2 Derivatives

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

 Derivatives and Rates
2.1 of Change

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Derivatives and Rates of Change
The problem of finding the tangent line to a curve and the
problem of finding the velocity of an object both involve
finding the same type of limit.

This special type of limit is called a derivative and we will

see that it can be interpreted as a rate of change in any of
the natural or social sciences or engineering.

3
Tangents

4
Tangents
If a curve C has equation y = f (x) and we want to find the
tangent line to C at the point P (a, f (a)), then we consider a
nearby point Q (x, f (x)), where x  a, and compute the
slope of the secant line PQ:

Then we let Q approach P along the curve C by letting

x approach a.

5
Tangents
If mPQ approaches a number m, then we define the tangent
t to be the line through P with slope m. (This amounts to
saying that the tangent line is the limiting position of the
secant line PQ as Q approaches P. See Figure 1.)

Figure 1

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Tangents

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Example 1
Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x2
at the point P(1, 1).

Solution:
Here we have a = 1 and f (x) = x2, so the slope is

8
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

=1+1

=2

Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we find

that an equation of the tangent line at (1, 1) is

y – 1 = 2(x – 1) or y = 2x – 1
9
Tangents
We sometimes refer to the slope of the tangent line to a
curve at a point as the slope of the curve at the point.

The idea is that if we zoom in far enough toward the point,

the curve looks almost like a straight line.

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Tangents
Figure 2 illustrates this procedure for the curve y = x2 in
Example 1.

Zooming in toward the point (1, 1) on the parabola y = x2

Figure 2

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Tangents
The more we zoom in, the more the parabola looks like a
line.

In other words, the curve becomes almost indistinguishable

from its tangent line.

There is another expression for the slope of a tangent line

that is sometimes easier to use.

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Tangents
If h = x – a, then x = a + h and so the slope of the secant
line PQ is

(See Figure 3 where the case h > 0 is illustrated and Q is to

the right of P. If it happened that h < 0, however, Q would
be to the left of P.)

Figure 3 13
Tangents
Notice that as x approaches a, h approaches 0 (because
h = x – a) and so the expression for the slope of the
tangent line in Definition 1 becomes

14
Velocities

15
Velocities
In general, suppose an object moves along a straight line
according to an equation of motion s = f (t), where s is the
displacement (directed distance) of the object from the
origin at time t.

The function f that describes the motion is called the

position function of the object.

In the time interval from t = a to t = a + h the change in

position is f (a + h) – f (a).

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Velocities
See Figure 5.

Figure 5

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Velocities
The average velocity over this time interval is

which is the same as the

slope of the secant line
PQ in Figure 6.

Figure 6 18
Velocities
Now suppose we compute the average velocities over
shorter and shorter time intervals [a, a + h].

In other words, we let h approach 0. As in the example of

the falling ball, we define the velocity (or instantaneous
velocity) v (a) at time t = a to be the limit of these average
velocities:

This means that the velocity at time t = a is equal to the

slope of the tangent line at P. 19
Example 3
Suppose that a ball is dropped from the upper observation
deck of the CN Tower, 450 m above the ground.

(a) What is the velocity of the ball after 5 seconds?

(b) How fast is the ball traveling when it hits the ground?

Solution:
We will need to find the velocity both when t = 5 and when
the ball hits the ground, so it’s efficient to start by finding
the velocity at a general time t.

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Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Using the equation of motion s = f (t) = 4.9t 2, we have

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Example 3 – Solution cont’d

(a) The velocity after 5 seconds is v(5) = (9.8)(5)

= 49 m/s.

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Example 3 – Solution cont’d

(b) Since the observation deck is 450 m above the ground,

the ball will hit the ground at the time t when
s(t) = 450, that is,

4.9t2 = 450

This gives

t2 = and t=  9.6 s

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Example 3 – Solution cont’d

The velocity of the ball as it hits the ground is therefore

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Derivatives

25
Derivatives
We have seen that the same type of limit arises in finding
the slope of a tangent line (Equation 2) or the velocity of an
object (Equation 3).

In fact, limits of the form

arise whenever we calculate a rate of change in any of the

sciences or engineering, such as a rate of reaction in
chemistry or a marginal cost in economics.

Since this type of limit occurs so widely, it is given a special

name and notation. 26
Derivatives

If we write x = a + h, then we have h = x – a and h

approaches 0 if and only if x approaches a. Therefore an
equivalent way of stating the definition of the derivative, as
we saw in finding tangent lines, is

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Example 4
Find the derivative of the function f (x) = x2 – 8x + 9 at the
number a.
Solution:
From Definition 4 we have

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Example 4 – Solution cont’d

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Derivatives
We defined the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point
P (a, f (a)) to be the line that passes through P and has
slope m given by Equation 1 or 2.

Since, by Definition 4, this is the same as the derivative

f (a), we can now say the following.

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Derivatives
If we use the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we
can write an equation of the tangent line to the curve
y = f (x) at the point (a, f (a)):

y – f (a) = f (a)(x – a)

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Rates of Change

32
Rates of Change
Suppose y is a quantity that depends on another quantity x.
Thus y is a function of x and we write y = f (x).

If x changes from x1 to x2, then the change in x (also called

the increment of x) is

x = x2 – x1

and the corresponding change in y is

y = f (x2) – f (x1)
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Rates of Change
The difference quotient

is called the average rate of

change of y with respect to x
over the interval [x1, x2] and
can be interpreted as the slope
of the secant line PQ
in Figure 8.
average rate of change = mPQ
instantaneous rate of change =
slope of tangent at P

Figure 8
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Rates of Change
By analogy with velocity, we consider the average rate of
change over smaller and smaller intervals by letting x2
approach x1 and therefore letting Δx approach 0.

The limit of these average rates of change is called the

(instantaneous) rate of change of y with respect to x at
x = x1, which (as in the case of velocity) is interpreted as
the slope of the tangent to the curve y = f (x) at P(x1, f (x1)):

We recognize this limit as being the derivative f (x1). 35

Rates of Change
We know that one interpretation of the derivative f (a) is as
the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) when
x = a. We now have a second interpretation:

The connection with the first interpretation is that if we

sketch the curve y = f (x), then the instantaneous rate of
change is the slope of the tangent to this curve at the point
where x = a.

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Rates of Change
This means that when the derivative is large (and therefore
the curve is steep, as at the point P in Figure 9), the
y-values change rapidly.

The y-values are changing rapidly

at P and slowly at Q.
Figure 9
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Rates of Change
When the derivative is small, the curve is relatively flat (as
at point Q) and the y-values change slowly.

In particular, if s = f (t) is the position function of a particle

that moves along a straight line, then f (a) is the rate of
change of the displacement s with respect to the time t.

In other words, f (a) is the velocity of the particle at time

t = a.

The speed of the particle is the absolute value of the

velocity, that is, | f (a) |.
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Example 6
A manufacturer produces bolts of a fabric with a fixed width.
The cost of producing x yards of this fabric is
C = f (x) dollars.

(a) What is the meaning of the derivative f (x)? What are its
units?

(b) In practical terms, what does it mean to say that

f (1000) = 9?

(c) Which do you think is greater, f (50) or f (500)?

What about f (5000)?
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Example 6(a) – Solution
The derivative f (x) is the instantaneous rate of change of C
with respect to x; that is, f (x) means the rate of change of
the production cost with respect to the number of yards
produced.

Because

the units for f (x) are the same as the units for the
difference quotient C/x.

Since C is measured in dollars and x in yards, it follows

that the units for f (x) are dollars per yard.
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Example 6(b) – Solution cont’d

The statement that f (1000) = 9 means that, after 1000

yards of fabric have been manufactured, the rate at which
the production cost is increasing is $9/yard.
(When x = 1000, C is increasing 9 times as fast as x.)

Since x = 1 is small compared with x = 1000, we could

use the approximation

and say that the cost of manufacturing the 1000th yard

(or the 1001st) is about $9.
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Example 6(c) – Solution cont’d

The rate at which the production cost is increasing

(per yard) is probably lower when x = 500 than when x = 50
(the cost of making the 500th yard is less than the cost of
the 50th yard) because of economies of scale. (The
manufacturer makes more efficient use of the fixed costs of
production.)

So
f (50) > f (500)

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Example 6(c) – Solution cont’d

But, as production expands, the resulting large-scale

operation might become inefficient and there might be
overtime costs.

Thus it is possible that the rate of increase of costs will

eventually start to rise.

So it may happen that

f (5000) > f (500)

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