A NEUTRON STAR THEORY

A neutron star is a collapsed core of a massive supergiant star. The stars that later collapse into neutron
stars have a total mass of between 10 and 25 solar masses (M☉), possibly more if the star was especially
rich in elements heavier than hydrogen and helium.[1] Except for black holes, neutron stars are the
smallest and densest known class of stellar objects.[2] Neutron stars have a radius on the order of 10
kilometers (6 mi) and a mass of about 1.4 M☉.[3] They result from the supernova explosion of a massive
star, combined with gravitational collapse, that compresses the core past white dwarf star density to
that of atomic nuclei.

Once formed, neutron stars no longer actively generate heat and cool over time, but they may still
evolve further through collisions or accretion. Most of the basic models for these objects imply that they
are composed almost entirely of neutrons, as the extreme pressure causes the electrons and protons
present in normal matter to combine producing neutrons. These stars are partially supported against
further collapse by neutron degeneracy pressure, just as white dwarfs are supported against collapse by
electron degeneracy pressure. However, this is not by itself sufficient to hold up an object beyond 0.7
M☉[4][5] and repulsive nuclear forces play a larger role in supporting more massive neutron stars.[6][7]
If the remnant star has a mass exceeding the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit, which ranges from
2.2–2.9 M☉, the combination of degeneracy pressure and nuclear forces is insufficient to support the
neutron star, causing it to collapse and form a black hole. The most massive neutron star detected so
far, PSR J0952–0607, is estimated to be 2.35±0.17 M☉.[8]

Newly formed neutron stars may have surface temperatures of ten million K or more. However, since
neutron stars generate no new heat through fusion, they inexorably cool down after their formation.
Consequently, a given neutron star reaches a surface temperature of one million degrees K when it is
between one thousand and one million years old.[9] Older and even-cooler neutron stars are still easy to
discover. For example, the well-studied neutron star, RX J1856.5−3754, has an average surface
temperature of about 434,000 K.[10] For comparison, the Sun has an effective surface temperature of
5,780 K.[11]

Neutron star material is remarkably dense: a normal-sized matchbox containing neutron-star material
would have a weight of approximately 3 billion tonnes, the same weight as a 0.5-cubic-kilometer chunk
of the Earth (a cube with edges of about 800 meters) from Earth's surface.[12][13]

As a star's core collapses, its rotation rate increases due to conservation of angular momentum, and
newly formed neutron stars rotate at up to several hundred times per second. Some neutron stars emit
beams of electromagnetic radiation that make them detectable as pulsars, and the discovery of pulsars
by Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish in 1967 was the first observational suggestion that neutron
stars exist. The fastest-spinning neutron star known is PSR J1748-2446ad, rotating at a rate of 716 times
per second[14][15] or 43,000 revolutions per minute, giving a linear (tangential) speed at the surface on
the order of 0.24c (i.e., nearly a quarter the speed of light).

There are thought to be around one billion neutron stars in the Milky Way,[16] and at a minimum
several hundred million, a figure obtained by estimating the number of stars that have undergone
supernova explosions.[17] However, many of them have existed for a long period of time and have
cooled down considerably. These stars radiate very little electromagnetic radiation; most neutron stars
that have been detected occur only in certain situations in which they do radiate, such as if they are a
pulsar or a part of a binary system. Slow-rotating and non-accreting neutron stars are difficult to detect,
due to the absence of electromagnetic radiation; however, since the Hubble Space Telescope's
detection of RX J1856.5−3754 in the 1990s, a few nearby neutron stars that appear to emit only thermal
radiation have been detected.

Neutron stars in binary systems can undergo accretion, in which case they emit large amounts of X-rays.
During this process, matter is deposited on the surface of the stars, forming "hotspots" that can be
sporadically identified as X-ray pulsar systems. Additionally, such accretions are able to "recycle" old
pulsars, causing them to gain mass and rotate extremely quickly, forming millisecond pulsars.
Furthermore, binary systems such as these continue to evolve, with many companions eventually
becoming compact objects such as white dwarfs or neutron stars themselves, though other possibilities
include a complete destruction of the companion through ablation or collision. The merger of binary
neutron stars may be the source of short-duration gamma-ray bursts and are likely strong sources of
gravitational waves. In 2017, a direct detection (GW170817) of the gravitational waves from such an
event was observed,[18] along with indirect observation of gravitational waves from the Hulse-Taylor
pulsar.

REFERENCES,
 Heger, A.; Fryer, C. L.; Woosley, S. E.; Langer, N.; Hartmann, D. H. (2003). "How Massive Single
Stars End Their Life". Astrophysical Journal. 591 (1): 288–300. arXiv:astro-ph/0212469.
Bibcode:2003ApJ...591..288H. doi:10.1086/375341. S2CID 59065632.
 Glendenning, Norman K. (2012). Compact Stars: Nuclear Physics, Particle Physics and General
Relativity (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4684-0491-3.
Archived from the original on 2017-01-31. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
 Seeds, Michael; Backman, Dana (2009). Astronomy: The Solar System and Beyond (6th ed.).
Cengage Learning. p. 339. ISBN 978-0-495-56203-0. Archived from the original on 2021-02-06.
Retrieved 2018-02-22.
Dr. Amos Ariny

31/Aug/2022. Source;NASA.GOV

(NASA Astronaut Flight Engineer or Astronomer or Computational Astrophysicist)

1) asking a question about something you observe,

2) doing background research to learn what is already known about the topic,

3) constructing a hypothesis,

4) experimenting to test the hypothesis,

5) analyzing the data from the experiment and drawing conclusions, and

6) communicating the results to others.

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Amos Ariny (Astronomer or Astronaut or Computational Astrophysicist)

Email; aamor9@gmail.com
Dr. Amos Ariny ,(Astronomer or NASA Astronaut Flight Engineer) 1984- Present, PhD Earth ,Atmospheric
and Planetary science.

Email; aamor9@gmail.com

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Dr. Amos Ariny (Astronomer)

(Bsc, Msc, PhD ;Earth , Atmospheric and Planetary Science )

Massachusetts Institute of Technology-Texas State University USA.

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Amos Ariny (Astronomer) 1992 Photo. NASA.GOV. NASA Astronaut Flight Engineer ,1984, 1987.
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Dr. Amos Ariny

31/Aug/2022. Source;NASA.GOV

( NASAAstronaut Flight Engineer or Astronomer or Computational Astrophysicist)

(NASA Astronaut Flight Engineer or Astronomer or Computational Astrophysicist)