Computer Networks

Unit-I
Data Communication Components

Data Communication is defined as exchange of data between two devices via

some form of transmission media such as a cable, wire or it can be air or vacuum
also. For occurrence of data communication, communicating devices must be a
part of communication system made up of a combination of hardware or software
devices and programs.
Data Communication System Components :
There are mainly five components of a data communication system:

1. Message
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Transmission Medium
5. Set of rules (Protocol)

All above mentioned elements are described below:

Figure – Components of Data Communication System

1. Message :
This is most useful asset of a data communication system. The message simply
refers to data or piece of information which is to be communicated. A message
could be in any form, it may be in form of a text file, an audio file, a video file,
etc.

2. Sender :
To transfer message from source to destination, someone must be there who
will play role of a source. Sender plays part of a source in data communication
system. It is simple a device that sends data message. The device could be in
form of a computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or a workstation,
etc.

3. Receiver :
It is destination where finally message sent by source has arrived. It is a device
that receives message. Same as sender, receiver can also be in form of a
computer, telephone mobile, workstation, etc.

4. Transmission Medium :
In entire process of data communication, there must be something which could
act as a bridge between sender and receiver, Transmission medium plays that
part. It is physical path by which data or message travels from sender to
receiver. Transmission medium could be guided (with wires) or unguided
(without wires), for example, twisted pair cable, fiber optic cable, radio waves,
microwaves, etc.

5. Set of rules (Protocol) :

To govern data communications, various sets of rules had been already
designed by the designers of the communication systems, which represent a
kind of agreement between communicating devices. These are defined as
protocol. In simple terms, the protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communication. If two different devices are connected but there is no protocol
among them, there would not be any kind of communication between those two
devices. Thus the protocol is necessary for data communication to take place.
Data: Data means information in digital format and communication means to
exchange information between two or many users in anyways like speaking,
texting, or any other modes of the medium. So, data communication is simply the
exchange of data between two or many users through the transmission media like
twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, optical fibers, radio wave, satellite microwave,
etc.
The user or device that sends the data is the source and the user that receives the
data is a receiver. For data interchange to take place, the communicating devices
must be a part of a system comprising of a combination of hardware and software.
Its efficiency depends on four fundamental characteristics.
Characteristics:

 Delivery: Data must be delivered to the correct destination and must be

received by the intended receiver only.
 Accuracy: Data delivered must be accurate. Any alteration to the data during
transmission renders it useless.
 Timeliness: Data must be delivered within the ideal time else it is useless. In
case of audio and video, the data must be delivered as they are produced, in the
same ordered they are produced without significant delay. This kind of delivery
is called real-time transmission.
 Jitter: It is the variation in the arrival time of audio or video packets or
unevenly delay in the delivery of the audio or video packets.

Data representation

Data is represented in various forms such as text, numbers, images, audio and
video.
 Text: In data communication, it is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of
bits (0s and 1s). Different sets of bit patterns, called code, have been designed
to represent text and symbols and the process of representing them is called
coding. Characters can be represented in Unicode by using the American
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).
 Numbers: They are also represented by bit patterns. To simplify mathematical
operations the number is directly converted to a binary number.
 Images: They are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an
image is composed of a matrix of pixels, where each pixel is a small dot.
Resolution determines the size of the pixel.
 Audio: It refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by
nature different from text, numbers, images. It is not discrete, but continuous.
 Video: It refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or a movie. It can
either be produced as a continuous entity, or can be a combination of images,
each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.

Flow of Network
Flow networks is a graph used to model the systems .Here, the traffic is called a
flow, which is transmitted across from the source node through the edges and
nodes to the sink node.

A flow network is a directed graph given a G(V, E) with the following

characteristics:

 Each edge has a capacity which is denoted by ce

 There is a single node which is the source represented as s ∈ V
 there is a single sink node represented as t ∈ V

Nodes that are neither t or s are known as internal nodes. An example of a flow
network in given in Figure 1 where the numbers besides the edges represents the
capacity of the edge.

Figure: A Simple Flow Network with source, edges, and sink

To be able to analyze flow networks, we would make the following two
assumptions:

 there is no edge entering the source s and there is not edge leaving the sink t
 there is at lease one edge (entering or leaving) each node
 all capacities of the edges are non-negative integers.

A Network Topology

A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network

devices are connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and
logical aspect of the network. Both logical and physical topologies could be same
or different in a same network.

Point-to-Point
Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches or
routers, servers connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often, the
receiving end of one host is connected to sending end of the other and vice-versa.

If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have multiple
intermediate devices. But the end hosts are unaware of underlying network and see
each other as if they are connected directly.
Bus Topology
In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable.Bus
topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time.
Therefore, Bus topology either uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host
as Bus Master to solve the issue. It is one of the simple forms of networking where
a failure of a device does not affect the other devices. But failure of the shared
communication line can make all other devices stop functioning.

Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only one
direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data
from the line.
Star Topology
All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device,
using a point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point connection
between hosts and hub. The hub device can be any of the following:

 Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater

 Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
 Layer-3 device such as router or gateway
As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails, connectivity of
all hosts to all other hosts fails. Every communication between hosts, takes place
through only the hub. Star topology is not expensive as to connect one more host,
only one cable is required and configuration is simple.
Ring Topology
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines,
creating a circular network structure. When one host tries to communicate or send
message to a host which is not adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate
hosts. To connect one more host in the existing structure, the administrator may
need only one more extra cable.

Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring. Thus, every connection in
the ring is a point of failure. There are methods which employ one more backup
ring.
Mesh Topology
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts. This topology
has hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host or may also have hosts
which are in point-to-point connection to few hosts only.
Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have direct
point-to-point links. Mesh technology comes into two types:

 Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in
the network. Thus for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It
provides the most reliable network structure among all network topologies.
 Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other
host. Hosts connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology
exists where we need to provide reliability to some hosts out of all.
Tree Topology
Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network
topology in use presently. This topology imitates as extended Star topology and
inherits properties of bus topology.
This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network. Mainly
in LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network devices. The
lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached. The middle layer is known
as distribution layer, which works as mediator between upper layer and lower layer.
The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point of the network, i.e.
root of the tree from which all nodes fork.
All neighboring hosts have point-to-point connection between them. Similar to the
Bus topology, if the root goes down, then the entire network suffers even though it
is not the single point of failure. Every connection serves as point of failure, failing
of which divides the network into unreachable segment.
Daisy Chain
This topology connects all the hosts in a linear fashion. Similar to Ring topology,
all hosts are connected to two hosts only, except the end hosts. Means, if the end
hosts in daisy chain are connected then it represents Ring topology.

Each link in daisy chain topology represents single point of failure. Every link
failure splits the network into two segments. Every intermediate host works as relay
for its immediate hosts.
Hybrid Topology
A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be
hybrid topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the
incorporating topologies.

The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The combining

topologies may contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain topologies.
Most WANs are connected by means of Dual-Ring topology and networks
connected to them are mostly Star topology networks. Internet is the best example
of largest Hybrid topology
 Computer Network Models
A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software. Early
attempts for implementing the software for such subsystems were based on a single,
complex, unstructured program with many interacting components. The resultant
software was very difficult to test and modify. To overcome such problem, the ISO
has developed a layered approach. In a layered approach, networking concept is
divided into several layers, and each layer is assigned a particular task. Therefore,
we can say that networking tasks depend upon the layers.

Layered Architecture
o The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small
pieces.
o Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of
services to manage communications and run the applications.
o It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between
subsystems.
o It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from
lower to higher layer without defining how the services are implemented.
Therefore, any modification in a layer will not affect the other layers.
o The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network
to network. However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from
lower to a higher layer and hiding the details from the layers of how the
services are implemented.
o The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and
interfaces.
o Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
o Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the
information with peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both the
contents and order of the messages used.
o Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from
one layer to another layer.
 o In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication
with the layer n on another machine and the rules used in a conversation are
known as a layer-n protocol.

Let's take an example of the five-layered architecture.

o In case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of one

machine to layer n of another machine. Instead, each layer passes the data to
the layer immediately just below it, until the lowest layer is reached.
o Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual
communication takes place.
o In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several small
and manageable tasks.
o The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface. A
Layered architecture provides a clean-cut interface so that minimum
information is shared among different layers. It also ensures that the
implementation of one layer can be easily replaced by another
implementation.
o A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.

Why do we require Layered architecture?

o Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes a
design process in such a way that the unmanageable tasks are divided into
small and manageable tasks. In short, we can say that this approach reduces
the complexity of the design.
 o Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity provides the
independence of layers, which is easier to understand and implement.
o Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that implementation
in one layer can be changed without affecting other layers.
o Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analyzed and tested
individually.

The OSI Model

The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model that defines network
communication used by systems open to interconnection and communication with
other systems. The Open System Interconnection (OSI Model) also defines a
logical network and effectively describes computer packet transfer by using
various layers of protocols.

The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a conceptual framework

used to describe the functions of a networking system. The OSI model
characterizes computing functions into a universal set of rules and requirements in
order to support interoperability between different products and software. In the
OSI reference model, the communications between a computing system are split
into seven different abstraction layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport,
Session, Presentation, and Application.
Created at a time when network computing was in its infancy, the OSI was
published in 1984 by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
Though it does not always map directly to specific systems, the OSI Model is still
used today as a means to describe Network Architecture.
The 7 Layers of the OSI Model

Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI Model is concerned with electrically or optically
transmitting raw unstructured data bits across the network from the physical layer
of the sending device to the physical layer of the receiving device. It can include
specifications such as voltages, pin layout, cabling, and radio frequencies. At the
physical layer, one might find “physical” resources such as network hubs, cabling,
repeaters, network adapters or modems.
Data Link Layer
At the data link layer, directly connected nodes are used to perform node-to-node
data transfer where data is packaged into frames. The data link layer also corrects
errors that may have occurred at the physical layer.
The data link layer encompasses two sub-layers of its own. The first, media access
control (MAC), provides flow control and multiplexing for device transmissions
over a network. The second, the logical link control (LLC), provides flow and error
control over the physical medium as well as identifies line protocols.
Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for receiving frames from the data link layer, and
delivering them to their intended destinations among based on the addresses
contained inside the frame. The network layer finds the destination by using logical
addresses, such as IP (internet protocol). At this layer, routers are a crucial
component used to quite literally route information where it needs to go between
networks.
Transport Layer
The transport layer manages the delivery and error checking of data packets. It
regulates the size, sequencing, and ultimately the transfer of data between systems
and hosts. One of the most common examples of the transport layer is TCP or the
Transmission Control Protocol.
Session Layer
The session layer controls the conversations between different computers. A
session or connection between machines is set up, managed, and termined at layer
Session layer services also include authentication and reconnections.
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer formats or translates data for the application layer based on
the syntax or semantics that the application accepts. Because of this, it at times also
called the syntax layer. This layer can also handle the encryption and decryption
required by the application layer.
Application Layer
At this layer, both the end user and the application layer interact directly with the
software application. This layer sees network services provided to end-user
applications such as a web browser or Office 365. The application layer identifies
communication partners, resource availability, and synchronizes communication.
TCP/IP Model
The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was designed
to describe the functions of the communication system by dividing the
communication procedure into smaller and simpler components. But when we talk
about the TCP/IP model, it was designed and developed by Department of
Defense (DoD) in 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands for
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise
version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI
model.
The layers are:
1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer

1. Network Access Layer –

This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical Layer
of the OSI model. It looks out for hardware addressing and the protocols present in
this layer allows for the physical transmission of data.
We just talked about ARP being a protocol of Internet layer, but there is a conflict
about declaring it as a protocol of Internet Layer or Network access layer. It is
described as residing in layer 3, being encapsulated by layer 2 protocols.

2. Internet Layer –

This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols
which are responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire network. The
main protocols residing at this layer are :
1. IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets
from the source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the
packet headers. IP has 2 versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using currently. But
IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses are limited in number when
compared to the number of users.
2. ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within
IP datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about
network problems.
3. ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware
address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse
ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP and Inverse ARP.

3. Host-to-Host Layer –

This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for
end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-
layer applications from the complexities of data. The two main protocols present in
this layer are :
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is known to provide reliable and
error-free communication between end systems. It performs sequencing and
segmentation of data. It also has acknowledgment feature and controls the flow
of the data through flow control mechanism. It is a very effective protocol but
has a lot of overhead due to such features. Increased overhead leads to
increased cost.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – On the other hand does not provide any
such features. It is the go-to protocol if your application does not require
 reliable transport as it is very cost-effective. Unlike TCP, which is connection-
oriented protocol, UDP is connectionless.

4. Application Layer –

This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model:
Application, Presentation and Session Layer. It is responsible for node-to-node
communication and controls user-interface specifications. Some of the
protocols present in this layer are: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet, SSH,
SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP, NFS, X Window, LPD.
Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission Control OSI refers to Open Systems

Protocol. Interconnection.

TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.

TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable

TCP/IP does not have very strict

boundaries. OSI has strict boundaries
 TCP/IP uses both session and presentation OSI uses different session and
layer in the application layer itself. presentation layers.

Transport layer in TCP/IP does not provide In OSI model, transport layer provides
assurance delivery of packets. assurance delivery of packets.

Connection less and connection

TCP/IP model network layer only provides oriented both services are provided by
connection less services. network layer in OSI model.

Transmission Media
A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver
i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to another.

Types of Transmission Media

Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

1. Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

(i) Twisted Pair Cable –
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are
the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This
type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages:
⇢ Least expensive
⇢ Easy to install
⇢ High-speed capacity
⇢ Susceptible to external interference
⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil
shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in
voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:
⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
⇢ Eliminates crosstalk
⇢ Comparatively faster
⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
⇢ More expensive
⇢ Bulky
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or
Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover.
The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated
cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate
ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages:
 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –
It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic.
The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding.
It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division
Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Advantages:
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
 Fragile

(iv) Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented
by Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s.
Stripline is the earliest form of the planar transmission line. It uses a conducting
material to transmit high-frequency waves it is also called a waveguide. This
conducting material is sandwiched between two layers of the ground plane which
are usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.
(v) Microstripline
In this, the conducting material is separated from the ground plane by a layer of
dielectric.
2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical
medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
 The signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
(i) Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The
sending and receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency
Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio
waves for transmission.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas
need to be properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the
signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency
Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution.

(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems.
Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse,
keyboard, printer, etc.

Techniques for Bandwidth utilization

Line Configuration

A network is two or more devices connected through a link. A link is a

communication pathway that transfers data from one device to another. Devices
can be a computer, printer, or any other device that is capable to send and receive
data. For visualization purposes, imagine any link as a line drawn between two
points.
For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the
same link at the same time. There are two possible types of connections:
1. Point-to-Point Connection
2. Multipoint Connection

Point-to-Point Connection :

1. A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.

2. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices.
3. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to
connect the two ends, but other options such as microwave or satellite links
are also possible.
4. Point to point network topology is considered to be one of the easiest and most
conventional networks
topologies.
5. It is also the simplest to establish and understand.
Example: Point-to-Point connection between the remote control and Television
for changing the channels.

Multipoint Connection :
1. It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection, two or more
devices share a single link.
2. More than two devices share the link that is the capacity of the channel is
shared now. With shared capacity, there can be two possibilities in a
Multipoint Line configuration:

Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link simultaneously, it’s called
Spatially shared line configuration.

Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the link, then it’s
called Temporally shared or Time Shared Line configuration.
 Multiplexing
It is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is the process in which multiple
signals coming from multiple sources are combined and transmitted over a single
communication/physical line.

Types of Multiplexing
There are three types of Multiplexing :
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
2. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing :

Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing where the
bandwidth of a single physical medium is divided into a number of smaller,
independent frequency channels.
Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio and television transmission.
In FDM, we can observe a lot of inter-channel cross-talk, due to the fact that in
this type of multiplexing the bandwidth is divided into frequency channels. In
order to prevent the inter-channel cross talk, unused strips of bandwidth must be
placed between each channel. These unused strips between each channel are
known as guard bands.

2. Time Division Multiplexing :

Time-division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing wherein FDM,
instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth in the form of channels, in TDM,
time is shared. Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate with the same frequency
(bandwidth) at different times.
There are two types of Time Division Multiplexing :
1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
2. Statistical (or Asynchronous) Time Division Multiplexing

Synchronous TDM :
Synchronous TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where the input
frame already has a slot in the output frame. Time slots are grouped into frames.
One frame consists of one cycle of time slots.
Synchronous TDM is not efficient because if the input frame has no data to send,
a slot remains empty in the output frame.
In synchronous TDM, we need to mention the synchronous bit at the beginning of
each frame.

Statistical TDM :
Statistical TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where the output frame
collects data from the input frame till it is full, not leaving an empty slot like in
Synchronous TDM.
In statistical TDM, we need to include the address of each particular data in the
slot that is being sent to the output frame.
Statistical TDM is a more efficient type of time-division multiplexing as the
channel capacity is fully utilized and improves the bandwidth efficiency.

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing :

Wavelength Division Multiplexing is used on fiber optics to increase the capacity
of a single fiber. It is an analog multiplexing technique. Optical signals from the
different sources are combined to form a wider band of light with the help of
multiplexers. At the receiving end, the demultiplexer separates the signals to
transmit them to their respective destinations.

Difference between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission

Synchronous Asynchronous
Synchronous data transmission is a data
transfer method in which a continuous Asynchronous data transmission is a data
stream of data signals is accompanied by transfer method in which the sender and
timing signals. the receiver use the flow control method.

Asynchronous handler helps you to run a

Synchronous handler do not return until it
process independently of sending a
finishes processing the HTTP request for
response to the user.
which it is called.
Users do not have to wait until sending
Users need to wait until it sending finishes completes before receiving a response
before getting a response from the server. from the server.
 In asynchronous transmission, the
In this transmission method, blocks of
information should be transmitted
characters are transmitted at high- speed on
character by character.
the transmission line.
Data is sent in the form of character or
It sends data in the form of blocks or frames. byte.

Asynchronous transmission method is

Synchronous Transmission is fast. slow.

Asynchronous Transmission is
Synchronous Transmission is costly. economical.

The time interval of transmission is

The time interval of transmission is constant. random.

In asynchronous transmission, there is a

Synchronous Transmission does not have a
gap between data.
gap between data.
Asynchronous postback renders only
Synchronous postback renders the entire
needed part of the page.
page of any postback.
It requires local buffer storages at the two
It does not need any local storage at the
ends of the line to assemble blocks.
terminal end.
Asynchronous replication an ideal for
Synchronous replication should be
projects that span across long distances
performed when reliable and long-term
and have a very minimal budget.
storage is required.
This method requires accurately
This method does not need any synchronized
synchronized clocks at both ends.
clocks.
You can use it in high-speed applications
You can use it in the low-speed
like the Transmission of data from one
communication like the connection of a
computer to another.
terminal to a computer.
The voice-band and broad-band channels are The voice-band channels that have a
mostly used in the Synchronous narrow type in the used asynchronous
Transmission. transfer.

xDSL

The fundamental work leading to Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) technology was
done in the early 1980s by AT&T's Bell Labs. Later, after the AT&T divestiture,
the work was assumed and brought to a practical level about 1989 by Bellcore, at
the time the research facility owned by the RBOCs. (See the Glossary for an
explanation of the acronyms used in this article.) At present the main focus of
xDSL development and marketing, other than within the microchip, equipment and
telephone companies themselves, is the ADSL Forum (ADSLF), a group to which
virtually everyone in the business belongs.

Without going into technical detail, xDSL encodes a stream of digital data so as to
maximize the use of the available bandwidth and continuously monitors the
transmission, even "cleaning it up" by detecting and correcting errors. This
continuous encoding, sampling and adjusting of the data stream requires modern
VLSI high-speed chip technology. Such features as equalization and echo
cancellation are required to identify and correct errors that occur during
transmission.

Two main encoding schemes are being used for xDSL:

discrete multi-tone (DMT) and

carrier-less amplitude/phase modulation (CAP).

Later we explore these schemes, but suffice it to say that DMT appears to be
preferred at this time, with its preliminary acceptance by key standards bodies and
its adoption by most RBOCs in their early rollouts of xDSL technology. DMT also
has the advantage of chopping the available spectrum up into multiple channels
and, when electromagnetic noise or other impediments to the free flow of digital
bits are detected, changing channels "on the fly" to go around the trouble.
Encoding enables the available spectrum, expressed in kilohertz or megahertz, to
be used more efficiently. Basically these schemes permit multiple bits of
information to be transmitted by each hertz (Hz) of bandwidth.

Several variations of xDSL technology are becoming commercially important.

Early deployments to the residential market will be either ADSL or RADSL, as
described below.

ADSL devotes a larger part of the bandwidth to downstream applications, since

most residential Internet users will need it to download graphics-heavy images.
The speed of the downstream channel can vary widely, up to about 6 Mbps,
depending on the vendor and the specific service. The upstream bit rate is always
less, hence the name asymmetric DSL. At the lower end of the spectrum is a 4 kHz
channel devoted to voice, and functionally independent of the data stream. In fact,
if the local electric-utility power goes down, the voice channel will remain active,
since it is still powered (as now) by 48 volt batteries, while the DSL channels will
become disabled.

RADSL is a variation of ADSL in which the equipment can sense how high a bit
rate the line can handle and adjust the speed downward accordingly. This "safe
speed" can either be determined by testing the line during installation and locking
it in at a set speed, or it can continuously adjust itself during operation.

HDSL has been used for several years in commercial applications, and typically
transmits 1.5 megabits per second (Mbps) each way. Since it requires two wire
pairs, it is not considered applicable to the residential market.

SDSL is a symmetrical form of xDSL, but at roughly half the speed of HDSL and
using one wire pair instead of two.

VDSL is a high-speed version of xDSL, but only for short distances, perhaps a
mile or less. For very short distances, speeds as high as 50 Mbps can be attained. A
basic law of physics states that the shorter the distance the higher the speed that
can be attained.

Main Features of xDSL

Speed
Perhaps the biggest advantage of xDSL is its speed-typically from one to two
orders of magnitude faster than dial-up modems. The apparent difference is fairly
minor for the transmission of text, but for graphics is dramatic.
Always On
One primary advantage of xDSL technology is that it is always on for the
customer-24 hours per day. There is no need to dial it up each time the user wants
to log into the Internet or access the company network. Surprisingly, this is also an
advantage for the phone company, since the xDSL signals passing through its
central office bypass the switches used to connect phone calls, thus relieving
congestion in the plain old telephone service (POTS) network, commonly known
as the public switched telephone network, or PSTN. With dial-up modems,
congestion is becoming a major problem for local phone companies, since typical
Internet users stay connected for long periods of time.

Simultaneous Voice and Data

Another advantage is that xDSL uses different parts of the available spectrum to
carry voice and data, and each can be used simultaneously, independent of the
other. Thus, even though the computer is being used, phone calls can be made, and
vice-versa. Most early systems use a piece of hardware at the customer premises
known as a splitter to separate the two streams of information. However,
splitterless xDSL, known at present as "ADSL Lite", is rapidly being developed
and deployed, primarily at the behest of a powerful new group known as the ADSL
Universal Working Group (UAWG), made up of Intel, Microsoft, Compaq, the
large local telephone companies, equipment manufacturers and others. Not
requiring a splitter will eliminate one piece of equipment and, perhaps even more
important, may eliminate the need to dispatch a truck to the customer's location for
installation.

Only Installed Where Needed

For the phone companies, xDSL technology can be added incrementally. There is
no need for a large investment in plant and equipment, since the main addition is a
black box at each user's location and a larger one, known as a digital subscriber
line access multplexer (DSLAM) at the telephone central office (CO). Of course,
other investments in digital data networking equipment, such as asynchronous
transfer mode (ATM) or its alternatives, must be made, but this is already
occurring. High "take rates" are advantageous for the phone companies, but can be
built over time in a controllable manner.

Applications of xDSL

In the early days of xDSL technology, video-on-demand (VOD) was visualized to

be the application that would drive the technology. Today VOD is all but forgotten
as the Internet has emerged as the "killer app." xDSL represents a quantum leap
forward in high-speed access to the Internet, where high-bandwidth graphics play
an increasingly important role. Although many downstream (Internet-to-user)
speeds are being deployed by various telephone companies, many are focusing on
1.5 megabits per second, which is 27 times as fast as a 56 kilobit per second
modem. Thus, a five minute download is reduced to 11 seconds, provided some
other link in the Internet system doesn't slow down the transmission.
The second most common xDSL application is remote LAN connection. This
enables telecommuters to talk to the office network at speeds essentially equal to
what they would have available at the office itself. Video conferencing becomes
possible if speeds higher than about 400 kbps are available. For
the healthcare industry xDSL technology enables high-resolution images to be
transmitted, perhaps for study and diagnosis by a specialist in real
time. Educational applications will enable students to learn in a remote setting.
Many other applications will be added as the technology becomes widely adopted.

Deployment

After many years of promise, deployment of xDSL by all the large US telephone
operating companies is proceeding at a brisk pace in early 1998. Many smaller
companies also have plans to deploy the technology and many competitive local
exchange carriers (CLECs) hope to beat the incumbent local exchange carriers
(ILECs) to the punch. Some have strategies aimed particularly at business
customers. A later article will detail the varied deployment strategies by company.

The Competition

The telephone companies don't have the field to themselves in providing Internet
service. One competitor is here now, cable modems, while the other, wireless
systems, is just over the horizon.

Cable Modems
An estimated 70% of US homes are cable TV subscribers. (This compares to 95%-
plus who have a telephone.) In those cable-based Internet systems that have been
announced to date, one or more cable TV channels are devoted to these data
services.

Upstream communication can be a problem since coax works much better as a one-
way system. The cable TV system uses coaxial cable into the home, with a mixture
of coax and optical fiber in the outside plant. A given length of coax has
considerably more capacity than the copper twisted pairs of the phone system.
However, this capacity is shared among many users as it loops around a
neighborhood, so available bandwidth can decrease dramatically as more users
come online. Security can also be more of a concern than with the "home runs" of
copper twisted pair loops. Whether there will be a clear winner in this battle is very
much up in the air, but many natural advantages lie with the phone companies and
xDSL.

Wireless Systems
Serious attention is being given to Internet and other data streams coming into the
residence on selective channels of low-earth-orbiting satellite systems, at which
point the signals can be moved onto twisted-pair or coaxial lines, or even be moved
throughout the building on wireless signals. Such systems may have particular
applicability in rural areas where cable TV is not available and where the customer
may be so remote from his central telephone office that xDSL cannot be deployed.

Conclusions

xDSL technology is rapidly coming to market in the USA, and is expected to

revolutionize the use of the Internet among home users and telecommuters. One
version, HDSL, has been successfully used in commercial applications for several
years already, but is not applicable to the residential market. Two versions are
being deployed to the home-ADSL, with higher speeds downstream than upstream,
and a variation of ADSL known as RADSL, which allows the equipment to sense
the speed that can be delivered and then throttles down the transmission to match.
(RADSL allows more distant users to be served by the technology.) Cable modems
and wireless systems both will provide vigorous competition to xDSL systems
deployed by local phone companies.
xDSL technology allows the use of the copper twisted pair network already in
place to virtually every home in the USA for high-speed data traffic, piggybacked
on the voice network already in place. Besides the Internet, applications include
remote LAN access, video conferencing, medical diagnosis, distance learning,
video on demand and others yet to be imagined.

Introduction to Wired and Wireless LAN

Wired Local Area Network

Ethernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs. It
was first standardized in 1980s by IEEE 802.3 standard. IEEE 802.3 defines the
physical layer and the medium access control (MAC) sub-layer of the data link layer
for wired Ethernet networks. Ethernet is classified into two categories: classic
Ethernet and switched Ethernet.
Classic Ethernet is the original form of Ethernet that provides data rates between 3
to 10 Mbps. The varieties are commonly referred as 10BASE-X. Here, 10 is the
maximum throughput, i.e. 10 Mbps, BASE denoted use of baseband transmission,
and X is the type of medium used. Most varieties of classic Ethernet have become
obsolete in present communication scenario.
A switched Ethernet uses switches to connect to the stations in the LAN. It replaces
the repeaters used in classic Ethernet and allows full bandwidth utilization.
IEEE 802.3 Popular Versions
There are a number of versions of IEEE 802.3 protocol. The most popular ones are
-
 IEEE 802.3: This was the original standard given for 10BASE-5. It used a
thick single coaxial cable into which a connection can be tapped by drilling
into the cable to the core. Here, 10 is the maximum throughput, i.e. 10 Mbps,
BASE denoted use of baseband transmission, and 5 refers to the maximum
segment length of 500m.
 IEEE 802.3a: This gave the standard for thin coax (10BASE-2), which is a
thinner variety where the segments of coaxial cables are connected by BNC
connectors. The 2 refers to the maximum segment length of about 200m
(185m to be precise).
 IEEE 802.3i: This gave the standard for twisted pair (10BASE-T) that uses
unshielded twisted pair (UTP) copper wires as physical layer medium. The
further variations were given by IEEE 802.3u for 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-
T4 and 100BASE-FX.
 IEEE 802.3i: This gave the standard for Ethernet over Fiber (10BASE-F)
that uses fiber optic cables as medium of transmission.
 

Frame Format of Classic Ethernet and IEEE 802.3

The main fields of a frame of classic Ethernet are -
 Preamble: It is the starting field that provides alert and timing pulse for
transmission. In case of classic Ethernet it is an 8 byte field and in case of
IEEE 802.3 it is of 7 bytes.
 Start of Frame Delimiter: It is a 1 byte field in a IEEE 802.3 frame that
contains an alternating pattern of ones and zeros ending with two ones.
 Destination Address: It is a 6 byte field containing physical address of
destination stations.
 Source Address: It is a 6 byte field containing the physical address of the
sending station.
 Length: It a 7 bytes field that stores the number of bytes in the data field.
 Data: This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers. The
maximum size of data field is 1500 bytes.
 Padding: This is added to the data to bring its length to the minimum
requirement of 46 bytes.
 CRC: CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains the error detection
information.
 Wireless Local Area Network

Wireless LAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. It is also called LAWN
(Local Area Wireless Network). WLAN is one in which a mobile user can connect
to a Local Area Network (LAN) through a wireless connection.

The IEEE 802.11 group of standards defines the technologies for wireless LANs.
For path sharing, 802.11 standard uses the Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA (carrier
sense multiple access with collision avoidance). It also uses an encryption method
i.e. wired equivalent privacy algorithm.
Wireless LANs provide high speed data communication in small areas such as
building or an office. WLANs allow users to move around in a confined area while
they are still connected to the network.

In some instance wireless LAN technology is used to save costs and avoid laying
cable, while in other cases, it is the only option for providing high-speed internet
access to the public. Whatever the reason, wireless solutions are popping up
everywhere.

Examples of WLANs that are available today are NCR's waveLAN and Motorola's
ALTAIR.

Advantages of WLANs
o Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without further
restriction. Radio waves can penetrate walls, senders and receivers can be
placed anywhere (also non-visible, e.g., within devices, in walls etc.).
o Planning: Only wireless ad-hoc networks allow for communication without
previous planning, any wired network needs wiring plans.
o Design: Wireless networks allow for the design of independent, small devices
which can for example be put into a pocket. Cables not only restrict users but
also designers of small notepads, PDAs, etc.
o Robustness: Wireless networks can handle disasters, e.g., earthquakes, flood
etc. whereas, networks requiring a wired infrastructure will usually break
down completely in disasters.
o Cost: The cost of installing and maintaining a wireless LAN is on average
lower than the cost of installing and maintaining a traditional wired LAN, for
two reasons. First, after providing wireless access to the wireless network via
an access point for the first user, adding additional users to a network will not
increase the cost. And second, wireless LAN eliminates the direct costs of
cabling and the labor associated with installing and repairing it.
o Ease of Use: Wireless LAN is easy to use and the users need very little new
information to take advantage of WLANs.

Disadvantages of WLANs
o Quality of Services: Quality of wireless LAN is typically lower than wired
networks. The main reason for this is the lower bandwidth due to limitations
 is radio transmission, higher error rates due to interference and higher
delay/delay variation due to extensive error correction and detection
mechanisms.
o Proprietary Solutions: Due to slow standardization procedures, many
companies have come up with proprietary solutions offering standardization
functionality plus many enhanced features. Most components today adhere to
the basic standards IEEE 802.11a or 802.11b.
o Restrictions: Several govt. and non-govt. institutions world-wide regulate the
operation and restrict frequencies to minimize interference.
o Global operation: Wireless LAN products are sold in all countries so,
national and international frequency regulations have to be considered.
o Low Power: Devices communicating via a wireless LAN are typically power
consuming, also wireless devices running on battery power. Whereas the LAN
design should take this into account and implement special power saving
modes and power management functions.
o License free operation: LAN operators don't want to apply for a special
license to be able to use the product. The equipment must operate in a license
free band, such as the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
o Robust transmission technology: If wireless LAN uses radio transmission,
many other electrical devices can interfere with them (such as vacuum cleaner,
train engines, hair dryers, etc.).Wireless LAN transceivers cannot be adjusted
for perfect transmission is a standard office or production environment.

Fundamentals of WLANs

1. HiperLAN
o HiperLAN stands for High performance LAN. While all of the previous
technologies have been designed specifically for an adhoc environment,
HiperLAN is derived from traditional LAN environments and can support
multimedia data and asynchronous data effectively at high rates (23.5 Mbps).
o A LAN extension via access points can be implemented using standard
features of the HiperLAN/1 specification. However, HiperLAN does not
necessarily require any type of access point infrastructure for its operation.
 o HiperLAN was started in 1992, and standards were published in 1995. It
employs the 5.15GHz and 17.1 GHz frequency bands and has a data rate of
23.5 Mbps with coverage of 50m and mobility< 10 m/s.
o It supports a packet-oriented structure, which can be used for networks with
or without a central control (BS-MS and ad-hoc). It supports 25 audio
connections at 32kbps with a maximum latency of 10 ms, one video
connection of 2 Mbps with 100 ms latency, and a data rate of 13.4 Mbps.
o HiperLAN/1 is specifically designed to support adhoc computing for
multimedia systems, where there is no requirement to deploy a centralized
infrastructure. It effectively supports MPEG or other state of the art real time
digital audio and video standards.
o The HiperLAN/1 MAC is compatible with the standard MAC service
interface, enabling support for existing applications to remain unchanged.
o HiperLAN 2 has been specifically developed to have a wired infrastructure,
providing short-range wireless access to wired networks such as IP and ATM.

The two main differences between HiperLAN types 1 and 2 are as follows:
o Type 1 has a distributed MAC with QoS provisions, whereas type 2 has a
centralized schedule MAC.
o Type 1 is based on Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK), whereas type 2
is based on OFDM.
o HiperLAN/2 automatically performs handoff to the nearest access point. The
access point is basically a radio BS that covers an area of about 30 to 150
meters, depending on the environment. MANETs can also be created easily.

The goals of HiperLAN are as follows:

o QoS (to build multiservice network)
o Strong security
o Handoff when moving between local area and wide areas
o Increased throughput
o Ease of use, deployment, and maintenance
o Affordability
o Scalability
One of the primary features of HiperLAN/2 is its high speed transmission rates (up
to 54 Mbps). It uses a modulation method called OFDM to transmit analog signals.
It is connection oriented, and traffic is transmitted on bidirectional links for unicast
traffic and unidirectional links toward the MSs for multicast and broadcast traff

This connection oriented approach makes support for QoS easy, which in turn
depends on how the HiperLAN/2 network incorporates with the fixed network using
Ethernet, ATM, or IP.

The HiperLAN/2 architecture shown in the figure allows for interoperation with
virtually any type of fixed network, making the technology both network and
application independent.

HiperLAN/2 networks can be deployed at "hot spot" areas such as airports and
hotels, as an easy way of offering remote access and internet services.

2. Home RF Technology
o A typical home needs a network inside the house for access to a public
network telephone and internet, entertainment networks (cable television,
digital audio and video with the IEEE 1394), transfer and sharing of data and
resources (printer, internet connection), and home control and automation.
o The device should be able to self-configure and maintain connectivity with
the network. The devices need to be plug and play enabled so that they are
available to all other clients on the network as soon as they are switched on,
which requires automatic device discovery and identification in the system.
o Home networking technology should also be able to accommodate any and all
lookup services, such as Jini. Home RF products allow you to simultaneously
share a single internet connection with all of your computers - without the
hassle of new wires, cables or jacks.
o Home RF visualizes a home network as shown in the figure:

o A network consists of resource providers, which are gateways to different

resources like phone lines, cable modem, satellite dish, and so on, and the
devices connected to them such as cordless phone, printers and fileservers,
and TV.
 o The goal of Home RF is to integrate all of these into a single network suitable
for all applications and to remove all wires and utilize RF links in the network
suitable for all applications.
o This includes sharing PC, printer, fileserver, phone, internet connection, and
so on, enabling multiplayer gaming using different PCs and consoles inside
the home, and providing complete control on all devices from a single mobile
controller.
o With Home RF, a cordless phone can connect to PSTN but also connect
through a PC for enhanced services. Home RF makes an assumption that
simultaneous support for both voice and data is needed.

Advantages of Home RF
o In Home RF all devices can share the same connection, for voice or data at
the same time.
o Home RF provides the foundation for a broad range of interoperable consumer
devices for wireless digital communication between PCs and consumer
electronic devices anywhere in and around the home.
o The working group includes Compaq computer corp. Ericson enterprise
network, IBM Intel corp., Motorola corp. and other.
o A specification for wireless communication in the home called the shared
wireless access protocol (SWAP) has been developed.

3. IEEE 802.11 Standard

IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards for the wireless area network (WLAN), which was
implemented in 1997 and was used in the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM)
band. IEEE 802.11 was quickly implemented throughout a wide region, but under
its standards the network occasionally receives interference from devices such as
cordless phones and microwave ovens. The aim of IEEE 802.11 is to provide
wireless network connection for fixed, portable, and moving stations within ten to
hundreds of meters with one medium access control (MAC) and several physical
layer specifications. This was later called 802.11a. The major protocols include
IEEE 802.11n; their most significant differences lie in the specification of the PHY
layer.
4. Bluetooth

Bluetooth is one of the major wireless technologies developed to achieve WPAN

(wireless personal area network). It is used to connect devices of different functions
such as telephones, computers (laptop or desktop), notebooks, cameras, printers, and
so on.

Architecture of Bluetooth
o Bluetooth devices can interact with other Bluetooth devices in several ways
in the figure. In the simplest scheme, one of the devices acts as the master and
(up to) seven other slaves.
o A network with a master and one or more slaves associated with it is known
as a piconet. A single channel (and bandwidth) is shared among all devices in
the piconet.

o Each of the active slaves has an assigned 3-bit active member address. many
other slaves can remain synchronized to the master though remaining inactive
slaves, referred to as parked nodes.
o The master regulates channel access for all active nodes and parked nodes. Of
two piconets are close to each other, they have overlapping coverage areas.
o This scenario, in which nodes of two piconets intermingle, is called a
scatternet. Slaves in one piconet can participate in another piconet as either a
master or slave through time division multiplexing.
o In a scatternet, the two (or more) piconets are not synchronized in either time
or frequency. Each of the piconets operates in its own frequency hopping
channel, and any devices in multiple piconets participate at the appropriate
time via time division multiplexing.
o The Bluetooth baseband technology supports two link types. Synchronous
connection oriented (SCO) types, used primarily for voice, and asynchronous
connectionless (ACL) type, essentially for packet data.