. These is a third
type of storage structure, namely, recharge basin that allows the stored storm water to
percolate into the underlying aquifer, and thus recharging and replenishing the ground
water reserves in addition to the primary function of controlling the storm runoff. It is,
however, understood that the underlying soil must be permeable to an appropriate degree
for relatively rapid infiltration. It is helpful if the seasonal high water table is at least
0.5 m below the bottom of the tank.
On-site
storm sewer
/ ~unoff' Too of embankment

Figure 215 :A Storm Water Detention Pond

2.5.1 Design Considerations for a Detention Basin

The first step towards the design, addressing the hydraulic concerns, is the computation
of peak discharge rates before and after the development of the area. Sometimes a
detention basin is required to provide a balance between storage volume and outflow in
order to restrict post-development runoff equal to or less than the pre-development value.
This requirement is addressed in USA on the basis of 100-year storm, but sometimes it is
specified that the storage should reduce the surface flow generated by 2- and 10-year
storms as well. It is but obvious that the storage facility will not reduce the peak flows
that are smaller in magnitude but frequent in occurrence. Thereon arises the concept of
accommodating more than one storm return period in the design of the detention facility
- it calls for appropriate hydraulic design, vis-a-vis, basin volume and outlet structure.
Figure 2.16 shows a sketch of a structure (say, of concrete) that is provided with more
than the one outlet to cater to storms having a range of frequencies. It reduces the peak

Figure 216 :Multiple Outlet Detention Basin

flows of storms that occur with varying storm magnitudes (or, in other words, Storm Water Draimge
frequencies). It is clear that the multiple outlet openings (or, say specially designed
proportional weirs) can be used to achieve the purpose of accommodating a range of
storm magnitudes.
An appropriate location for the storage basin has to be selected on the basis of a detailed
topographical map - and, the location has to be at the lower portion of the sub-basin
under consideration. It is essential that an on-site sewer system has to be put in place to
carry the runoff into the storage facility. Here, now we are at a stage when a preliminary
estimate of the required storage volume should be made - a discussion under the next
heading is devoted to this aspect of hydraulic design so that a simple, and quick -
procedure for the purpose is outlined. Once the preliminary size of the storage basin is
arrived at, a grading plan is drawn on the topographic map. The best way to proceed is
aiming at balancing excavatim and filling (in the low lying area of the storage site) -
forming an earth embankment that confines the area such that the embankment gradually
tapers into the natural topography of the land. Next, a rigorous analysis as to how the
pond would respond to inflows and outflows has to be done, and if a small stream is
already active in the storage basin the same is to be accounted for in the analysis. It is on
the basis of this exercise that it would be possible to determine whether the discharge at
the outlet (of proposed capacity) is equal to or less than the maximum allowable flow,
and also if there is enough volume in the storage to avoid flooding of nearby residential
area - and if both these conditions are met with, the storagk design with respect to its
hydraulics is taken as satisfactory; otherwise, obviously, suitable changes have to be.
made, until an acceptable design is amved at. Lastly, an emergency spillway is to be
designed to pass off flows greater than the design flow that may enter the storage with
reference to the safety of the earth embankment. I

2.5.2 Preliminary Design Computations

The fundamental relationship expressing the hydraulics of any storage basin at any given
time is written as under : .
Inflow - Outflow = Storage . . .(2.21)
We know, that the first parameter, namely, the rate of inflow is a function of time for a
given surface flow event. Therefore, it is available in the form of a hydrograph known as
inflow hydrograph. As we know, it is also influenced by the intensity and duration of
rainfall for given physical characteristics of the catchment. Further, the rate of outflow
from the basin is also a function of time - it obviously is dependent on the hydraulic
charaeteristics of the outlet structure of the pond, being a function of the head over the
outlet, its cross-sectional area, and loss of energy due to friction if the outlet is in the
form of a long pipe. Eq. (2.21) - storage equation - can be expressed mathematically as
follows :

I ( b ~ a s i filling
n (AS positive)

Basin outflow hydrograph

c~~ I (peak runoff = Dr~de~ebDment
rate)

Time --,
Figure 2.17 :Typical Inflow and Outflow Hydrographs for a Storm Water Dctentioq Basin
where, A t is an appropriately small interval of time (say, 5 or 10 minutes), I is the
average rate of inflow during A t, 0 is the average rate of outflow during At, and AS is
the change in stoi'age volume during At. We know that the solution of Eq. 2.22 (through
 .
+ wivr Collection any flood routing procedure) give us the basin outflow hydrograph, whose time base is
..i Chetacteristics more, and peak flow rate is much less than that of the inflow hydrograph
(Figure 2.17) - the intended response, achieved by the basin and outlet structure. At first,
the rate of inflow exceeds the rate of outflow; and, thus, water keeps accumulating in the
basin (i.e., AS is positive). After the inflowing storm water subsides, the basin begins to
empty out gradually through the outlet (i.e., AS is now negative).
Usual flood routing procedures involve a lot of computation; therefore, for tackling the
present problsm, a simpler, but approximate, method is recommended which is quite
appropriate to give a preliminary estimate of the necessary storage volume or peak
outflow rate of the detention basin. However, a rigorous procedure is called for later on to
finalise the design of the whole structure. In the approximate method, referred to above,
following two factors have to be defined with respect to the effectiveness of detention
basin :
Basin storage volume
Storage factor (SF) = --
Total rainfall volume
Peak outflow rate
Flow factor (FF) = ----
Peak inflow rate
The relaiionship between S F and FF can be approximated by a straight line (Refer -
Pagan, A., "Flow Factor Line Used in Storage Calculations", ASCE, Journal of pl

Irrigation and Drainage, March, 1977) as shown in Figure 2.18 whose equation is given
below :

1 .o

Flow factor = 1.0 - Storage factor

0.8 ~ ~ = i pKk-$!!!O~
lfactor
peak ~nflow

orage factor = %!agE!?!".'?e.

'0 0.6
t; ramfall volume
d
B
iC 0.4

0.2

0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Storage factor

Figure 2.18 :Relationship between FF and SF Used for

Approximate Storm Water Detention Calculations
It is interesting to note that, when some storage volume is provided, that straight-line
relationship approximates the process occumng between following two extreme
conditions :
(i) SF = 0, and so FF = 1.O, when there is no storage volume - i.e.; outflow rate

-
would be equal to the inflow rate, and there being no flow attenuation, and
(ii) SF = 1, and so FF d, if the pond is big enough to store all the total surface
flow generated by the storm - i.e., there would be no outflow at all.
Further, computational simplificaions (and, therefore, approximations) can be introduced
by assuming, for all practical purposes, that the inflow hydrograph is triangular in shape
(Figure 2.19), with a view to estimating quickly the total rainfall volume. Its height
represents the peak inflow, (Q,& that can be calculated by Rational Method. The total
time for its rising limb (from start to the peak-flow point) is taken as the time of
concentration
 Figure 2.19 :A Triangular Hydrograph as a Tool for a
Reasonable Estimation of Total Reinfall Volume
(T,) of the catchment area, while the time for the receding limb to meet the time base is .
conservatively taken as 2 T, . The area of the triangle
gives the total rainfall volume that has been received
Example 2.8 .
A given storm produces a peak runoff of 4.5 m3 I s over a drainage area whose
time of concentration (T,) is 31 minutes. If a detention basin with 9000 m3
capacity is made availab:e on site, what would be the peak outflow from the pond
for the given storm? Use triangular hydrograph method for finding the solution.
Solution
T, = 31 x 60 = 1860s -i
:. Total volume rainfall = 1.5 x 1860 x 5

9000
Now, SF = -= 0.65
13950
From Figure 2.18 or from Eq.2.23, we have :
FF = 1.0 - 0.65 = 0.35
.-. Peak outflow rate = 0.35 x 4.5
= 1.58m3 I s
Thus, it is expected that the 9000 - m3 storage pond will reduce the peak runoff
from 4.5 m3 / s to about 1.58 (or, say, 1.6) m3 I s.
Example 2.9
A catchment area (0.23 km2) is to be developed for residential purposes; and the
concerned planning board has laid down the provison that an on-site storm water
storage pond be constructed so that the peak runoff (based on 5-year storm) after
development (which otherwise is estimated to be 15000 m3/h) is not greater than
the peak flow that would build up prior to the development of the area (5000 m3/h).
Assume that the detention pond will have an average water depth of 2.2 m while
being filled to capacity.
Determine the fraction of the area of the total site that will have to be used for the
detention basin, taking the time of concentration after development to be
16 minutes.
Solution
As per requirement,we set the predevelopment discharge of 5000 m3/h equal to the
- basin (pond) outflow rate, and the post development discharge of 15000 m3/h equal
to theinflow rate. Thus, we have :
Wmkwater Collection
and Chatacteristics

and, T, = 16/60 = 0.27

:. Total rainfall volume
= 1.5 x 0.27 x 15000
= 6075 m3
;.
0

Basin storage volume

= 0.67 x 6075 = 4070m3
We know,
Storage volume
= pond area x depth of water

:. Pond sea = 4070/2.2 = 1850 m2.

which is = 0.80% of the catchment area = 1850 x 100

0.23' x lo6

7
91 > , t ; ~ r ncauses :i peak runoff of 8 m- i s in a drainage basin thathas a time of ,
coiici-nrration of 20 minutes. A detention basin with 12000 m3 of storage volume is
!:uilt on site. Estimatc the peak outflow rate from the basin for thrs storm, using the
. . ...
~ ~ r n p l ~storage
t ~ e d factor method.

I:$, iinate the ?torage volume necclctl in a detention basln to reduce a peak inflow
r 0 n 3 i s to 2 m3 / s, uhen ahc totdl r a ~ l ~ f avolume
ll is 15000 m 3 .

2.6 MANAGEMENT OF FLOOD PLAINS

The area of a flood plain that gets inundated by the 100-year flood (as per the criteria
developed in the US) islknown as the flood hazard area - Figure 2.20.
loO.year Roodplain (flood hazard area)

Rpre 2.20 :Deilaition of Flood Hazard Area

Flood hazard area include the following elements : Storm Water Dminsage

(i) floodway - it carries the major portion of the flood at high velocities,
-
(ii) flood fringe it is the area that is covered with shallower, and slowly flowing
water.
Floods cause damage to life and property situated in the floodway. And, also, floods
cause considerable pollution problems, particularly contamination of drinking water
supplies. Better land use procedures based on environmental planning, and proper flood
plain management practices go a long way in limiting flood damage to the minimum,
Urban development in a flood plain (entailing land filling as well for this purpose) causes
constriction in the flow width of the channel, and thus gives rise to increased elevations
of flood waters. The basic objective of forcing appropriate land use in flood plains is to
achieve reduction of the risk of flood damage in future. Therefore, it is in the interest of
the community to enforce regulations to avoid the following constructions in the
floodway :
(i) New buildings,
(ii) Sanitary landfills,
(iii) On-site sewage disposal structures.
To help monitor the flood plain management it is necessary to delineate the plain on a
topographic map, as a flood hazard area.
Of course, flood protection measures, like reservoirs, levees, and channelisation
(increasing the existing carrying capacity of the stream) are also adopted to afford
protection against floods caused by such storms as have equal or less than the design
recurrence interval - such structures induce additional'urban development in the flood
plain because of the mitigation of ~stentialthreat of flood damage.

2.7 SUMMARY
Study of the subject of storm water drainage begins with the consideration of methods to
estimate the peak surface runoff due to the storm of a given frequency that occurs over a
given catchment. The estimation is mostly done by Rational Method, use of empirical
formula'e (relevant for particular catchments only), or special procedures applicable to
specific areas (such as, Soil Conservation Service Method being used in USA) that may
be developed for ease in computations.
The need for estimation of runoff basically arises once an area is proposed to be
developed with a view to urbanisation, and the normal peak flow is expected to increase
due to increase in the coefficient of runoff of the area because of loss of natural seepage
through paved patches of land.
Storm sewer systems, for carrying the flow comprises suitable inlets in the streets, minor
and trunk sewer pipes. The design of the system involves fixing the inlet locations, slope
of sewer lines, and working out their diameters. Sewers and drains are designed with all
the considerations and formulae applicable for the design of open channels.
Use of storm water detention basins allows a temporary storage of water thaV41s,later on,
released; and it later on helps reduce the peak flow, and so lesser diameter of sewer lines
can be adopted to effect economy in the capital cost. Such basins can be designed to cater
to many storms falling in the desired range of frequency of occurrence. Hydraulic design
of these structures involves the use of flood routing procedures; and a simplified
procedure, namely, simplij?ed storage factor method comes handy in this context.

2.8 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
0.1 19 cumec
SAQ 2
(i) 220 1/ s ;60.0 cm
(ii) 400 1/ s ;65 cm
(iii) 600 1/ s ;65 cm
 atcr (i:i:frtii>ri
~~;ru!clt SAQ 3
and Chatacteristirs
1.3 m 3 / s
SAQ 4
12000 m3