A STUDY ON “THE BONDING MOLECULAR

STRUCTURE AND LEWIS STRUCTURE”

A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED FOR THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

‘REQUIREMENT IN CHEMISTRY OF CLASS 11th

Submitted By

Kabiraj Thakur

Grade: XI
Roll no: 059

Submitted To

SOS Hermann Gmeiner Higher Secondary

School Sanothimi Bhaktapur, Nepal
 CERTIFICATE OF
APPROVAL
This project work entitled “THE BONDING MOLECULAR STRUCTURE AND LEWIS
STRUCTURE” By MR. “Kabiraj Thakur” of SOS HERMANN GMEINER
HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL prepared under the supervision of Firoj
Malla Sir, submitted for the partial fulfillment of prerequisite of the chemistry
of grade 11th has been accepted.

Name of supervisor

FIROJ MALLA SIR

Department of Chemistry SOS Hermann Gmeiner School, Sanothimi

Bhaktapur
 RECOMMENDATION LETTER

I am pleased to recommend the project work titled "To Study On Bonding

Molecular Structure and Lewis Structure'' submitted by Kabiraj Thakur of
SOS Hermann Gmeiner School Sanothimi, Bhaktapur has been prepared
under my supervision as a partial fulfillment for class 11th of the chemistry
for evaluation. Throughout this project, He exhibited a commendable
dedication to the topic, showcasing a deep understanding of chemical
bonding principles.

In their research, He demonstrated exceptional analytical skills, diligently

collecting data from diverse sources and employing rigorous
methodologies. Their thorough exploration of molecular structures,
including detailed analyses of covalent, ionic, and metallic bonds, reflects
their passion for chemistry.

I am confident that His project work showcases their proficiency in the

subject matter, highlighting their ability to comprehend complex concepts
and apply them in practical scenarios. Their enthusiasm for the topic is
evident in the meticulous research and comprehensive insights presented.
Additionally, he employed a variety of research methodologies, Including
literature reviews to gather comprehensive and well-rounded insights into
the topic.

Signature:

..............................

Date:13/06/2023
 DECLARATION

In compliance with academic integrity, I proudly declare that the project work,
titled "Exploring Bonding Molecular Structure and Lewis Structure," submitted
to the Department of Chemistry at SOS Hermann Gmeiner school, Sanothimi
Bhaktapur, is a unique and original undertaking. This research was conducted
under the attentive guidance (Firoj Malla Sir) of the esteemed faculty of the
Chemistry Department. It is presented as a partial fulfillment for the
requirements of the grade 11th chemistry course. I affirm that this project work
report has not been presented for the attainment of any other academic degree or
qualification.

Signature:

.............................

Date:.........................
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all the people who have
supported me in the preparation of this report. Without their guidance,
encouragement, and assistance, I would not have been able to complete this
project.

First and foremost, I would like to thank my teacher, MR. Firoj Malla Sir,
for their invaluable support and guidance throughout the course of this
project. Their feedback, Insights, and encouragement have been instrumental
in helping me to develop my ideas and produce a high-quality report.

I would also like to acknowledge the support of the SOS Hermann Gmeiner
Library Staff. Who provided me with access to a wide range of resources and
materials that were crucial to the success of this project. Their expertise and
willingness to help make the research process much smoother and more
efficient.

Additionally, I would like to express my thanks to my friends who provided

me with valuable feedback, encouragement, and support throughout the
writing process. Their Insights and perspectives were invaluable in helping
me to refine my ideas and produce a more polished report.
 ABSTRA
CT

This project takes a deep dive into the world of chemical bonds and how
those bonds build molecules. It looks at different types of bonds, like
covalent, ionic, and metallic, and how each one affects how a molecule acts.
Starting with the basics of Lewis structures and how molecules are shaped,
the project shows how important understanding these things is for predicting
chemical reactions and making new compounds.

The research uses a mix of theory, experiments, and computer simulations.

By studying different examples and analyzing data, the project uncovers
patterns in how molecules are built and how those patterns affect reactivity
and stability. The study also looks at things like hybridization and orbitals,
which help explain how molecules get their shapes.

The project also explores real-world uses for what it learns about chemical
bonds, in areas like materials science, pharmaceuticals, and environmental
chemistry. The research adds to what we know about chemical bonding by
questioning existing theories and comparing those with computer models.

Overall, this project helps us understand how molecules are built and how
important that is for chemistry. The things it learns can be used for further
research and give scientists, teachers, and others a better understanding of the
field, which can help them make exciting new discoveries and applications in
chemistry.
 Table of Contents

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL................................................................................ii

RECOMMENDATION LETTER................................................................................iii

DECLARATION.........................................................................................................iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…........................................................................................v

ABSTRACT…..............................................................................................................vi

TABLEOFCONTENTS...............................................................................................vii

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................

OBJECTIVES OF STUDY..............................................................................................

METHODS OF STUDY OR RESEARCH DESIGN......................................................

RESULT AND DISCUSSION………………………………………………………

CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................

FUTURESCOPE OF THE PROJECT….........................................................................

RECOMMENDATION....................................................................................................

APPENDIX…....................................................................................................................

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................30
 INTRODUCTION
Atoms are generally not capable of free existence but groups of atoms of the
same or different elements of one species, e.g. H2 , O2 , P4. Most of the molecules
are clusters of atoms. Molecules will only be formed if they have lower energy
and are more stable than the individual atoms.
The Atoms combine with each other to form a molecule in order to obtain
stability. The atoms are more stable in bonded form than in uncombined form as
the energy of the system is decreased in combined state Therefore, chemical
bonding is an essential part in formation of molecules by the atoms in order to
attain stability
It is well known that elements rarely occur in the free state at ordinary
temperature. Except for noble gasses, atoms of all other elements tend to
combine either with each other or with the atoms of other elements to form
aggregates of atoms with definite composition. The attraction between atoms
forming the compound is called a chemical bond or valence bond.

Chemical Bond
● A force when acts between two or more atoms to hold them together as a
stable molecule, the bond thus formed is chemical bond.
● It is a group of two or more atoms involving redistribution of electrons
among them.
● This process is accompanied by a decrease in energy.

● Decrease in energy ∝ Strength of the bond.

● Therefore molecules are more stable than atoms.

Ex. Cl2, HCl, NaCl etc.

Cause of Chemical Combination

1. Tendency to acquire minimum energy
● When two atoms come closer, the nucleus of one atom attracts the
electron of another atom.
● When net result is attraction, the total energy of the system (molecule)
decreases and chemical bond forms.
● Bond formation is an exothermic process.
2. Tendency of acquire noble gas configuration
● Atom combines to acquire noble gas configuration.

● In formation of bond only outermost electron ie. ns, np and (n-1)d

electrons participate.
CHEMICAL BONDS
 IonicSTRONG
BondBONDS
(Electrovalent Bond) WEAK BONDS

An electrovalent bond is formed by the complete transfer of one or more

electrons from one atom to the other. This type of bond is usually formed
between
Ionic bond a metal andbond
Covalent a nonmetal. Thebond
Co-ordinate metallic atom bond
Metallic loses itsHydrogen
valencebond
electrons
Vander waal bond
and changes into a positive ion (cation) while a non-metallic atom gains
electrons and forms a negative ion (anion). The oppositely charged ions are held
together by the electrostatic force of attraction. Thus, an electrovalent or ionic
bond may be defined as the electrostatic force of attraction holding the
oppositely charged ions.
The structure is maintained by the electrostatic force of
attraction between these ions.
Factors influencing the formation of ionic bond
1. Ionization energy (I.E.)
Amount of energy required to remove an electron from the outermost
orbit of an isolated gaseous atom to form the positive ion or cation.
(energy absorbed)
Ex. Na+ >Mg+2 > Al+3 [Cation formation tendency]

2. Electron affinity (E.A.)

Amount of energy released when an electron is added to an isolated
gaseous atom to form negative ion (anion) energy released.
Ex. Cl- >F- >Br- [Anion formation tendency]

3. Lattice energy (L.E.)

Amount of energy required when one mole of ionic solid is broken into
gaseous ionic species. Higher the lattice energy, greater will be the
stability or strength of ionic compound
Properties of ionic compound

● Physics State: Ionic compounds typically exist in a solid state at room

temperature due to strong electrostatic forces between ions.

● Solubility: Ionic compounds often exhibit high solubility in water,

facilitated by the ion-dipole interactions with water molecules.

● High M.P and B.P: Ionic compounds generally have high melting and
boiling points attributed to the strong electrostatic forces requiring
substantial energy for separation.

● Electrical Conductivity: In their molten or dissolved state, ionic

compounds conduct electricity due to the mobility of ions, but they are
insulators in their solid form.

● Ionic Reaction: Ionic compounds engage in ionic reactions, involving

the exchange of ions to form new compounds and are faster than
molecular reactions because of free ions.

● Brittleness: Ionic compounds tend to be brittle as the arrangement of

ions in a lattice is easy, causing fractures.
(Lattice energy increases so, hardness increases)

● Non-Directional Character: The ionic bond is non-directional, with

ions arranging themselves in a three-dimensional lattice without specific
orientation.

● Density: Ionic compounds generally have higher densities compared to

molecular compounds due to the closely packed arrangement of ions.

● Isomerism: Ionic compounds typically do not exhibit isomerism, as their

structure is defined by the fixed arrangement of ions.

● Isomorphism: Ionic solid having ions with identical electronic

configuration shows an identical crystalline form.
COVALENT BOND
The bond formed between the two atoms by mutual sharing of electrons
between them so as to complete their octets or duplets in case of elements
having only one shell is called covalent bond or covalent linkage and the
number of electrons contributed by each atom is known as covalency
● It is formed between non-metal and nonmetal ( CO2, CS2, CCl ,etc.)

● It is formed between less electropositive metal and non-metal

( SnCl4 , FeCl3, etc.)
● Electrons which do not participate in bond formation are known as lone
pair (lp) or non-bonded electron pair or unshared electron pair.

Types of covalent bond

1. When the atoms share one electron pair, the bond formed is called a
single covalent bond (-).
2. If two electron pairs are shared by the atoms, the bond formed is a
double covalent bond.
3. When the atoms share three electron pairs, the bond is a triple covalent
bond.
The double and triple covalent bonds are collectively called multiple
covalent bonds.

Formation of oxygen molecule

Formation of PCl3 molecule

Formation of HCN molecule

Factors affecting the formation of covalent bond

● High ionization energy: The atoms which have a high value of

ionization energy cannot be cation. So they form a covalent compound by
sharing electrons to complete their octet state.

● Equal electron affinities: The atoms having equal or nearly equal

electron affinities undergo mutual sharing of electrons with the formation
of a covalent bond.

● Equal electronegativity: When the pair occurs to form covalent bonds.

Electronegativity of both the atoms is equal, sharing of electrons . High
nuclear charge and small atomic size.

● High nuclear charge and small atomic size: tend to hold the valence
electrons more tightly and form covalent bonds.
● Number of valence electrons: Atoms having 5, 6, and 7 valence
(electrons hydrogen atom has only one electron) achieve the stable octet
by sharing 3, 2 or 1 electron pairs to form covalent bonds.
Concept of formal charge
A formal charge (FC) is the charge assigned to an atom in a molecule,
assuming that electrons in all chemical bonds are shared equally between atoms,
regardless of relative electronegativity. When determining the best Lewis
structure (or predominant resonance structure) for a molecule, the structure is
chosen such that the formal charge on each of the atoms is as close to zero as
possible. The formal charge of any atom in a molecule can be calculated by the
following equation:
FC = V (no. of valence electron) -N (no. of lone pair electron)-B (no. of bonds)

Look at the example,

Formal charge 0 0 0
Oxidation state -2 4 -2

Note : - Determination of total number of covalent bond in a covalent molecule

is calculated as
Total number of covalent bonds = (T - V) / 2
Where, T = total number of valence electrons after completion of the octet
V = total number of valence electrons
E.g., In NO2, T = 8 + 2 * 8 = 24
V = 5 + 2 * 6 = 17
Total number of covalent bonds = (24-17)/2 = 3.5 covalent bonds.
Properties of covalent bond

● Physical State: Covalent compounds exist as individual molecules, often

in the form of gasses, liquids, or low-melting-point solids due to weak
van der Waals forces.

● Low Boiling and Melting Points: Weaker intermolecular forces in

covalent compounds result in lower energy requirements, leading to
generally low melting and boiling points. For instance, HCl has a very
low melting point (-115°C).

● Solubility: Covalent compounds are typically soluble in non-polar

solvents like benzene but insoluble in water unless they are highly polar
and engage in hydrogen bonding, as seen in alcohols and vinegar.

● Electrical Conductivity: Covalent compounds lack free ions and are

poor conductors of electricity. Exceptions include polar covalent
compounds like HCl in solution and graphite, which conducts due to free
electrons.

● Molecular Reaction: Reactions of covalent compounds are slower

compared to ionic compounds due to their molecular nature, requiring
bond breakage for reactions.

● Directional Character: Covalent bonds exhibit rigidity and

directionality, as the shared pair of electrons remains localized between
nuclei. Molecular shapes like V-shaped (H₂) and linear (CO₂) exemplify
this directional nature.

● Isomerism: Covalent compounds, with rigid and directional bonds, can

display isomerism, resulting in different spatial arrangements despite
having the same molecular formula.

● Neither Hard nor Brittle: Covalent compounds are soft and waxy,
lacking the hardness and brittleness of ionic compounds. Weak van der
Waals forces hold molecules together, allowing for easy breaking without
sharp cleavage.
coordinate covalent bond
● A coordinate covalent bond is also known as a dative bond, or a dative
covalent bond.
● A covalent bond is formed when 2 electrons (a bonding pair) is shared
between 2 atoms.
● A 'normal' or 'conventional' covalent bond is formed when each of the 2
atoms to be bonded contribute 1 electron to the bonding pair of electrons.
● A coordinate covalent bond (dative bond) is formed when both
electrons forming the bonding pair of electrons are provided by the same
atom.
● An atom with a lone pair of electrons (non-bonding pair of electrons) is
capable of forming a coordinate covalent bond (dative bond).
● Once the covalent bond is formed it is impossible to distinguish the origin
of the electrons so a coordinate covalent bond is exactly the same as any
other normal covalent bond.
● In this type of bonding, the atom that shares an electron pair from itself is
termed as the donor.
● The other atom which accepts these shared pairs of electrons is known as
a receptor or acceptor.
● Thus, A coordinate covalent bond is a covalent bond in which the
shared pair of electrons is contributed by only one atom.
 Properties and Characteristics of coordinate covalent bond

1. Physical state: Co-ordinate covalent compounds generally exist in a

liquid and gaseous state.
2. Solubility: Their compounds are sparingly soluble in water and organic
solvents due to being semi-polar or semi-ionic in nature.
3. Electrical conductivity: Co-ordinate covalent compounds are semi-ionic
and they are poor conductors of electricity.
4. Melting and boiling point: The melting and boiling point of coordinate
covalent compounds are lower than electrovalent compounds and higher
than covalent compounds.
5. Directional character: The co-ordinate covalent bond is also rigid and
directional and they show stereoisomerism.
6. Density: Co-ordinate covalent compounds have higher density than
covalent compounds and lower density than that of ionic compounds.
7. Nature of chemical reaction: Co-ordinate covalent compounds are
molecular and undergo slow molecular reactions. Since coordinate
covalent bonds are polar covalent bonds and their compounds have
intermediate properties between ionic and covalent compounds.
8. Catalytic Activity: Act as catalysts by lowering the activation energy of
chemical reactions.
9. Bond Strength: Weaker than ionic bonds but stronger than van der
Waals forces, the strength depends on the electronegativity of donor and
acceptor atoms.
10. Biological Importance: Crucial in biological molecules like proteins and
enzymes, also involved in forming complexes between metal ions and
ligands.
1.
Metallic bond
● Metals have low ionization energies, so valence electrons can
be delocalized throughout metal.
● Structure of metal is a giant lattice of positive ions (cations)
surrounded by “sea” of delocalized electrons
● Metallic Bond: the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of
positive ions (cations) and delocalized electrons which are attracted to
the nuclei.
● Strength of metallic bond depends on
● Number of valence electrons that can become delocalized
● The charge of the metal ion
● The ionic radius of the metallic positive ion (cation)

How are Metallic Bonds Formed?

The electrons are detached from the atoms and delocalized throughout the
metal, i.e., they move freely. However, the interactions between the ions and
electrons are still prevalent. These interactions give rise to a binding force that
holds the metallic crystal together. This force is the basis of a metallic bond.
Properties and Characteristics of Metallic Bond
The metallic bond is responsible for many of the properties of metals;

● Electrical and thermal conductivity: The mobile electrons are charge

carriers in the conduction of electricity and energy carriers in heat
conduction. Therefore, metals can conduct electricity and heat.

● Malleability and ductility: A metal can be hammered into sheets and

drawn into wires. These shapes are possible because the atoms share
electrons and slide past each other.

● High melting and boiling points: The metallic bond is formed due to the
strong electrostatic forces between the sea of electrons and cations. As a
result, metals have high melting and boiling points.

● Luster and high reflectivity: The delocalized electrons willingly absorb

and re-emit visible light. This property gives metals their characteristic
luster.
HYDROGEN BONDING
● A hydrogen bond is an attraction between two atoms that already
participate in other chemical bonds. One of the atoms is hydrogen, while
the other may be any electronegative atom, such as oxygen, chlorine, or
fluorine.
● Hydrogen bonds may form between atoms within a molecule or between
two separate molecules.
● A hydrogen bond is weaker than an ionic bond or a covalent bond, but
stronger than van der Waals forces.
● Hydrogen bonds play an important role in biochemistry and produce
many of the unique properties of water.

Importance of hydrogen bond

● Help bind transcription factors to DNA

● Aid antigen-antibody binding
● Organize polypeptides into secondary structures, such as alpha helix and
beta sheet
● Hold together the two strands of DNA
● Bind transcription factors to each other

Properties of Hydrogen Bonding

● Solubility: Lower alcohols are soluble in water because of the hydrogen
bonding which can take place between water and alcohol molecules.
● Volatility: As the compounds involving hydrogen bonding between
different molecules have a higher boiling point, they are less volatile.
● Viscosity and surface tension: The substances which contain
hydrogen bonding exist as associated molecules. So, their flow becomes
comparatively difficult. They have higher viscosity and high surface
tension.
● The lower density of ice than water: In the case of solid ice,
hydrogen bonding gives rise to a cage-like structure of water molecules.
As a matter of fact, each water molecule is linked tetrahedral to four
water molecules. The molecules are not as closely packed as they are in
a liquid state. When ice melts, this case-like structure collapses, and the
molecules come closer to each other. Thus for the same mass of water,
the volume decreases and density increases. Therefore, ice has a lower
density than water at 273 K. That is why ice floats.
Conditions for hydrogen bonding:
In the formation of hydrogen bond, the following conditions must be
fulfilled:
1. The molecule must contain a highly electronegative atom linked to H-
atom. The higher the electronegativity, the more polarized the molecule
is.
2. The size of the electronegative atom should be small. The smaller the
size, the greater the electrostatic attraction.
Thus, only F, O and N can form hydrogen bonds, as these atoms are small in
size and have high electronegativities.
Chlorine has the same electronegativity as that of nitrogen but it does not form
hydrogen bonds due to its larger size.
●
van der Waals bonds
● It is the sum of the attractive or repulsive forces between molecules

● These were named after -: Johannes Diderik van der Waals

Its main characteristics are:-
● They are weaker than normal covalent ionic bonds. Van der Waals forces
are additive and cannot be saturated.
● They have no directional characteristics.

● They are all short-range forces and hence only interactions between
nearest need to be considered instead of all the particles.
● The greater is the attraction if the molecules are closer due to Van der
Waals forces.
● Van der Waals forces are independent of temperature.

Importance of Van Der Waal bond

There are multiple applications of Van Der Waals forces in molecular science.
Some of these are;
● These intermolecular forces enable Gecko lizards to move on surfaces
efficiently.
● Similarly, a few other species of spiders have these biological patterns
too.
● These forces are responsible for the interactions of proteins with other
atoms.
● They also affect various characteristics of gasses, adhesion, and colloidal
stability.
● These forces play a fundamental role in the study of supramolecular
chemistry, nanotechnology, surface, and polymer science, etc.
Lewis Dot Structures
• Created by Gilbert Lewis in 1916
● Lewis dot diagrams are used to represent valence electrons in an element.
Structural formulas show the arrangements of atoms and bonds in a molecule
and are represented by Lewis dot structures.
● Draw Lewis dot diagrams to represent valence electrons in elements and
draw Lewis dot structures to show covalent bonding.
● Use valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) model to draw and name
molecular shapes (bent, linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, and trigonal
pyramidal).
● Polar bonds form between elements with very different electronegativities.
Non-polar bonds form between elements with similar electronegativities. •
Polar molecules result when electrons are distributed unequally.
● Recognize polar molecules and nonpolar molecules.

● Draw Lewis dot structures, identify geometries, and describe polarities of

the following molecules: CH4 , C2H6 , C2H4 , C2H2 , CH3CH2OH, CH2O,
C6H6 , CH3COOH.

RULES FOR DRAWING LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE

● Count the number of valence (outer shell) electrons that each atom has in
total (Q)
● Select the atom with least no. in the molecule or least Electronegative
atom / Atom with largest size as the central atom .
● Hydrogen and Fluorine can never be the central Atom
 ● Complete the octet of the corner atom at first .

● Central Atom can have 8 or more electrons

● If net charge is positive (eg. H3o+) then it will be on central atom and if
the net charge is negative (eg. NO3-) then it will be on the corner atom.

Method: calculate
● Q= total valence electron + negative charge – positive charge

● Bond pair Electron(BPE) = 2 x No. of Bonds

● Lone pair Electron (LPE) = Q – BPE

Then, assign valence electrons as dots to corner atoms 1st then central atom.
After all the above process, use multiple bonds if necessary

● For Formal charge , Use the Formula

F.C= valence electron of C.A – Lone pair electron – B.P.E/2
Where (B.P.E= bond pair electrons)
RESONANCE
Resonance structures are sets of Lewis structures that describe the
delocalization of electrons in a polyatomic ion or a molecule .

● When two or more valid Lewis structures can be drawn for the same
molecule, resonance occurs.
● A molecule can only resonate if it contains one or more double bonds.
Single-bond molecules never exhibit resonance.
● Every resonance structure needs to follow the octet rule and have the
appropriate amount of electrons.
● The resonating structures are formed due to delocalization of π-bond

● Or lone pair of electrons or odd electrons.

● Resonance occurs in many compounds and ions like NO2, O3 , CO2

RESONANCE IN NO2–

RESONANCE IN CO3
RESONANCE IN BENZENE

VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION

THEORY(V.S.E.P.R)

● V.S.E.P.R theory was proposed by Sedgwick and Powell in1940 and

developed by Gillespie and Nyholm in 1957.
● Essentially, it is a model that forecasts the geometry of molecules.
VSEPR models specifically examine the bonding and molecular
geometry of polyatomic ions and organic molecules.

POSTULATES OF VSEPR THEORY

● Electron pairs are always repelling each other and tries to remain far apart
● Different electron pairs have different order of repulsion
o Repulsion of
▪ L.P –L.P> L.P –B.P > B.P – B.P

● If the lone pair is zero then geometry is shape

● The shape of a covalent molecule is determined by the total no. of

electron pairs (b.p and l.p ) present in the valence shell of the central atom
in the molecule .
● Any structure with two or more resonance structures that can each
represent a molecule can be modeled using the VSEPR approach.

VSEP Number Shape of the Molecule

2 Linear

3 Trigonal Planar

4 Tetrahedral

5 Trigonal Bipyramidal

6 Octahedral

7 Pentagonal Bipyramidal
A. METHANE ( CH4 )

LEWIS STRUCTURE TETRAHEDRAL GEOMETRY

SHAPE
 B. AMMONIA (NH3)

LEWIS STRUCTURE

GEOMETRY : TETRAHEDRAL

SHAPE :TRIGONAL

HYBRIDIZATION
The idea of combining two atomic orbitals to create a new class of hybridized
orbitals is known as hybridization in chemistry. Usually, this intermixing leads
to the formation of hybrid orbitals with completely distinct energies, forms, etc.
The majority of hybridization occurs between atomic orbitals of the same
energy level. But as long as they have the same amount of energy, half-filled
and fully-filled orbitals can also participate in this process.

Characteristics of Hybridization

1. When orbitals from the same atom or ion have comparable energies,
hybridization takes place.
2. The number of orbitals engaged in the hybridization process is equal to the
number of hybrid orbitals.
3. Hybrid orbitals are always similar in energy and shape.
4. Hybrid orbitals produce more stable bonds than pure atom orbitals.
5. The creation of equivalent orbitals with the highest symmetry is the aim of
hybridization.

TYPES OF HYBRIDIZATION

1. SP HYBRIDIZATION
● Mixing up of s and p orbital of nearly same energy

● Geometry = linear

● Bond angle = 180

● Eg : BeCl2 , C2H2
2. SP2 HYBRIDIZATION

● Mixing up of s and two p orbitals of similar energy

● Each hybrid orbital formed has a 33.33 % and a 66.66 % ‘p’

character.
● Geometry = Trigonal Planar

● Bond Angle = 120

● Eg : BF3 , C2H4
3. SP3 HYBRIDIZATION

● Mixing up of s and three p orbitals of similar energy

● Each hybrid orbital has a 25% s character and a 75% p character.

● Geometry = Tetrahedral

● Bond angle = 109.5

● Eg : CH4 , NH3 , H2O

 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
● Understanding Reactivity: Objectively study chemical bonding to
comprehend how different bond types influence the reactivity of
substances.

● Predicting Molecular Properties: Use knowledge of chemical bonding

to predict molecular properties such as polarity, solubility, and
 conductivity.

● Materials Design: Objectively explore chemical bonding to contribute to

the design of new materials with specific properties.

● Drug Development: Investigate chemical bonding principles for insights

into molecular structures, aiding drug design and development.

● Environmental Impact: Study chemical bonding to assess its impact on

environmental processes, including pollution and waste management.

● Catalysis and Reaction Pathways: Objectively analyze chemical

bonding to understand catalysis mechanisms and influence on reaction
pathways.

● Nanostructure Engineering: Explore chemical bonding to contribute to

the engineering of nanostructures with desired functionalities.

● Energy Storage: Study chemical bonding for insights into energy storage
materials, crucial for advancing battery technologies.

● Catalyst Optimization: Objectively analyze chemical bonding in

catalysts to optimize their efficiency in various industrial processes.

● Educational Advancements: Contribute to the improvement of

educational resources by objectively studying chemical bonding,
facilitating clearer understanding and dissemination of knowledge.

● To comprehend the basic ideas behind chemical bonds, such as ionic and
covalent bonds, and how they affect the synthesis of molecules.

● To distinguish between polar and nonpolar covalent compounds and

investigate how electronegativity affects covalent bond polarity.

● Understanding how lone pairs and bonding pairs affect molecular shape
can help researchers apply the VSEPR theory to the study of various
compounds and predict their three-dimensional molecular geometry.

● To understand the concept of Hybridization and different types of bonds.

 METHODS OF STUDY (RESEARCH DESIGN)
Lewis structures, molecular structure, and chemical bonding were all intended
to be thoroughly covered in the study and research done for this project.
A combination of theoretical and practical approaches were used as research
methods.
The following are the main elements of the research and study process :

● Literature Review: Conduct an extensive review of scientific literature,

including textbooks, research papers, and online resources, to gather
foundational knowledge on chemical bonding, molecular structures, and
Lewis structures. Analyze historical developments and key theories
proposed by eminent scientists in the field.

● Theoretical studies: The basic ideas of chemical bonding were

understood through theoretical analysis. Important theories like valence
electrons, electronegativity, covalent and ionic bonding, and the VSEPR
theory were all examined in this process. In order to gain a better
understanding of how atoms interact to form molecules, the study also
included the concepts of electron distribution and molecular geometry.
Employ quantum chemistry principles to study electron distributions,
hybridization, and molecular orbitals.

● Computational tools: Computational tools and software were used to

improve our understanding of molecular structures and their three-
dimensional shapes. The spatial arrangement of atoms and electron pairs
was visualized using molecular modeling software and visual aids. These
resources made it easier to comprehend molecular geometry in a more
hands-on and visual way.

● Experimental studies : One important component of the research was

incorporating real-world experiments into the laboratory. The purpose of
the experiments was to illustrate ideas related to ionic bonding, Lewis
structure formation, bond angle measurement, and molecular shape
measurement. Practical experiments yielded significant insights into the
practical implementation of theoretical knowledge.

● Therefore ,Integrating real-world experiments into the lab was a crucial

part of the research. The experiments served as illustrations for concepts
in the areas of molecular shape measurement, Lewis structure formation,
bond angle measurement, and ionic bonding. Significant insights into the
application of theoretical knowledge in practice have been obtained
through practical experiments.
 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The results obtained from our study are :

● Ionic compounds are created through the transfer of electrons through

ionic bonding. These compounds are held together by the electrostatic
attraction between oppositely charged ions.

● The sharing of electrons that results in the formation of molecules is

known as covalent bonding. In contrast to nonpolar covalent bonds,
which involve equal electron sharing, polar covalent bonds are the
product of unequal electron sharing

● When determining a molecule's physical characteristics and reactivity,

molecular geometry is essential. Based on the configuration of
electron pairs surrounding a central atom, the VSEPR theory aids in
the prediction of molecular shapes.

● An illustration of the electron distribution in molecules is given by

Lewis structures. They are helpful in forecasting chemical behavior
and comprehending the valence electron configuration.

● Covalent bond is formed by the overlapping of atomic orbitals by

sigma and pi bonds which helps in a better understanding of the
strength of bonds.

● The intermixing of atomic orbitals of similar energy to give new

orbitals is the concept of hybridization which helps to show the
geometry of compounds in which the hybrid orbitals orientate such
that they exhibit minimum repulsion.
 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, delving into the world of chemical bonding and Lewis structures
is crucial for understanding how molecules stick together and what shapes they
take. This project has been a journey into uncovering the secrets of atoms, the
forces that bind them, and the intricate dance of electrons.
Just like how studying drugs helps doctors make smart choices for patients,
understanding chemical bonding lets scientists and chemists predict how
molecules behave. From knowing the basics of atoms to exploring different
bonds like covalent and ionic, this project has been a guidebook to the building
blocks of matter.
This knowledge isn't just for show; it's a toolkit for scientists, helping them
design new materials, understand reactions, and even create tiny structures. Just
as doctors use drug categories for better healthcare, chemists use bonding
principles for a safer and more effective chemistry world.
In simple terms, it's like learning the ABCs of molecules, and by doing so, we
open doors to a world of possibilities in science and technology. As we wrap up,
it's clear that understanding chemical bonding and Lewis structures is not just
fascinating; it's the key to making better and safer things in the world of
chemistry.
 FUTURE SCOPE OF THE PROJECT
1. Application in Drug Design and Pharmaceuticals:
Investigate the interaction between drug molecules and biological targets,
focusing on the role of specific bonding patterns in drug-receptor binding.
Rational drug design, based on a profound understanding of molecular
structures, has the potential to revolutionize pharmaceutical research.
2. Environmental Chemistry:
Study the impact of different bonding structures on environmental processes,
including pollutant degradation, catalytic reactions for environmental
remediation, and the development of eco-friendly materials. Understanding
chemical bonding in environmental contexts can lead to sustainable solutions
for global challenges.
3. Advanced Computational Modeling:
Develop more sophisticated computational models and algorithms to
accurately predict complex molecular structures and their behavior.
Advancements in quantum computing hold promising prospects for
simulating intricate bonding scenarios.
4. Biological and Medicinal Chemistry:
Explore the role of molecular structures in biological processes, enzyme-
substrate interactions, and disease mechanisms. Understanding the bonding
patterns in biomolecules can contribute to the development of targeted
therapies and diagnostic tools.
5. Global Challenges:
Address pressing global challenges, such as climate change and energy
sustainability, by studying bonding structures in materials for renewable
energy technologies, energy storage systems, and environmental monitoring
devices. These advancements can have a significant impact on addressing
environmental issues.
6. Green chemistry innovation:
Subsequent research endeavors might concentrate on the advancement of
ecologically sustainable chemical procedures and substances. Gaining an
understanding of the bonding principles involved in green chemistry
practices may help the field come up with sustainable solutions
The future scope of this project is vast and holds the potential for
groundbreaking discoveries and innovations. By continuing to explore the
intricacies of chemical bonding, researchers can unlock new horizons in science
and technology, leading to a better understanding of the world and addressing
the challenges of tomorrow.
RECOMMENDATION
If you are conducting a study about the bonding molecular structure and Lewis
structure here, are some recommendations to enhance the quality and scope of
your research:
1. Comprehensive Literature Review: Start by reading through all of the
pertinent literature, which should include textbooks, scientific journals,
and reliable internet sources. This will give your research a strong
foundation and enable you to comprehend the gaps in the field's
knowledge.

2. Integration of Advanced Computational Tools: It is recommended to

incorporate advanced computational tools and software for more
accurate modeling of molecular structures. This could involve exploring
quantum mechanical methods and utilizing high-performance
computing resources to enhance the precision of simulations.

3. Define Clear Objectives: Clearly define the objectives and research

questions of your study. This will help you stay focused and guide your
data collection and analysis efforts.

4. Proper Understanding about Molecular Bonding : Having a proper

and factual knowledge about the formation of a molecule by the use of
different bonds and the formation of their shapes and geometry is also
necessary .

5. Emerging Trends: There is a growing body of research on the

adhesion of atoms. Researchers are beginning to employ machine
learning and intelligent computer programs to predict molecular
behavior more accurately. Furthermore, the development of quantum
computers—extremely powerful computers—promises to advance our
understanding of complex chemical phenomena. In addition, scientists
are collaborating with experts in various domains, such as
environmental science and new materials science, to apply our
understanding of molecules in novel and practical ways.
 APPENDIX

Chemical Bonding

Hydrogen Bond in DNA

 REFERENCES
1. Bijyus.com

2. Class 11 Pioneer Chemistry Book.

3. chemistrylearner.com

4. Chem.libretexts.org

5. Wikipedia

6. Unacademy