Differentiation

Differentiation
Chapter 2
University of Namibia
Faculty of Engineering & IT
Department of Mechanical Engineering
March 25, 2024

Outline of Lecture
Definition of the derivative
Differentiation rules for polynomial and exponential functions
Product rule and Quotient rule
Differentiation of trigonometric functions
Chain rule
Implicit differentiation
Derivatives of logarithmic and trigonometric functions
Concavity and curve sketching
Related rates
Optimization
Table of Contents
Chain rule
Related rates
Optimization
Tangents
4
Tangents
If a curve C has equation y = f(x) and we want to find the
tangent line to C at the point P(a, f(a)), then we consider a
nearby point Q(x, f(x)), where x  a, and compute the slope
of the secant line PQ:
Then we let Q approach P along the curve C by letting

x approach a.
5
Tangents
If mPQ approaches a number m, then we define the tangent
t to be the line through P with slope m. (This amounts to
saying that the tangent line is the limiting position of the
secant line PQ as Q approaches P. See Figure 1.)
Figure 1
6
Tangents
7
Example 1
Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x2
at the point P(1, 1).
Solution:
Here we have a = 1 and f(x) = x2, so the slope is
8
Example 1 – Solution cont’d
=1+1
=2
Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we find

that an equation of the tangent line at (1, 1) is
y – 1 = 2(x – 1) or y = 2x – 1
9
Tangents
We sometimes refer to the slope of the tangent line to a
curve at a point as the slope of the curve at the point.
The idea is that if we zoom in far enough toward the point,

the curve looks almost like a straight line.
10
Tangents
Figure 2 illustrates this procedure for the curve y = x2 in
Example 1.
Zooming in toward the point (1, 1) on the parabola y = x2

Figure 2
11
Tangents
The more we zoom in, the more the parabola looks like a
line.
In other words, the curve becomes almost indistinguishable

from its tangent line.
There is another expression for the slope of a tangent line

that is sometimes easier to use.
12
Tangents
If h = x – a, then x = a + h and so the slope of the secant
line PQ is
(See Figure 3 where the case h > 0 is illustrated and Q is to

the right of P. If it happened that h < 0, however, Q would
be to the left of P.)
Figure 3 13
Tangents
Notice that as x approaches a, h approaches 0 (because
h = x – a) and so the expression for the slope of the
tangent line in Definition 1 becomes
14
Derivatives
25
Derivatives
We have seen that the same type of limit arises in finding
the slope of a tangent line (Equation 2) or the velocity of an
object (Equation 3). think of instateneous
In fact, limits of the form
arise whenever we calculate a rate of change in any of the

sciences or engineering, such as a rate of reaction in
chemistry or a marginal cost in economics.
Since this type of limit occurs so widely, it is given a special

name and notation.
26
Derivatives
If we write x = a + h, then we have h = x – a and h

approaches 0 if and only if x approaches a. Therefore an
equivalent way of stating the definition of the derivative, as
we saw in finding tangent lines, is
27
Example 4
Find the derivative of the function f(x) = x2 – 8x + 9 at the
number a.
Solution:
From Definition 4 we have
28
29
Derivatives
We defined the tangent line to the curve y = f(x) at the point
P(a, f(a)) to be the line that passes through P and has
slope m given by Equation 1 or 2.
Since, by Definition 4, this is the same as the derivative

f(a), we can now say the following.
30
Derivatives
If we use the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we
can write an equation of the tangent line to the curve
y = f(x) at the point (a, f(a)):
y – f(a) = f(a)(x – a)
31
Table of Contents
Chain rule
Related rates
Optimization
Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions
In this section we learn how to differentiate constant

functions, power functions, polynomials, and exponential
functions.
Let’s start with the simplest

of all functions, the constant
function f(x) = c.
The graph of this function is

the horizontal line y = c,
which has slope 0, so we
must have f '(x) = 0. The graph of f(x) = c is the
(See Figure 1.) line y = c, so f (x) = 0.
Figure 1
3
Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions
A formal proof, from the definition of a derivative, is also

easy:
In Leibniz notation, we write this rule as follows.
4
Power Functions
5
Power Functions
We next look at the functions f(x) = xn, where n is a positive
integer.
If n = 1, the graph of f(x) = x is the line y = x, which has

slope 1. (See Figure 2.)
The graph of f(x) = x is the

line y = x, so f '(x) = 1.
Figure 2
6
Power Functions
So
(You can also verify Equation 1 from the definition of a

derivative.)
We have already investigated the cases n = 2 and n = 3.

We found that
7
Power Functions
For n = 4 we find the derivative of f(x) = x4 as follows:
8
Power Functions
Thus
Comparing the equations in (1), (2), and (3), we see a

pattern emerging.
It seems to be a reasonable guess that, when n is a

positive integer, (d/dx)(xn) = nxn –1. This turns out to be
true.
9
Example 1
(a) If f(x) = x6, then f(x) = 6x5.
(b) If y = x1000, then y= 1000x999.
(c) If y = t 4, then = 4t 3.
(d) = 3r 2
10
Power Functions
The Power Rule enables us to find tangent lines without

having to resort to the definition of a derivative. It also
enables us to find normal lines.
The normal line to a curve C at a point P is the line

through P that is perpendicular to the tangent line at P.
11
New Derivatives from Old
12
When new functions are formed from old functions by
addition, subtraction, or multiplication by a constant, their
derivatives can be calculated in terms of derivatives of the
old functions.
In particular, the following formula says that the derivative

of a constant times a function is the constant times the
derivative of the function.
13
Example 4
just remeber to factor out the constant
14
The next rule tells us that the derivative of a sum of
functions is the sum of the derivatives.
The Sum Rule can be extended to the sum of any number

of functions. For instance, using this theorem twice, we get
(f + g + h) = [(f + g) + h)] = (f + g) + h = f + g + h
15
By writing f – g as f + (–1)g and applying the Sum Rule and
the Constant Multiple Rule, we get the following formula.
The Constant Multiple Rule, the Sum Rule, and the

Difference Rule can be combined with the Power Rule to
differentiate any polynomial, as the following examples
demonstrate.
16
Exponential Functions
17
Let’s try to compute the derivative of the exponential
function f(x) = bx using the definition of a derivative:
The factor bx doesn’t depend on h, so we can take it in front

of the limit:
18
Notice that the limit is the value of the derivative of f at 0,
that is,
Therefore we have shown that if the exponential function

f(x) = bx is differentiable at 0, then it is differentiable
everywhere and
f(x) = f(0)bx
This equation says that the rate of change of any

exponential function is proportional to the function itself.
(The slope is proportional to the height.)
19
Numerical evidence for the existence of f(0) is given in the
table shown below for the cases b = 2 and b = 3. (Values
are stated correct to four decimal places.) It appears that the
limits exist and
for b = 2,
for b = 3,
20
In fact, it can be proved that these limits exist and, correct
to six decimal places, the values are
Thus, from Equation 4, we have
Of all possible choices for the base b in Equation 4, the

simplest differentiation formula occurs when f(0) = 1.
21
In view of the estimates of f(0) for b = 2 and b = 3, it seems
reasonable that there is a number b between 2 and 3 for
which f(0) = 1.
It is traditional to denote this value by the letter e. Thus we

have the following definition.
22
Geometrically, this means that of all the possible
exponential functions y = bx, the function f(x) = ex is the one
whose tangent line at (0, 1) has a slope f(0) that is
exactly 1. (See Figures 6 and 7.)
Figure 6 Figure 7
23
If we put b = e and, therefore, f(0) = 1 in Equation 4, it
becomes the following important differentiation formula.
Thus the exponential function f(x) = ex has the property that

it is its own derivative. The geometrical significance of this
fact is that the slope of a tangent line to the curve y = ex is
equal to the y-coordinate of the point (see Figure 7).
24
Example 8
If f(x) = ex – x, find f and f. Compare the graphs of f and f.
Solution:
Using the Difference Rule, we have
25
We defined the second derivative as the derivative of f , so
26
The function f and its derivative f are graphed in Figure 8.
Notice that f has a horizontal tangent

when x = 0; this corresponds to the
fact that f(0) = 0. Notice also that, for
x > 0, f(x) is positive and f is
increasing.
When x < 0, f(x) is negative and f is Figure 8

decreasing.
27
Table of Contents
Chain rule
Related rates
Optimization
The Product Rule
3
The Product Rule
By analogy with the Sum and Difference Rules, one might
be tempted to guess, that the derivative of a product is the
product of the derivatives.
We can see, however, that this guess is wrong by looking

at a particular example.
Let f(x) = x and g(x) = x2. Then the Power Rule gives
f(x) = 1 and g(x) = 2x.
But (fg)(x) = x3, so (fg)(x) = 3x2. Thus (fg)  fg.
4
The Product Rule
The correct formula was discovered by Leibniz and is
called the Product Rule.
Before stating the Product Rule, let’s see how we might
discover it.
We start by assuming that u = f(x) and v = g(x) are both
positive differentiable functions. Then we can interpret the
product uv as an area of a rectangle (see Figure 1).
The geometry of the Product Rule

Figure 1 5
The Product Rule
If x changes by an amount x, then the corresponding
changes in u and v are
u = f(x + x) – f(x) v = g(x + x) – g(x)
and the new value of the product, (u + u)(v + v), can be

interpreted as the area of the large rectangle in Figure 1
(provided that u and v happen to be positive).
The change in the area of the rectangle is
(uv) = (u + u)(v + v) – uv = u v + v u + u v

= the sum of the three shaded areas
6
The Product Rule
If we divide by x, we get
If we now let x  0, we get the derivative of uv:
7
The Product Rule
(Notice that u  0 as x  0 since f is differentiable and

therefore continuous.)
Although we started by assuming (for the geometric

interpretation) that all the quantities are positive, we notice
that Equation 1 is always true. (The algebra is valid
whether u, v, u, and v are positive or negative.)
8
The Product Rule
So we have proved Equation 2, known as the Product
Rule, for all differentiable functions u and v.
In words, the Product Rule says that the derivative of a

product of two functions is the first function times the
derivative of the second function plus the second function
times the derivative of the first function.
9
Example 1
(a) If f(x) = xex, find f(x).
(b) Find the nth derivative, f (n)(x).
Solution:
(a) By the Product Rule, we have
10
(b) Using the Product Rule a second time, we get
11
Further applications of the Product Rule give
f(x) = (x + 3)ex f (4)(x) = (x + 4)ex
In fact, each successive differentiation adds another term

ex, so
f (n)(x) = (x + n)ex
12
The Quotient Rule
13
The Quotient Rule
We find a rule for differentiating the quotient of two
differentiable functions u = f(x) and v = g(x) in much the
same way that we found the Product Rule.
If x, u, and v change by amounts x, u, and v, then the

corresponding change in the quotient uv is
14
The Quotient Rule
So
As x  0, v  0 also, because v = g(x) is differentiable

and therefore continuous.
Thus, using the Limit Laws, we get
15
The Quotient Rule
In words, the Quotient Rule says that the derivative of a

quotient is the denominator times the derivative of the
numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of the
denominator, all divided by the square of the denominator.
16
Example 4
Let Then
17
The Quotient Rule
18
Table of Contents
Chain rule
Related rates
Optimization
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
In particular, it is important to remember that when we talk
about the function f defined for all real numbers x by
f(x) = sin x
it is understood that sin x means the sine of the angle

whose radian measure is x. A similar convention holds for
the other trigonometric functions cos, tan, csc, sec, and cot.
All of the trigonometric functions are continuous at every

number in their domains.
3
If we sketch the graph of the function f(x) = sin x and use
the interpretation of f(x) as the slope of the tangent to the
sine curve in order to sketch the graph of f, then it looks as
if the graph of f may be the same as the cosine curve.
(See Figure 1).
Figure 1
4
Let’s try to confirm our guess that if f(x) = sin x, then
f(x) = cos x. From the definition of a derivative, we have
5
Two of these four limits are easy to evaluate. Since we

regard x as a constant when computing a limit as h  0,
we have
and
simply because they re not h related 6

The limit of (sin h)/h is not so obvious. We made the guess,
on the basis of numerical and graphical evidence, that
7
We now use a geometric argument to prove Equation 2.
Assume first that  lies between 0 and  /2. Figure 2(a)
shows a sector of a circle with center O, central angle ,
and radius 1.
BC is drawn perpendicular to OA.

By the definition of radian measure,
we have arc AB = .
Also |BC| = |OB| sin  = sin .
Figure 2(a)
8
From the diagram we see that
|BC | < |AB| < arc AB
Therefore sin  <  so <1
Let the tangent lines at A and B

intersect at E. You can see from
Figure 2(b) that the circumference
of a circle is smaller than the
length of a circumscribed polygon,
and so arc AB < |AE| + |EB|.
Figure 2(b)
9
Thus
 = arc AB < |AE| + |EB|
< |AE| + |ED|
= |AD| = |OA| tan 
= tan 
Therefore we have
so
10
We know that lim 0 1 = 1 and lim 0 cos  = 1, so by the
Squeeze Theorem, we have
But the function (sin )/ is an even function, so its right

and left limits must be equal. Hence, we have
so we have proved Equation 2.

11
We can deduce the value of the remaining limit in (1) as
follows:
(by Equation 2)
12
If we now put the limits (2) and (3) in (1), we get
13
So we have proved the formula for the derivative of the
sine function:
14
Example 1
Differentiate y = x2 sin x.
Solution:
Using the Product Rule and Formula 4, we have
15
Using the same methods as in the proof of Formula 4, one
can prove that
The tangent function can also be differentiated by using the

definition of a derivative, but it is easier to use the Quotient
Rule together with Formulas 4 and 5:
16
17
The derivatives of the remaining trigonometric functions,

csc, sec, and cot, can also be found easily using the
Quotient Rule.
18
We collect all the differentiation formulas for trigonometric
functions in the following table. Remember that they are
valid only when x is measured in radians.
19
Trigonometric functions are often used in modeling
real-world phenomena. In particular, vibrations, waves,
elastic motions, and other quantities that vary in a periodic
manner can be described using trigonometric functions. In
the next example we discuss an instance of simple
harmonic motion.
20
Example 3
An object at the end of a vertical spring is stretched 4 cm
beyond its rest position and released at time t = 0. (See
Figure 5 and note that the downward direction is positive.)
Its position at time t is
s = f(t) = 4 cos t
Find the velocity and acceleration

at time t and use them to analyze
the motion of the object.
Figure 5
21
Example 3 – Solution
The velocity and acceleration are
22
The object oscillates from the lowest point (s = 4 cm) to the

highest point (s = –4 cm). The period of the oscillation is
2, the period of cos t. because it went and cone again
23
The speed is |v| = 4 |sin t|, which is greatest when

|sin t| = 1, that is, when cos t = 0.
So the object moves fastest as it passes through its

equilibrium position (s = 0). Its speed is 0 when sin t = 0,
that is, at the high and low points.
The acceleration a = –4 cos t = 0

when s = 0. It has greatest
magnitude at the high and low
points. See the graphs in Figure 6.
Figure 6
24
Table of Contents
Chain rule
Related rates
Optimization
The Chain Rule
Suppose you are asked to differentiate the function
The differentiation formulas you learned in the previous

sections of this chapter do not enable you to calculate F(x).
Observe that F is a composite function. In fact, if we let

y = f (u) = and let u = g(x) = x2 + 1, then we can write
y = F(x) = f(g(x)), that is, F = f  g.
We know how to differentiate both f and g, so it would be

useful to have a rule that tells us how to find the derivative
of F = f  g in terms of the derivatives of f and g.
3
The Chain Rule
It turns out that the derivative of the composite function f  g
is the product of the derivatives of f and g. This fact is one
of the most important of the differentiation rules and is
called the Chain Rule.
It seems plausible if we interpret derivatives as rates of

change. Regard du/dx as the rate of change of u with
respect to x, dy/du as the rate of change of y with respect
to u, and dy/dx as the rate of change of y with respect to x.
If u changes twice as fast as x and y changes three times
as fast as u, then it seems reasonable that y changes six
times as fast as x, and so we expect that
4
The Chain Rule
5
The Chain Rule
The Chain Rule can be written either in the prime notation
(f  g)(x) = f(g(x))  g(x)
or, if y = f(u) and u = g(x), in Leibniz notation:
Equation 3 is easy to remember because if dy/du and du/dx

were quotients, then we could cancel du.
Remember, however, that du has not been defined and

du/dx should not be thought of as an actual quotient.
6
Example 1
Find F'(x) if F(x) = .
Solution 1:
(Using Equation 2): We have expressed F as
F(x) = (f  g)(x) = f(g(x)) where f(u) = and g(x) = x2 + 1.
Since
and g(x) = 2x
we have F(x) = f(g(x))  g(x)
7
Example 1 – Solution 2 cont’d
(Using Equation 3): If we let u = x2 + 1 and y = , then
8
The Chain Rule
When using Formula 3 we should bear in mind that dy/dx
refers to the derivative of y when y is considered as a
function of x (called the derivative of y with respect to x),
whereas dy/du refers to the derivative of y when
considered as a function of u (the derivative of y with
respect to u). For instance, in Example 1, y can be
considered as a function of x (y = ) and also as a
function of u (y = ).
Note that
whereas
9
The Chain Rule
In general, if y = sin u, where u is a differentiable function of
x, then, by the Chain Rule,
Thus
In a similar fashion, all of the formulas for differentiating

trigonometric functions can be combined with the Chain
Rule.
10
The Chain Rule
Let’s make explicit the special case of the Chain Rule
where the outer function f is a power function.
If y = [g(x)]n, then we can write y = f(u) = un where u = g(x).

By using the Chain Rule and then the Power Rule, we get
11
Example 3
Differentiate y = (x3 – 1)100.
Solution:
Taking u = g(x) = x3 – 1 and n = 100 in (4), we have
= (x3 – 1)100
= 100(x3 – 1)99 (x3 – 1)
= 100(x3 – 1)99  3x2
= 300x2(x3 – 1)99
12
The Chain Rule
We can use the Chain Rule to differentiate an exponential
function with any base b > 0. Recall that a = bln b. So
bx = (eln b)x = e(ln b)x
and the Chain Rule gives
(bx) = (e(ln b)x) = e(ln b)x (ln b)x
= e(ln b)x  ln b = bx ln b
because ln b is a constant. So we have the formula
13
The Chain Rule
In particular, if b = 2, we get
(2x) = 2x ln 2
We had given the estimate
(2x)  (0.69)2x
This is consistent with the exact formula (6) because

ln 2  0.693147.
The reason for the name “Chain Rule” becomes clear when
we make a longer chain by adding another link.
14
The Chain Rule
Suppose that y = f(u), u = g(x), and x = h(t), where f, g, and
h are differentiable functions.
Then, to compute the derivative of y with respect to t, we

use the Chain Rule twice:
15
Table of Contents
Chain rule
Related rates
Optimization
Implicit Differentiation
The functions that we have met so far can be described by
expressing one variable explicitly in terms of another
variable—for example,
y= or y = x sin x
or, in general, y = f(x).
Some functions, however, are defined implicitly by a

relation between x and y such as
x2 + y2 = 25
or
x3 + y3 = 6xy
3
In some cases it is possible to solve such an equation for y
as an explicit function (or several functions) of x.
For instance, if we solve Equation 1 for y, we get

y= , so two of the functions determined by the
implicit Equation 1 are f(x) = and g(x) = .
its therefore
not easy for
even
quadratic
equations
4
The graphs of f and g are the upper and lower semicircles
of the circle x2 + y2 = 25. (See Figure 1.)
Figure 1
5
It’s not easy to solve Equation 2 for y explicitly as a function
of x by hand. (A computer algebra system has no trouble,
but the expressions it obtains are very complicated.)
Nonetheless, (2) is the equation of a curve called the

folium of Descartes shown in Figure 2 and it implicitly
defines y as several functions of x.
The folium of Descartes

Figure 2 6
The graphs of three such functions are shown in Figure 3.
Graphs of three functions defined by the folium of Descartes
Figure 3
When we say that f is a function defined implicitly by

Equation 2, we mean that the equation
x3 + [f(x)]3 = 6xf(x)
is true for all values of x in the domain of f. 7
Fortunately, we don’t need to solve an equation for y in
terms of x in order to find the derivative of y. Instead we
can use the method of implicit differentiation.
This consists of differentiating both sides of the equation

with respect to x and then solving the resulting equation
for y.
In the examples and exercises of this section it is always

assumed that the given equation determines y implicitly as
a differentiable function of x so that the method of implicit
differentiation can be applied.
8
Example 1
(a) If x2 + y2 = 25, find .
(b) Find an equation of the tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = 25

at the point (3, 4).
Solution 1:
(a) Differentiate both sides of the equation x2 + y2 = 25:
9
Remembering that y is a function of x and using the Chain

Rule, we have
Thus
Now we solve this equation for dy/dx:
10
(b) At the point (3, 4) we have x = 3 and y = 4, so
An equation of the tangent to the circle at (3, 4) is therefore

y–4= (x – 3) or 3x + 4y = 25
Solution 2:
(b) Solving the equation x2 + y2 = 25 for y, we get
y= . The point (3, 4) lies on the upper
semicircle y = and so we consider the function
f(x) = .
11
Differentiating f using the Chain Rule, we have
So
and, as in Solution 1, an equation of the tangent is

3x + 4y = 25.
12
Table of Contents
Chain rule
Related rates
Optimization
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
We know that the definition of the arcsine function:
y = sin–1x means sin y = x and
Differentiating sin y = x implicitly with respect to x, we

obtain
Now so
14
Therefore
The formula for the derivative of the arctangent function is

derived in a similar way. If y = tan−1x, then tan y = x.
Differentiating this latter equation implicitly with respect to
x, we have
15
16
Example 5
Differentiate
(a)
(b) f(x) = x arctan
Solution:
(a)
17
(b)
18
The derivatives of the remaining four are given in the

following table.
19
Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
In this section we use implicit differentiation to find the
derivatives of the logarithmic functions y = logb x and, in
particular, the natural logarithmic function y = ln x. [It can
be proved that logarithmic functions are differentiable; this
is certainly plausible from their graphs (see Figure 12 in
Section 1.5).]
Figure 12
3
Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
In general, if we combine Formula 2 with the Chain Rule,

we get
or
4
Example 2
Find ln(sin x).
Solution:
Using (3), we have
5
Logarithmic Differentiation
6
The calculation of derivatives of complicated functions
involving products, quotients, or powers can often be
simplified by taking logarithms.
The method used in the next example is called logarithmic

differentiation.
7
Example 7
Differentiate
Solution:
We take logarithms of both sides of the equation and use
the Laws of Logarithms to simplify:
ln y = ln x + ln(x2 + 1) – 5 ln(3x + 2)
Differentiating implicitly with respect to x gives
8
Solving for dy/dx, we get
Because we have an explicit expression for y, we can

substitute and write
9
10
The Number e as a Limit
11
If f(x) = ln x, then f (x) = 1/x. Thus f (1) = 1. We now use
this fact to express the number e as a limit.
From the definition of a derivative as a limit, we have
12
Because f (1) = 1, we have
Then, by the continuity of the exponential function, we have
13
Formula 5 is illustrated by the graph of the function
y = (1 + x)1/x in Figure 4 and a table of values for small
values of x. This illustrates the fact that, correct to seven
decimal places,
e  2.7182818
Figure 4
14
If we put n = 1/x in Formula 5, then n  as x  0+ and
so an alternative expression for e is
15
Table of Contents
Chain rule
Related rates
Optimization
Guidelines for Sketching a Curve
The following checklist is intended as a guide to sketching
a curve y = f(x) by hand. Not every item is relevant to every
function. (For instance, a given curve might not have an
asymptote or possess symmetry.)
But the guidelines provide all the information you need to

make a sketch that displays the most important aspects of
the function.
A. Domain It’s often useful to start by determining the

domain D of f, that is, the set of values of x for which f(x) is
defined.
4
B. Intercepts The y-intercept is f(0) and this tells us where
the curve intersects the y-axis. To find the x-intercepts, we
set y = 0 and solve for x. (You can omit this step if the
equation is difficult to solve.)
C. Symmetry
(i) If f(–x) = f(x) for all x in D, that is, the equation of the
curve is unchanged when x is replaced by –x, then f is an
even function and the curve is symmetric about the y-axis.
5
This means that our work is cut in half. If we know what the
curve looks like for x  0, then we need only reflect about
the y-axis to obtain the complete curve [see Figure 3(a)].
Even function: reflectional symmetry
Figure 3(a)
Here are some examples: y = x2, y = x4, y = | x|, and

y = cos x.
6
(ii) If f(–x) = –f(x) for all x in D, then f is an odd function
and the curve is symmetric about the origin. Again we can
obtain the complete curve if we know what it looks like for
x  0.
[Rotate 180 about the origin; see Figure 3(b).] flip it 180 degrees
Odd function: rotational symmetry

Figure 3(b)
Some simple examples of odd functions are y = x, y = x3,

y = x5, and y = sin x. 7
(iii) If f(x + p) = f(x) for all x in D, where p is a positive
constant, then f is called a periodic function and the
smallest such number p is called the period.
For instance, y = sin x has period 2 and y = tan x has

period . If we know what the graph looks like in an interval
of length p, then we can use translation to sketch the entire
graph (see Figure 4).
Periodic function: translational symmetry

Figure 4 8
D. Asymptotes
(i) Horizontal Asymptotes. If either limx f(x) = L or
limx f(x) = L, then the line y = L is a horizontal
asymptote of the curve y = f(x).
If it turns out that limx f(x) = (or ), then we do not

have an asymptote to the right, but this fact is still useful
information for sketching the curve.
9
(ii) Vertical Asymptotes. The line x = a is a vertical
asymptote if at least one of the following statements is true:
(For rational functions you can locate the vertical

asymptotes by equating the denominator to 0 after
canceling any common factors. But for other functions this
method does not apply.)
10
Furthermore, in sketching the curve it is very useful to know
exactly which of the statements in (1) is true.
If f(a) is not defined but a is an endpoint of the domain of f,

then you should compute limxa– f(x) or limxa+ f(x),
whether or not this limit is infinite.
(iii) Slant Asymptotes. if the limit as x aproaches infinity approaches zero
E. Intervals of Increase or Decrease Use the I/D Test.

Compute f(x) and find the intervals on which f(x) is
positive (f is increasing) and the intervals on which f(x) is
negative (f is decreasing).
11
F. Local Maximum and Minimum Values Find the critical
numbers of f [the numbers c where f(c) = 0 or f(c) does
not exist]. Then use the First Derivative Test. If fchanges
from positive to negative at a critical number c, then f(c) is
a local maximum.
If f changes from negative to positive at c, then f(c) is a

local minimum. Although it is usually preferable to use the
First Derivative Test, you can use the Second Derivative
Test if f(c) = 0 and f(c)  0.
Then f(c) > 0 implies that f(c) is a local minimum, whereas

f(c) < 0 implies that f(c) is a local maximum.
12
G. Concavity and Points of Inflection Compute f(x) and
use the Concavity Test. The curve is concave upward
where f(x) > 0 and concave downward where f(x) < 0.
Inflection points occur where the direction of concavity
changes.
H. Sketch the Curve Using the information in items A–G,

draw the graph. Sketch the asymptotes as dashed lines.
Plot the intercepts, maximum and minimum points, and
inflection points.
13
Then make the curve pass through these points, rising and
falling according to E, with concavity according to G, and
approaching the asymptotes.
If additional accuracy is desired near any point, you can

compute the value of the derivative there. The tangent
indicates the direction in which the curve proceeds.
14
Example 1
Use the guidelines to sketch the curve
A. The domain is
{x | x2 – 1  0} = {x | x  1}
=( , –1)  (–1, 1)  (1, )
B. The x- and y-intercepts are both 0.
C. Since f(–x) = f(x), the function f is even. The curve is

symmetric about the y-axis. 15
Example 1 cont’d
D.
Therefore the line y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote.
Since the denominator is 0 when x = 1, we compute the

following limits:
16
Example 1 cont’d
Therefore the lines x = 1 and x = –1 are vertical

asymptotes.
This information about limits and asymptotes enables us to

draw the preliminary sketch in Figure 5, showing the parts
of the curve near the asymptotes.
Preliminary sketch
Figure 5 17
Example 1 cont’d
E.
Since f(x) > 0 when x < 0 (x  –1) and f(x) < 0 when
x > 0 (x  1), f is increasing on ( , –1) and (–1, 0) and
decreasing on (0, 1) and (1, ).
F. The only critical number is x = 0.
Since f changes from positive to negative at 0, f(0) = 0

is a local maximum by the First Derivative Test.
18
Example 1 cont’d
G.
Since 12x2 + 4 > 0 for all x, we have
f(x) > 0 x2 – 1 > 0 |x| > 1
and f(x) < 0 |x| < 1. Thus the curve is concave upward
on the intervals ( , –1) and (1, ) and concave
downward on (–1, 1). It has no point of inflection since
1 and –1 are not in the domain of f.
19
Example 1 cont’d
H. Using the information in E–G, we finish the sketch in

Figure 6.
Finished sketch of y =
Figure 6
20
Slant Asymptotes
21
Slant Asymptotes
Some curves have asymptotes that are oblique, that is,
neither horizontal nor vertical. If
where m  0, then the line

y = mx + b is called a slant
asymptote because the vertical
distance between the curve
y = f(x) and the line y = mx + b
approaches 0, as in Figure 12.
Figure 12
(A similar situation exists if we let x  .)

22
Slant Asymptotes
For rational functions, slant asymptotes occur when the
degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the
denominator.
In such a case the equation of the slant asymptote can be

found by long division as in the following example.
23
Example 6
Sketch the graph of
neverr zero
A. The domain is =( , ).
B. The x- and y-intercepts are both 0.
C. Since f(–x) = –f(x), f is odd and its graph is symmetric

about the origin.
D. Since x2 + 1 is never 0, there is no vertical asymptote.

Since f(x)  as x  and f(x)  as x  ,
there is no horizontal asymptote.
24
Example 6 cont’d
But long division gives
This equation suggests that y = x is a candidate for a slant

asymptote.
In fact,
25
Example 6 cont’d
So the line y = x is a slant asymptote.
E.
Since f(x) > 0 for all x (except 0), f is increasing

on ( , ).
F. Although f(0) = 0, f does not change sign at 0, so there

is no local maximum or minimum.
26
Example 6 cont’d
G.
Since f(x) = 0 when x = 0 or x = we set up the

following chart:
The points of inflection are (0, 0), and

or just say
27
x=0
Example 6 cont’d
H. The graph of f is sketched in Figure 13.
Figure 13
28
Table of Contents
Chain rule
Related rates
Optimization
Related Rates
If we are pumping air into a balloon, both the volume and
the radius of the balloon are increasing and their rates of
increase are related to each other.
But it is much easier to measure directly the rate of

increase of the volume than the rate of increase of the
radius.
In a related rates problem the idea is to compute the rate of
change of one quantity in terms of the rate of change of
another quantity (which may be more easily measured).
The procedure is to find an equation that relates the two

quantities and then use the Chain Rule to differentiate both
sides with respect to time. 3
Example 1
Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon so that its
volume increases at a rate of 100 cm3/s. How fast is the
radius of the balloon increasing when the diameter is
50 cm?
Solution:
We start by identifying two things:
the given information:
the rate of increase of the volume of air is 100 cm3/s
and the unknown:
the rate of increase of the radius when the
diameter is 50 cm
4
In order to express these quantities mathematically, we

introduce some suggestive notation:
Let V be the volume of the balloon and let r be its radius.
The key thing to remember is that rates of change are

derivatives. In this problem, the volume and the radius are
both functions of the time t.
The rate of increase of the volume with respect to time is

the derivative dV/dt, and the rate of increase of the radius
is dr/dt.
5
We can therefore restate the given and the unknown as

follows:
Given: = 100 cm3/s
Unknown: when r = 25 cm
In order to connect dV/dt and dr/dt, we first relate V and r

by the formula for the volume of a sphere:
V = r3
6
In order to use the given information, we differentiate each

side of this equation with respect to t. To differentiate the
right side, we need to use the Chain Rule:
Now we solve for the unknown quantity:
7
If we put r = 25 and dV/dt = 100 in this equation, we obtain
The radius of the balloon is increasing at the rate of

1/(25)  0.0127 cm/s.
8
Table of Contents
Chain rule
Related rates
Optimization
Optimization Problems
In solving such practical problems the greatest challenge is
often to convert the word problem into a mathematical
optimization problem by setting up the function that is to be
maximized or minimized.
Let’s recall the problem-solving principles.
3
Steps In Solving Optimization Problems
1. Understand the Problem The first step is to read the
problem carefully until it is clearly understood. Ask
yourself: What is the unknown? What are the given
quantities? What are the given conditions?
2. Draw a Diagram In most problems it is useful to draw a

diagram and identify the given and required quantities on
the diagram.
3. Introduce Notation Assign a symbol to the quantity that

is to be maximized or minimized (let’s call it Q for now).
4
Also select symbols (a, b, c, . . . , x, y) for other unknown
quantities and label the diagram with these symbols. It
may help to use initials as suggestive symbols—for
example, A for area, h for height, t for time.
4. Express Q in terms of some of the other symbols from

Step 3.
5. If Q has been expressed as a function of more than one

variable in Step 4, use the given information to find
relationships (in the form of equations) among these
variables. Then use these equations to eliminate all but
one of the variables in the expression for Q.
5
Thus Q will be expressed as a function of one variable x,
say, Q = f(x). Write the domain of this function in the
given context.
6. Use the previous methods to find the absolute maximum

or minimum value of f. In particular, if the domain of f is a
closed interval, then the Closed Interval Method can be
used.
6
Example 1
A farmer has 2400 ft of fencing and wants to fence off a
rectangular field that borders a straight river. He needs no
fence along the river. What are the dimensions of the field
that has the largest area?
7
Example 1 – Solution
In order to get a feeling for what is happening in this
problem, let’s experiment with some special cases.
Figure 1 (not to scale) shows three possible ways of laying
out the 2400 ft of fencing.
Figure 1
8
We see that when we try shallow, wide fields or deep,

narrow fields, we get relatively small areas. It seems
plausible that there is some intermediate configuration that
produces the largest area.
Figure 2 illustrates the general case. We wish to maximize

the area A of the rectangle.
Figure 2
9
Let x and y be the depth and width of the rectangle (in

feet). Then we express A in terms of x and y:
A = xy
We want to express A as a function of just one variable, so
we eliminate y by expressing it in terms of x. To do this we
use the given information that the total length of the fencing
is 2400 ft.
Thus
2x + y = 2400
From this equation we have y = 2400 – 2x, which gives
A = xy = x(2400 – 2x) = 2400x – 2x2
10
Note that the largest x can be is 1200 (this uses all the
fence for the depth and none for the width) and x can’t be
negative, so the function that we wish to maximize is
A(x) = 2400x – 2x2 0  x  1200
The derivative is A(x) = 2400 – 4x, so to find the critical

numbers we solve the equation
2400 – 4x = 0
which gives x = 600.
The maximum value of A must occur either at this critical

number or at an endpoint of the interval.
11
Since A(0) = 0, A(600) = 720,000, and A(1200) = 0, the

Closed Interval Method gives the maximum value as
A(600) = 720,000.
[Alternatively, we could have observed that A(x) = –4 < 0

for all x, so A is always concave downward and the local
maximum at x = 600 must be an absolute maximum.]
The corresponding y-value is y = 2400 – 2(600) = 1200; so

the rectangular field should be 600 ft deep and 1200 ft
wide.
12
13
The End of Chapter 2

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Differentiation

March 25, 2024

Differentiation rules for polynomial and exponential functions

Product rule and Quotient rule

Differentiation of trigonometric functions

Derivatives of logarithmic and trigonometric functions

Concavity and curve sketching

Differentiation rules for polynomial and exponential functions

Product rule and Quotient rule

Differentiation of trigonometric functions

Derivatives of logarithmic and trigonometric functions

Concavity and curve sketching

Then we let Q approach P along the curve C by letting

Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we find

The idea is that if we zoom in far enough toward the point,

Zooming in toward the point (1, 1) on the parabola y = x2

In other words, the curve becomes almost indistinguishable

There is another expression for the slope of a tangent line

(See Figure 3 where the case h > 0 is illustrated and Q is to

In fact, limits of the form

arise whenever we calculate a rate of change in any of the

Since this type of limit occurs so widely, it is given a special

If we write x = a + h, then we have h = x – a and h

Since, by Definition 4, this is the same as the derivative

Differentiation rules for polynomial and exponential functions

Product rule and Quotient rule

Differentiation of trigonometric functions

Derivatives of logarithmic and trigonometric functions

Concavity and curve sketching

In this section we learn how to differentiate constant

Let’s start with the simplest

The graph of this function is

A formal proof, from the definition of a derivative, is also

In Leibniz notation, we write this rule as follows.

If n = 1, the graph of f(x) = x is the line y = x, which has

The graph of f(x) = x is the

(You can also verify Equation 1 from the definition of a

We have already investigated the cases n = 2 and n = 3.

Comparing the equations in (1), (2), and (3), we see a

It seems to be a reasonable guess that, when n is a

(b) If y = x1000, then y= 1000x999.

The Power Rule enables us to find tangent lines without

The normal line to a curve C at a point P is the line

In particular, the following formula says that the derivative

just remeber to factor out the constant

The Sum Rule can be extended to the sum of any number

The Constant Multiple Rule, the Sum Rule, and the

The factor bx doesn’t depend on h, so we can take it in front

Therefore we have shown that if the exponential function

This equation says that the rate of change of any

Thus, from Equation 4, we have

Of all possible choices for the base b in Equation 4, the

It is traditional to denote this value by the letter e. Thus we

Thus the exponential function f(x) = ex has the property that

We defined the second derivative as the derivative of f , so

The function f and its derivative f are graphed in Figure 8.

Notice that f has a horizontal tangent

When x < 0, f(x) is negative and f is Figure 8

Differentiation rules for polynomial and exponential functions

Product rule and Quotient rule