LASER

Light Amplification by Stimulated

Emission of Radiation

Instructor: Dr. SDV

TIET, Patiala
Laser Applications :

• Laser Cutting
• Laser Printers
• Barcode Scanners
• Laser Pointer
• Laser Surgery
• Fiber Optic
• Free-Space Communication
• Distance measurements
• so on...
Properties of Laser :
Directionality :
Laser beam is highly directional.
The divergence of the laser beam is usually limited by
diffraction.
Directionality :
Monochromaticity: Nearly monochromatic light

Δν is called line width

Range of frequency is 𝜈 ± Δ𝜈 or 𝜆 ± Δ𝜆

For He-Ne laser: λ = 632.5 nm; Δ𝜆 = 0.2 × 10−2 nm

Monochromaticity:
Coherence: Laser is both temporal and spatial coherent
Coherence:
Coherence:
Coherence:
1. Temporal Coherence: Correlation between field at a
point at two different time : E(x,y,z,t1) and E(x,y,z,t2). If
phase difference is constant over observation time,
then it is temporal coherence.
Tells how monochromatic a source is.

2. Spatial Coherence: When waves at different points in

space preserve a constant phase difference over a time
t.

Temporal coherence is characteristic of single beam of light

whereas spatial coherence is relationship between two
separate beams of light.
Coherence:
The coherence length, 𝑙 = 𝑐 × 𝜏
Where “c” is velocity of light and 𝜏 is called coherence
time. Also,
1
𝜏= (Δν is line width)
Δ𝜈

𝑐
Therefore, 𝑙 = 𝑐 × 𝜏 =
Δ𝜈

𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑐 = 𝜈𝜆 ⇒ 𝜈𝛥𝜆 + 𝜆𝛥𝜈 = 0

𝛥𝜆 𝛥𝜆
⇒ 𝛥𝜈 = −𝜈 = −𝑐 2
𝜆 𝜆

𝑐 𝑐𝜆2 𝜆2
Therefore, 𝑙 = 𝑐 × 𝜏 = = =
Δ𝜈 𝑐Δ𝜆 Δ𝜆
Coherence:
𝑐 𝜆2
Therefore, 𝑙 = Δ𝜈 = Δ𝜆
The more monochromatic is a wave (less will be Δ𝜆 and
Δ𝜈), larger is coherent length and coherent time.

Source Δ𝜈 (Hz) 𝜏 = 1ൗΔ𝜈 𝑙 = 𝑐𝜏

Sunlight 3.75 × 1014 2.67 fs 800 nm

Sodium 5 × 1011 2 ps 600 μm

lamp
He-Ne laser 1 × 109 1 ns 0.3 m
Intensity/Brightness: Highly intense that is why used for
welding because heat is focussed on small spot.

Intensity is high because laser is coherent.

Three transition processes can take place when a
photon is incident on an atom:

1. Absorption
2. Spontaneous emission
3. Stimulated emission (Predicted by Einstein)
Absorption:
Consider a simple two level system with energy levels 𝐸1 and
𝐸2 , with 𝐸2 > 𝐸1 .

After collision : atom in

excited state
𝐸2

𝐸1
Before collision : atom in
ground state
Absorption:
Such an atom can emit or absorb a photon of frequency
given by
ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1
At ordinary temperatures, most of the atoms are in the
ground state 𝐸1 .

If a photon of frequency ν is incident on the system, it will

be absorbed by an atom in the ground state 𝐸1 and will,
therefore, will be excited to the state 𝐸2 .

The rate of stimulated absorption (or simply absorption)

depends both on the intensity of the external field and on
the number of atoms in the lower energy state.
Once the atom is in the excited state, it can decay (or drop
back to a lower energy state) after a short time, typically
from 10−9 to 10−3 seconds, by two different processes:
spontaneous emission and stimulated emission.
Spontaneous Emission :
In an excited state 𝐸2 the atom stays for a finite time before it
falls into ground state by spontaneously emitting a photon of
frequency :
(𝐸2 −𝐸1 )
𝜈= ൗℎ
This is called radiative transition.
 The duration of stay in level 𝐸2 is called lifetime of the level.

 The photon emitted by atom is in random direction. In an

ensemble of atoms, photons are emitted in random
directions and have no phase relationship between them.

 The rate at which electrons fall from excited level 𝐸2 to

lower level 𝐸1 is at every instant proportional to the number
of electrons remaining in 𝐸2 .

 The transition probability depends only on the two energy

levels.

 Since this process can occur even in the absence of any

radiation, this is called spontaneous emission.
Stimulated Emission:
Photon of energy ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 can interact with an atom in
excited state 𝐸2 and induce(stimulate) transition to 𝐸1 .

The rate of stimulated absorption depends both on the

intensity of the incident photon and on the number of atoms
in the excited energy state.
Stimulated Emission:
Energy difference (𝐸2 − 𝐸1 ) is emitted in the form of photon
of frequency “ν” and this photon has same direction as
incident photon.

Moreover, this photon is in phase with incident photon and

has same polarisation as incident photon.

For every photon, there are two outgoing photons going in

the same direction. This leads to amplification of incident
photon.

In summary, emitted photons have the same frequency and

are in phase with the incident photon. This way we can
achieve an amplified and unidirectional coherent beam.
Quantum mechanically, there is finite probability
associated with each transition.

The total probability of emission transition from

𝐸2 to 𝐸1 (𝐸2 → 𝐸1 ) is the sum of spontaneous
and stimulated emission probabilities.
Which one of these will happen if photon of energy
(𝑬𝟐 − 𝑬𝟏 )is incident?

Notice the larger amplitude of outgoing wave here

(equivalent to 2 photons in previous slides)
When the atoms are in
thermodynamic equilibrium,
there are larger number of atoms
in the lower state, implying that
the number of absorptions
exceeds the number of stimulated
emissions; this results in the
attenuation of the beam (shown in
(a) ).

On the other hand, if we are able to create a state of population

inversion in which there are larger number of atoms in the upper
state as compared to lower state, then the number of stimulated
emissions exceeds the number of absorptions, resulting in the
(optical) amplification of the beam (shown in (b)).
Population Inversion :
The term population inversion describes an assembly of
atoms in which the majority are in energy levels above the
ground state.
When in thermal equilibrium at temperature T, number of
atoms in various levels are given by Maxwell-Boltzmann’s
distribution :
𝑁𝑖 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝐸𝑖Τ𝑘𝑇

Where 𝑁𝑖 is number of atoms having energy Ei , 𝑁0 is number

of atoms in ground state, k is Boltzmann’s constant, T is
temperature in Kelvin.

At equilibrium, population is maximum in ground state and

decreases exponentially as one goes to higher energy states.
If 𝑁2 and 𝑁1 are population of atoms in level 𝐸2 and 𝐸1
respectively,

𝑁2 𝐸1 −𝐸2 Τ𝑘𝑇
=𝑒 = 𝑒 −ℎ𝑣Τ𝑘𝑇 < 1
𝑁1

Hence N2 < N1 . Therefore, at thermal equilibrium number of

atoms undergoing spontaneous emission is greater than the
number of atoms undergoing stimulated emission.

It is absolutely necessary for laser action that number

of atoms undergoing stimulated emission is greater
than the number of atoms undergoing spontaneous
emission i.e. 𝑵𝟐 > 𝑵𝟏 . This condition is called
population inversion.
Laser Principle:

Population inversion is not possible with 2 levels.

Laser Principle:

A number of ways exist to produce a population inversion

and the process is known as pumping.

A steady state population inversion cannot be created

between two levels just by using pumping between these
levels. Thus, in order to produce a steady state population
inversion, one makes use of either a three level or a four
level system.

A three-level laser, the simplest kind, uses an assembly of

atoms (or molecules) that have a metastable state hν in
energy above the ground state and a still higher excited
state that decays to the metastable state.
Laser Principle:
More atoms are required in the metastable state than in the
ground state so that stimulated emission can be achieved by
shining with light of frequency ν. A metastable states have
lifetimes of 10−3 s or more instead of the usual 10−8 s and are
hence relatively long-lived states.

In a three-level laser, more than half the atoms must be in the

metastable state for stimulated induced emission to
predominate.
Basic components of a laser:
Active medium: The active medium
consists of a collection of atoms,
molecules, or ions (in solid, liquid, or
gaseous form) which is capable of
amplifying light waves. To have optical
amplification, the medium must be in a
state of population inversion which is
achieved by means of the pump.

Pumping source: The pump is used to obtain such a state of population

inversion between a pair of energy levels of the atomic system. When
population inversion is achieved, the input light beam can get amplified
by stimulated emission.
Optical pumping Ruby laser
Electrical discharge Argon-ion laser
Inelastic atom- atom collisions He-Ne laser
Basic components of a laser:
Optical resonator: A medium with population inversion can amplify
light; however, for it to act as an oscillator, a part of the output energy
must be fed back into the system. Such feedback is brought about by
placing the active medium in a resonator; the resonator can be a pair of
mirrors facing each other (one fully reflecting and other partially
reflecting).
Ruby Laser : three-level laser
Construction: It is made up of single cylindrical crystal of
ruby whose ends are flat, one fully reflecting and other
partially reflecting. A ruby crystal is made of aluminum-
oxide, Al2O3, in which some of the Al3+ ions are replaced by
Cr3+ ions (∼ 0.05% by weight), which are responsible for the
red color. Ruby laser was the first successful laser and is
based on the three energy levels in the chromium ion Cr3+. A
xenon flash lamp is used to pump the atoms.
Ruby Laser : three-level laser
Working: In the ruby laser, a xenon
flash lamp excites the Cr3+ ions to levels
of higher energy E1(by absorbing
~6600Ao) and E2 (by absorbing ~4000
Ao) from which they immediately
(within 10-8 sec) fall to the metastable
level M by losing energy to the lattice.
Thus, there is also a cooling system The energy levels of the chromium
provided (circulating water or liquid ion; G and M represent the ground
and metastable states, respectively.
nitrogen) to cool the crystal.
The metastable level M in Cr3+ ion has lifetime approx. 0.003 s. Levels E1
and E2 have lifetime of ~10-8 s, number of atoms keep increasing in the
metastable state M. Thus, population inversion is achieved between
state M and the ground state G.

Once population inversion is achieved, light amplification can take

place, with two reflecting ends of the ruby rod forming a cavity.
Ruby Laser : three-level laser

Photons from the spontaneous decay of some Cr3+ ions from

state M are reflected back and forth between the mirrored ends
of the ruby rod, stimulating other excited Cr3+ ions to radiate.
After a few microseconds the result is a large pulse of
monochromatic, coherent red light (of 6943 Ao) from the partly
transparent end of the rod.

The rod’s length is made precisely an integral number of half-

wavelengths long, so the radiation trapped in it forms an optical
standing wave.
Spiking in Ruby Laser:

Characteristic spiking of ruby laser.

Spiking in Ruby Laser:

The flash operation of the lamp leads to a pulsed output of

the laser. As soon as the flashlamp stops operating the
population of the upper level is depleted very rapidly and
lasing action stops till the arrival of the next flash.

Even in the short period of a few tens of microseconds in

which the ruby is lasing, one finds that the emission is made
up of spikes of high-intensity emissions having random
amplitude fluctuations of varying duration. This phenomenon
is known as spiking.
When the pump is turned on, the intensity of light at the
laser transition is small and hence the pump builds up the
inversion rapidly. Although under steady-state conditions
the inversion cannot exceed the threshold inversion, on a
transient basis it can go beyond the threshold value due to
the absence of sufficient laser radiation in the cavity which
causes stimulated emission. Thus the inversion goes beyond
threshold when the radiation density in the cavity builds up
rapidly. Since the inversion is greater than threshold, the
radiation density goes beyond the steady-state value which
in turn depletes the upper level population and reduces the
inversion below threshold. This leads to an interruption of
laser oscillation till the pump can again create an inversion
beyond threshold. This cycle repeats itself to produce the
characteristic spiking.
He-Ne laser: 4 level laser
The He-Ne laser consists of a mixture of He and Ne in a ratio
of about 10:1, placed inside a long, narrow discharge tube.
The pressure inside the tube is about 1 torr.
The gas system is enclosed between a pair of plane mirrors or
a pair of concave mirrors so that a resonator system is
formed. One of the mirrors is of very high reflectivity while
the other is partially transparent.
The actual lasing atoms are the neon atoms and helium is
used for a selective pumping of the upper laser level of neon.

(diameter ~ 2–8
mm and length
10–100 cm)
He-Ne laser: 4 level laser

Relevant energy levels of He and Ne.

He-Ne laser: 4 level laser

When an electrical discharge is passed through the gas, the

electrons which are accelerated down the tube collide with
helium and neon atoms and excite them to higher energy
levels.

The He atoms are excited from the ground state to the levels
marked F2 and F3 (lifetime ∼ 10−4 and 5 × 10−6 s
respectively). These levels are metastable; i.e., He atoms
excited to these states stay in these levels for a sufficiently
long time before losing energy through collisions.
He-Ne laser: 4 level laser

Since the levels E4 and E6 of neon atoms have almost the same
energy as F2 and F3, excited helium atoms colliding with neon
atoms in the ground state can excite the neon atoms to E4 and
E6. Since the pressure of helium is ten times that of neon, the
levels E4 and E6 of neon are selectively populated as compared
to other levels of neon.

This results in a sizeable population of the levels E4 and E6.

The population in these levels happens to be much more than
those in the lower levels E3 and E5. Thus a state of population
inversion is achieved, and any spontaneously emitted photon
can trigger laser action in any of the three transitions.
He-Ne laser: 4 level laser
The transitions from E6 to E5, E4 to E3, and E6 to E3 result in
the emission of radiation having wavelengths of 3.39 μm,
1.15 μm, and 6328 Å, respectively. The laser transitions
corresponding to 3.39 μm and 1.15 μm, are not in the visible
region. The 6328 Å transition corresponds to the well-
known red light of the He-Ne laser.

The Ne atoms then drop down from the lower laser levels to
the level E2 through spontaneous emission. From the level E2
the Ne atoms are brought back to the ground state through
collision with the walls.
He-Ne laser: 4 level laser
Conditions:

The pressures of the two gases must be chosen so that the

condition of population inversion is not quenched. Thus the
conditions must be such that there is an efficient transfer of
energy from He to Ne atoms.

The level marked E2 is metastable, electrons colliding with

atoms in level E2 may excite them to level E3, thus decreasing
the population inversion. The tube containing the gaseous
mixture is also made narrow so that Ne atoms in level E2 can
get de-excited by collision with the walls of the tube.
Comparison of Ruby and He-Ne laser:

Gas lasers are, in general, found to emit light, which is more

directional and more monochromatic. This is so because of
the absence of such effects as crystalline imperfection,
thermal distortion, and scattering, which are present in
solid-state lasers. Gas lasers are capable of operating
continuously without need for cooling.

Ruby laser is a pulsed laser while gas laser, like He-Ne laser
is a continuous laser. In Ruby lasers, the pumping is usually
done using a flash lamp. Such a technique is efficient if the
lasing system has broad absorption bands. In He-Ne lasers
since the atoms are characterized by sharp energy levels as
compared to those in Ruby, electrical discharge is used to
pump the atoms.
Laser Application : Optical Communications
Optical communication is any form of telecommunication that
uses light as the transmission medium.

An optical communication system consists of a transmitter, which

encodes a message into an optical signal, a channel, which carries
the signal to its destination, and a receiver, which reproduces the
message from the received optical signal.

For modulation of the signal without the addition of any noise, the
carrier wave should be of a very narrow spectral width (Δν). For
communication purposes, the laser beam is modulated by the
signal. At the receiving station, the modulated beam is
demodulated (detected) to separate the required signal from the
laser beam (carrier). The output current, which varies with the
intensity of the signal, is amplified and then fed to the speaker.
Laser Application : Optical Alignment

The negligible divergence of the laser beam stimulated a

number of ideas for providing hitherto impossible accuracy
and sensitivity in the alignment of tools. Serving as an
optical axis, the beam guides the machines used for levelling
the concrete facing of the airfields, checking the verticality of
the framework of tall buildings, sinking mines, and cutting
tunnels from two ends and joining them without tilt.