Primary Report

KENYA INSTITUTE OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
REPORT ON NEEDS ASSESSMENT FOR PRIMARY LEVEL

SCHOOL CURRICULUM IN KENYA

P.O BOX 30231- 00100
NAIROBI
TEL: 3749900-9
Email info@kicd.ac.ke
www.kicd.ac.ke
2016
FOREWORD
Kenya effected the last curriculum reform in 1985, when there was a shift from the 7-4-2-3
System to the 8-4-4 system. The purpose of this move was to provide a curriculum that would
help learners to gain practical skills and competences to enable them become self-reliant. The
curriculum was reformed from one that geared the learners towards white collar jobs, to a more
practical oriented curriculum that would enable graduates of the system to generate jobs. An
evaluation of the curriculum in 1995 revealed that the curriculum had a heavy workload across
the various subjects in primary and secondary education. Based on the Report on “Total
Integration of Quality Education and training” of 1999, a needs assessment was undertaken. The
national curriculum for primary, secondary education was then reviewed in 2002, followed by
Teacher Education Curriculum in 2004.
Over the years, education in Kenya has been guided by the prevailing national goals identified
through the establishment of various Education Commissions and situational analyses of the
educational needs of the country. Currently, the sector seeks to align education to the
Constitution of Kenya, 2010 and the Kenya Vision 2030 guided by national education policies
and international agreements. These include the Sessional paper No 2 of 2015, National
Education Sector Plan (NESP), Education for All (EFA), the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This needs assessment was carried out in
order to ascertain the fundamental expectations of Kenyans as the basis for designing relevant
and quality curricula for the levels of basic and tertiary education in tandem with the aspirations
of the nation.
Specifically this needs assessment study provides the basis on which the Ministry of Education
Science and Technology and policy-makers will make critical decisions to set the various
learning areas as well as the relevant pathways. This will drive the education sector reforms that
should lead the country to achieving the tenets of the Constitution of Kenya and the Kenya
Vision 2030.
PROF. ERASTUS P. KINYANJUI

CHAIRMAN
KICD COUNCIL
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
On behalf of the Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development, l wish to acknowledge the

generous contributions of many people in making possible this Needs Assessment for
Curriculum reform. Special mention goes to the Ministry of Education Science and Technology
for the direction and support in facilitating access to schools, Development partners who were
instrumental in providing the necessary technical and financial support for this undertaking.
We gratefully acknowledge the teams of experts from universities and other research Institutions
who contributed immensely to shaping the process of the Needs Assessment since its inception
and the many stakeholders who attended the many meetings towards shaping and focusing the
direction of this activity. We also extend our sincere gratitude to the respondents who were
willing to collaborate, give and arrange for access to information needed for this study. Special
mention goes to all those who took their time to write and send Memoranda towards this noble
task.
We further appreciate the officers who participated in data collection exercise from various
institutions including; Ministry of Education, Kenya Institute of Special Education, Kenya
Education Management Institute, Teachers Service Commission, CEMASTEA and
Universities. Special thanks go to the teams who tirelessly worked to analyze the data and write
the report.
DR. JULIUS O. JWAN

DIRECTOR/CEO
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD .......................................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................ iii
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................. x
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................................................................................ xii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................... xiv
CHAPTER ONE: ........................................................................................................................................ 1
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Context of the study ................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Justification for the Reform ...................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Research Objectives ................................................................................................................. 8
1.5 Scope of the study .................................................................................................................... 9
1.6 Rationale for the study based on the Context ............................................................................ 9
1.7 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 9
CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................................. 11
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .............................................................................................. 11
2.1: Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Definition of Key Concepts ............................................................................................................. 11
2.2.0. General overview ................................................................................................................... 11
2.2.1. Curriculum ............................................................................................................................. 11
2.2.2. Leaning areas ......................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.3. Competencies ......................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.4. Values and attitudes............................................................................................................... 14
2.2.5 Pedagogy ............................................................................................................................... 14
2.2.6 Resources............................................................................................................................... 15
2.2.7 Assessment ............................................................................................................................ 15
2.2.8 Contemporary and Emerging issues ........................................................................................ 16
2.2.9 Talents ................................................................................................................................... 16
2.3 Situating the study within the Field of Education and Curriculum Discipline .......................... 17
2.4 Review of Relevant Theories .................................................................................................. 20
2.4.0 General overview ................................................................................................................... 20
2.4.1. Curriculum theory .................................................................................................................. 20
2.4.1.1 Humanists .................................................................................................................................. 20
2.4.1.2 Social meliorism ........................................................................................................................ 20
2.4.1.3 John Dewey's curriculum theory................................................................................................. 21
2.4 1.4 Social efficiency ........................................................................................................................ 21
2.4.1.5 Developmentalism ..................................................................................................................... 21
2.4.2. Curriculum Reform Theories .................................................................................................. 22
2.4.2.1. Instructional – Design Theory ................................................................................................ 22
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2.4.4.2 Importance of Instructional Design Theory in Curriculum .......................................................... 22
2.4.4.3 Visible Learning theory (2012)................................................................................................... 23
2.5 Review of Relevant Policy Documents ................................................................................... 24
2.5.1 Societal needs ........................................................................................................................ 24
2.5.2 Competencies ........................................................................................................................ 27
2.5.3 Values and attitudes............................................................................................................... 28
2.5.4 Learning areas........................................................................................................................ 29
2.5.5. Assessment ............................................................................................................................ 30
2.5.6. Resources .............................................................................................................................. 31
2.5.7. Contemporary and Emerging issues ....................................................................................... 31
2.5.8. Talents ................................................................................................................................... 33
2.6 Review of Curriculum in other Contexts ................................................................................. 33
2.6.1 Societal needs ........................................................................................................................ 34
2.6.2 Competencies ......................................................................................................................... 36
2.6.3. Global views on values and attitudes in education ................................................................. 38
2.6.4. Learning areas ........................................................................................................................ 41
2.6.5. Assessment ............................................................................................................................ 43
2.6.6. Pedagogy ............................................................................................................................... 46
2.6.7 Resources............................................................................................................................... 46
2.7 Review of Relevant Previous Research ................................................................................... 47
2.7.0 General overview ................................................................................................................... 47
2.7.1 Societal needs ........................................................................................................................ 47
2.7.2 Competencies ......................................................................................................................... 49
2.7.3 Learning areas........................................................................................................................ 50
2.7.4. Resources............................................................................................................................... 51
2.7.5 Pedagogy ...................................................................................................................................... 52
2.7.6 Talents ................................................................................................................................... 53
2.7.6.1 Identification methods of learners who are Gifted and talented ................................................... 56
2.7.7 Assessment ............................................................................................................................ 57
2.7.8. Contemporary and Emerging issues ............................................................................................. 58
2.8 Rationale of the Study Based on Literature Review ................................................................ 59
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................... 61
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 61
3.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 61
3.2. Research Paradigm ......................................................................................................................... 61
3.3. Research Approach ......................................................................................................................... 61
3.4. Research Methods........................................................................................................................... 63
3.4.1 Quantitative Survey Method ......................................................................................................... 63
3.4.2. The Qualitative Survey Method.................................................................................................... 64
3.5 Target Population ............................................................................................................................ 65
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3.5.1. Sampling Technique .................................................................................................................... 67
3.5.2. Sampling Procedure for the Quantitative Phase ............................................................................ 68
3.5.3. Sampling for the Qualitative Phase............................................................................................... 69
3.5.4. Pilot Study ............................................................................................................................. 70
3.6. Data generation process .................................................................................................................. 70
3.7. Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 71
3.7.1 Quantitative data analysis.............................................................................................................. 71
3.7.2 Qualitative data analysis ............................................................................................................... 72
3.8. Trustworthiness of the Study ........................................................................................................... 72
3.8.1 Validity of the Study .............................................................................................................. 72
3.8.2 Reliability of the study ........................................................................................................... 73
3.8.3. Trustworthiness of the Qualitative research process. ..................................................................... 74
3.8.3.1. Credibility................................................................................................................................. 74
CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................................. 75
FINDINGS ON PRIMARY LEVEL NEEDS ......................................................................................... 75
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 75
4.2 General Societal Primary Level Needs.................................................................................... 75
4.2.1 Patriotism............................................................................................................................... 76
4.2.2 Environmental Protection .............................................................................................................. 78
4.2.3 Social Development ...................................................................................................................... 78
4.2.4 Technological development......................................................................................................... 79
4.2.5 Economic and Industrial development. .......................................................................................... 80
4.3 Competencies ................................................................................................................................ 82
4.3.1 Communication ............................................................................................................................ 83
4.3.2 Creativity ...................................................................................................................................... 84
4.3.3 Collaboration ................................................................................................................................ 86
4.3.4 Critical Thinking .......................................................................................................................... 87
4.3.5. Practical Skills for self reliance .................................................................................................... 88
4.3.6 Self care and Personal Development Skills. ................................................................................... 89
4.3.7. Skills for Career Development ..................................................................................................... 89
4.3.8 Values .......................................................................................................................................... 90
4.3.9. Attitudes ...................................................................................................................................... 92
4.4 Learning Areas ............................................................................................................................... 95
4.4.1 Extent to which Art and Design should be emphasized in the school curriculum ............................ 95
4.4.2: Extent to which Physical Education should be emphasized in the school curriculum..................... 97
4.4.3 Extent to which subjects categorized under Humanities should be emphasized in the school
curriculum ............................................................................................................................................. 98
4.4.4 Extent to which Environment and Climate Change Aspects should be emphasized in the school
curriculum ............................................................................................................................................. 99
4.4.5: Extent to which 21st Century subjects should be emphasized in the school curriculum ................ 101
4.4.6: Extent to which Home Science should be emphasized in the school curriculum .......................... 102
4.4.7 Languages and Communication .................................................................................................. 103
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4.4.8 Technology and ICT Related Subjects ......................................................................................... 103
4.4.9 Value-Related Subjects ........................................................................................................ 104
4.4.10 Social and Life Skills .............................................................................................................. 105
4.5 Learning approaches ............................................................................................................ 106
st
4.5.1 21 Century teaching strategies ................................................................................................. 106
4.5.2 Practical Methods of teaching .................................................................................................... 107
4.5.3 Learners’ Activity-Based Strategies...................................................................................... 108
4.5.4 Experiential Learning Strategies ........................................................................................... 109
4.5.5: Lecture Approach ...................................................................................................................... 110
4.5.6: Other learning approaches to be used in delivering the primary level curriculum ........................ 110
4.6 Nurturing the Potential and Talents of Learners .................................................................... 112
4.7 Learning Resources ..................................................................................................................... 117
4.7.1 General Teaching and Learning Resources .................................................................................. 117
4.8 Assessment .......................................................................................................................... 119
4.8.1 Formative Assessment .......................................................................................................... 120
4.8.2 Summative Assessment ........................................................................................................ 123
4.9 Contemporary /Emerging Issues ........................................................................................... 126
4.9.1 Drug and substance abuse ........................................................................................................... 128
4.9.2 Child Rights................................................................................................................................ 130
4.9.3 HIV and AIDS ..................................................................................................................... 132
4.9.4 Environmental Conservation ....................................................................................................... 132
4.9.5 Technology ................................................................................................................................. 134
4.9.6 Insecurity .................................................................................................................................... 135
CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................................. 137
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................. 137
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 137
5.2 Summary of Key Findings ............................................................................................................. 137
5.3 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 138
5.3.1 General Societal Needs ............................................................................................................... 138
5.3.2 Competencies ........................................................................................................................... 138
5.3.3 Learning Areas ........................................................................................................................... 139
5.3.4 Nurturing and Developing Talents .............................................................................................. 139
5.3.5 Learning Resources..................................................................................................................... 139
5.3.6 Pedagogy .................................................................................................................................... 140
5.3.7 Assessment ................................................................................................................................. 140
5.3.8 Emerging and cross-cutting Issues. ............................................................................................. 140
5.4 Recommendations ......................................................................................................................... 140
5.4.1 General Societal Needs ............................................................................................................... 140
5.4.2 Competencies ............................................................................................................................. 141
5.4.3 Learning Areas ......................................................................................................................... 141
5.4.4 Talents ........................................................................................................................................ 142
5.4.5 Learning Resources ................................................................................................................... 143
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5.4.6 Pedagogy .................................................................................................................................... 143
5.4.7 Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 144
5.4.8 Emerging Issues ........................................................................................................................ 144
APPENDICES .................................................................................................................................... 145
Appendix 2- Codes for Qualitative Data .............................................................................................. 146
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................... 149
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Character Curriculum ........................................................................................................... 39
Table 3.1: The Target Population Structure ........................................................................................... 65
Table 3.2: Other Targeted Organizations............................................................................................... 67
Table 3.3: Sample Size Determination ................................................................................................... 68
Table 3.4: List of participants in the Qualitative Phase .......................................................................... 69
Table 4.1: Head teachers and Teachers responses on the extent to which various forms of assessment
contribute to effective measurement of learners’ achievements at Primary level ................................ 120
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: KenyaVision2030 ................................................................................................................. 18
Figure 2.2: Developmental Skills for Learning........................................................................................ 38
Figure 3.1: Concurrent Mixed Approach Design .................................................................................... 62
Figure 4.1: Primary Head teachers and teachers responses on the extent to which societal needs should
be emphasized in the primary level curriculum N=842 ........................................................................... 76
Figure 4. 2: Primary Head teachers and teachers Responses on desired competencies classified under
Communication ..................................................................................................................................... 83
Figure 4.3: Primary School Head teachers and teachers Responses on Competencies under Creativity . 84
Figure 4.4: Head teachers and teachers’ responses on competencies classified under collaboration ..... 86
Figure 4. 5: Primary head teachers and teachers’ Responses on desired competencies under Critical
Thinking ................................................................................................................................................ 87
Figure 4.6: Head Teachers, Teachers and Curriculum Support Officers Mean Percentage Responses on
the extent to which Art and Design should be emphasized in the school curriculum .............................. 95
Figure 4.7: Head Teachers and Teachers Mean Percentage Responses on the extent to which
Agriculture, Technology, Vocational and Technical Subjects should be Emphasized in the School
Curriculum ............................................................................................................................................ 96
Figure 4.8: Heads Teachers and Teachers Responses on the extent to which P.E. should be emphasized
in the school curriculum ........................................................................................................................ 97
Figure 4.9: Heads teachers and Teachers Percentage Responses on the extent to which subjects
categorized under Humanities should be emphasized in the school curriculum ..................................... 98
Figure 4.10: Heads teachers and Teachers Mean Percentage Responses on the extent to which
Environment and Climate Change subjects should be emphasized in the school curriculum .................. 99
entrepreneurship subject should be emphasized in the school curriculum .......................................... 100
Figure 4.12: Head teachers, Teachers and Curriculum Support Officers Responses on the extent to which
21st Century subjects should be emphasized in the school curriculum ................................................ 101
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Figure 4.13: Head teachers, Teachers and Curriculum Support Officers Responses on the extent to which
Home Science Subjects should be emphasized in the school curriculum .............................................. 102
Figure 4.14: Head teachers and Teachers Responses on use of Practical Methods of teaching ............ 107
Figure 4.15: Head teachers and Teachers responses on the extent to which Learners’ activity strategies
should be used in delivering the primary school curriculum (N=534) ................................................... 108
Figure 4.16: Head teachers and Teachers responses on the extent to which Experiential learning
strategies should be used N=837 ......................................................................................................... 109
Figure 4.17: Non Availability of Materials............................................................................................ 118
Figure 4.18: Head Teachers, Teachers’ and Curriculum support officers responses on extent to which
various cross-cutting issues should be addressed in the primary school curriculum. ............................ 127
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ABE - Adult Basic Education

AIDs - Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
CBE - Competence Based Education
EAC - East African Community
ECD - Early Childhood Development
ECDE - Early Childhood Development and Education Centers

EARC - Education Assessment Resource Centre
EFA - Education for All
ESD - Education for Sustainable Development
ESQAC - Education Standards Quality Assurance
GOK - Government of Kenya
HIV - Human immunodeficiency virus
IBE - International Bureau of Education
ICT - Information Communications Technology
KCPE - Kenya Certificate of Primary Education
KICD - Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development
KIE - Kenya Institute of Education
KNEC - Kenya National Examination Council
MDGs - Millennium Development Goals
MoEST - Ministry of Education Science and
Technology
NESP - National Education Sector Plan
NFE - Non Formal Education Centers
REAR - Research Academic Reform
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SACMEQ - Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for
Monitoring Educational Quality
SDGs - Sustainable Development Goals
SNE - Special Needs Education
SPSS - Statistical Package for Social Sciences

STI - Science, Technology, and Innovation
TIMSS - Trends in International Mathematics and

Science Survey
TSC - Teachers Service Commission
UPE - Universal Primary Education
TTC’s - Teachers Training Colleges
UNESCO - United Nations Education Scientific Cultural Organization
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Needs Assessment Study was carried out to provide an objective basis for making reforms
for the competency-based primary school curriculum. The objectives that were generated to
guide the study were to: establish the general needs of primary school education, competencies,
talents and content for the primary level of the curriculum. The study also sought to identify
resources and desired pedagogical approaches suitable for competency based curriculum at the
primary level. In addition, assessment modes for competency based curriculum at the primary
level were sought.
The descriptive survey design that relied on quantitative and qualitative data collection
techniques was used. Quantitative methods were applied to examine variables and their
relationships. Qualitative methods were also used to explore perspectives and attitudes among
respondents. Data was collected from learners, teachers and head teachers in primary schools.
Additionally, parents, education officers, members of the informal sector, industrialists and a
range of key informants outside the school setting provided data for the needs assessment. Others
gave their views through a memoranda. Questionnaires, focus group discussions, interview and
observation schedules were the instruments that were used to collect data from the respondents.
Memoranda were also submitted to provide research data.
The research findings revealed that there are inter-relationships between the various dimensions
of the needs in society like security and economic growth. The findings further showed that
curriculum in its current state does not offer enriched content and processes, that are engaging to
create and transform the learner into a person with competencies that are in tandem with the ever
changing national and global contexts. It was also indicated that the curriculum does not have a
framework for identifying and nurturing talents. Inadequate infra-structure, instructional
materials and teaching staff in learning institutions have hindered effective delivery of
curriculum. Though quality teacher education and sufficient resources are key in supporting
suitable pedagogical approaches, teachers are not well grounded in learning approaches that
encourage participation of learners as they acquire desired competencies. Further, teaching
environments and teachers do not offer opportunities for a wide array of assessment that foster
xiv
cognitive and non –cognitive competencies. In regard to emerging issues, the findings pointed
out that their complexity and magnitude of their impact cannot be handled without organized
learning experiences in both formal and non-formal settings.
Improvements need to be made in terms of a curriculum that contextualizes the realities of needs
in society so that the learners can relate what they are taught to their own experiences. It is
recommended that the curriculum conceptualization and implementation should embody a
learning environment that is well equipped and activity oriented to create supportive situations
for the development of competencies for real-life or work related situations. Options for learning
areas should make provisions that are authentic for the individual learners in their society,
without necessarily marginalizing the nation from its development priorities and the
pre-dominant global trends that are shaping education.
The study recommends a more integral view of education that seeks synergies between inputs,
processes and outcomes for the provision of a variety of teaching and learning resources in
different formats, including use of modern technology. An alternative to the present distribution
of the capitation grant according to the number of children enrolled is also suggested. This will
allow for additional support in the form of higher spending per pupil, especially where standards
of education are low. In order to alleviate the pedagogical problems linked to quality and variety
of teaching methods, teacher re-orientation and re-training is recommended.
Given the key roles of both teachers and parents, they should be equipped to utilize appropriate
strategies and infrastructure for identifying and nurturing talents in the reformed curriculum.
Since competencies cannot be effectively assessed by multiple choice or paper-and-pencil tests,
alternative procedures are needed for both summative and formative assessment to support the
new directions of learning. Finally, models for teaching pertinent and emerging issues in schools
should embrace whole school approaches that use practical demonstration to reinforce learning.
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CHAPTER ONE
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction
Global and national education authorities are seeking innovative curriculum solutions to improve
the quality and relevance of student learning. Through the use of different approaches, education
is expected to enable students to apply their learning to the challenges and opportunities they
encounter throughout their lives. While knowledge and education are considered among the
major factors contributing to the reduction of poverty, sustainable development and economic
growth - it is the curriculum that is increasingly viewed as the foundation of educational reforms
that are aimed at achieving high quality learning outcomes. Thus, the curriculum represents a
conscious and systematic selection of knowledge, skills and values which shape the way teaching
and learning processes are organized, by addressing questions related to what students should
learn, why, when and how (UNESCO, 2012).
The curriculum is also understood as a political and social agreement that reflects a society’s
common vision while taking into account local needs, national expectations and global trends. In
the last two decades, curriculum reforms have been driven by rapid technological and social
changes; the need to address the new challenges of contemporary life; the emergence of a
knowledge society that depends on lifelong learning; the growing emphasis on assessment of
performance; and the prominence of issues related to equity, quality and inclusion among other
factors. In this regard, contemporary curriculum reform and development processes increasingly
involve public discussion and consultation with a wide range of stakeholders.
Over the years, education in Kenya has been guided by the prevailing national goals identified
through the establishment of various Education Commissions and situational analyses of the
educational needs of the country. Currently, the sector seeks to align education to the
Constitution of Kenya and the Kenya Vision 2030 guided by national education policies and
international agreements. These include the Sessional paper No 2 of 2015, National Education
Sector Plan (NESP), Education for All (EFA), the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and
Sustainable Development Goals. This needs assessment was carried out in order to ascertain the
1
fundamental expectations of Kenyans as the basis for designing relevant and quality curricula for
the levels of basic and tertiary education in tandem with the aspirations of the nation.
1.2 Context of the study

KICD is the national curriculum development centre established through the KICD Act No. 4 of
2013 of the laws of Kenya. The Institute’s core function is to initiate and conduct research to
inform curriculum policies, review and development. The Institute is charged with the
development, evaluation and approval of curricular and curriculum support materials for all
levels of education except for the university level. The Institute also organizes and conducts
professional development programmes for teachers, teacher trainers, quality assurance and
standards officers and other officers involved in education and training on curriculum
programmes and materials.
Curriculum plays an important role in how learners are taught, and there is a strong body of
evidence that shows that putting a high-quality curriculum in the hands of teachers can have
significant positive impacts on student achievement. International standards set by International
Bureau of Education (IBE) recommend that curricula should be reviewed every five years, thus
recognizing the dynamism of development of society. The Kenyan curricula for primary and
secondary were last reviewed in 2002.
During the World Education Forum of Dakar 2000, in Senegal, 164 governments pledged to
achieve the six goals that had been set for Education for All (EFA) and Millennium Development
Goals (MDGS) by 2015. This resolution propelled provision of access to education in many
countries with high levels of enrolment being registered at both primary and secondary levels
UNESCO- IBE (2015) . The number of youth exiting school into the world of work has increased
yet scientific and technological progress is making most training obsolete, in no time (World
Bank, 2014). Hence, education systems everywhere face serious challenges and dilemmas, in the
task of preparing current and future citizens in a rapidly changing world.
The overarching goal for the post 2015 agenda is to ensure equitable and inclusive quality
education for all by 2030. Both developed and developing countries are currently at varying
2
levels, devising strategies, developing curriculum and education pathways that enable learners to
acquire the multi, flexible and diversified competencies for learning for life. In addition,
sustainable development demands that every human being acquires the 21st Century skills which
include the following:
Table 1.1: 21st Century skills
Learning & Innovation Skills Information, Media & Life & Career Skills
Technology Skills - [Values & EQ]
• Critical Thinking & • Information Literacy • Flexibility &

Problem Solving Adaptability
• Creativity & Innovation • Media Literacy • Initiative & Self-
Direction
• Communication • ICT (Information, • Social & Cross-
Communications & Cultural Skills
• Collaboration technology) literacy • Productivity &
Accountability
• Leadership &
Responsibility
In the last two decades, investment in education in Sub-Saharan Africa has not translated into
functional knowledge and skills that can transform individuals and economies in which they live
(EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2012). There have been consistent wastage rates reflected in
the fact that only 30% of the age cohorts complete junior secondary education while only 12%
complete the full secondary cycle (World Bank, 2007).The African Economic Outlook (2012)
recognizes the pivotal importance of education and appropriate skills as the prevailing solution
to mitigating unemployment and vulnerable employment among the youth. It calls for a review,
and reform of curricular to prepare youth for knowledge intensive economies. This can be
achieved by making provisions for curricula that intricately balances opportunities to pursue
skills acquisition in academics, technical and vocational skills education.
3
The East African Community (EAC) treaty emphasizes cooperation and integrated investments
especially in education and research. It aims at preparing citizens to operate and collaborate
effectively in a globalized economy (EAC, 2013). The member states propose to develop
harmonized programmes for the primary, secondary and tertiary education cycles. The EAC
Partner States anticipate that a common framework will promote equal access to education
opportunities, harmonized quality assurance and accreditation systems, whose benefits will
include free movement of goods and services and people (EAC, 2014).
Kenya effected the last curriculum reform in 1985, when there was a shift from the 7-4-2-3
System to the 8-4-4 system. The purpose of this move was to provide a curriculum that would
help learners to gain practical skills and competences to enable them become self-reliant. The
curriculum was reformed from one that geared the learners towards white collar jobs, to a more
practical oriented curriculum that would enable grandaunts of the system to generate jobs.
Emphasis was laid on practical subjects such as Art and Craft, Woodwork, Home Science,
Agriculture and Music.
An evaluation of the curriculum in 1995 revealed that the curriculum had a heavy workload
across the various subjects in primary and secondary education. Based on the Report on “Total
Integration of Quality Education and training” of 1999, a Needs Assessment was undertaken.
The findings of the study indicated that the subjects at primary level were too many, the content
in each subject for primary was too much, and there was also repetition of content in various
subjects. The national curriculum for primary education was then reviewed in 2002 to remove
the overloads and unnecessary overlaps within and across subjects, and to mainstream emerging
issues.
The revision of the curriculum entailed refocusing the goals of education, the primary level
objectives, the subjects’ general and specific objectives. The rationalization of the primary
curriculum resulted in some new learning areas. Music, Art and Craft were integrated into one
study area called Creative Arts. Home Science, Agriculture and Science were integrated into one
study area called Science- which also includes aspects of technology. Geography, History and
Civics (GHC) – a combined course was renamed Social Studies and included environmental
education, civic education and aspects of Business Studies. The English syllabus adopted a
thematic approach to teach various language skills. The themes were derived from things and
4
situations that learners are likely to interact with. The emerging issues mainstreamed included
HIV and AIDs, child labour, environmental conservation and gender issues, among others (KIE,
2002).
Kenya Vision 2030 is the country’s new development blueprint covering the period 2008 to
2030. It aims to transform Kenya into a newly industrializing, “middle-income country providing
a high quality life to all its citizens by the year 2030”. The Vision places great emphasis on the
link between education and the labour market and the need to create entrepreneurial skills and
competences.
A reform in secondary education and modernization of the primary teacher education

programmes are also anticipated. This expectation has far reaching implications on all the other
levels of education before and after secondary education to ensure smooth transition from one
level to the next. As such, there will be need to address issues related to quality, service
delivery, curriculum, relevance, teacher development and management at all levels as well as
trainers in the areas of technology and entrepreneurial skill development.
The Constitution of Kenya, (2010) advocates for free and compulsory basic education. It also
introduced the National and County governments, which gave rise to changes in the
administrative and organizational structures of various offices and services. This had
implications in education as this information needed to be incorporated in the curriculum to be
tandem with the administration of county and national governments as well as other fundamental
institutions. Effort was made as a mitigating measure, to include some of the information in
Social Studies at primary level and history and government at secondary level. However, the
wider changes across the subjects have not been effected to date.
The task force on “Re-alignment of education and training to the Constitution of Kenya” was
commissioned in 2010 to advice on how education would be reformed to cater for the aspirations
of the Kenya Vision 2030, and be realigned to the Constitution of Kenya; 2010.The task force
report emphasized the need for the following:
5
1. Structuring of the curriculum within competence framework that identifies the
knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to be incorporated at each level e.g.
entrepreneurial skills;
2. Addressing local needs by including the study of local knowledge and culture;
3. Providing pathways to give equal opportunity to all learners to recognize their talent and
achieve their full potential; and
4. Integrating ICT in the curriculum as a key driver of a knowledge-based economy.
Sessional Paper No. 2 of 2015, “Reforming Education and Training in Kenya”, recognizes that in
order to realize the national development goals, relevant and quality education and training is
required to meet the human development needs of a rapidly changing and a more diverse
economy. The policy recommends reforming the education and training sector to provide for the
development of individual potential in a holistic and integrated manner, while producing
individuals who are intellectually, emotionally and physically balanced.
Further, the policy recommends a competency based curriculum; establishment of a national

learning assessment system; early identification and nurturing of talents; introduction of national
values, national cohesion and integration in the curriculum, integration of ICT in the education
system and introduction of learning pathways that ensure every learner graduates from the
education system with competencies that empower them to exploit their full potential (MoEST,
2015). In this regard therefore, the curriculum reform seeks to shift the Kenyan curriculum from
a subject-based curriculum to a competence based curriculum the Needs Assessment study is a
first step in informing the conceptualization of what the curricula for various levels should
comprise in order to meet the needs and aspirations of learners and wider Kenyan community.
1.3 Justification for the Reform

The fast paced growth of the global economy requires competitive youths with relevant work and
life skills that match the growing economies. The recent global economic downturn has further
signaled an urgent need to deal with youth unemployment and inequality effectively (OECD,
2012a). Reforms in education must of necessity be targeted towards providing broader
curriculum areas based on skill–centered approaches, and appropriate knowledge from non-
6
academic sources (World Bank, 2014). It further implies that the future of achievements in
education and training are anchored on curricula that are progressively changing to guarantee
growing opportunities for the youth.
Since the last curriculum review in 2002, there have been numerous developments both on the
national and international level. These include the inauguration of the Constitution of Kenya,
2010, the Kenya Vision 2030, the East African Protocol and most recently the Sustainable
Development Goals. Sessional Paper No. 2 of 2015, “Transforming education and training in
Kenya” puts much emphasis on Science Technology and Innovation.
The curriculum review of 2002 greatly reduced the learning areas in order to reduce on the
amount of content that learners had to cover in different subjects. The most affected were the
practical oriented subjects in primary education, which were merged and rendered not
examinable at national level. This made it convenient for teachers not to teach these subjects at
the expense of learners being denied the opportunity to acquire skills in subjects like Art and
Craft, Music, Physical Education.
A Summative Evaluation of primary education conducted by KICD in 2009 indicated that there
were gaps in the curriculum implementation process. Practical skills necessary for economic
development were relegated as theory was emphasized. This limits the capacities for most of
the learners who would have otherwise exited the primary level with a foundation for further
development of skills and competences. Among the skills gaps identified were; agricultural
skills, entrepreneurial skills, vocational and technical skills, innovation and creativity and ICT
skills. This implies that the current curriculum does not adequately integrate innovative,
vocational and technical skills which are considered to be important for meeting the demand for
skilled labour and the country’s goal of industrialization.
The findings also revealed that the cognitive domain was also given more attention at the
expense of affective and psychomotor domains, rendering teaching and learning to be
examination oriented. It was also indicated that the curriculum did not facilitate adequate
acquisition of pre-requisite values such as nationalism and patriotism.
Primary education is intended to provide learners with foundational skills of literacy, numeracy
and essential life skills, while secondary education is intended to develop transferable skills.
7
Studies on global best practices show that at the primary school level, learners require shorter
periods to acquire foundational skills.
At the secondary school level, learners require more time to nurture talent and acquire requisite
competencies. In essence, such structures reduce wastage and make it possible for a country to
leverage its development on the wide array of relevant skills and competencies inculcated
through a well thought out and inclusive curricula. The Kenyan system has a long period
(8years) for foundational skills and a very short period for secondary school (4 years) which is
not sufficient for acquiring intended skills. This calls for a review of the education system to
introduce a shorter Primary Cycle and a longer Secondary School Cycle.
The shift to a competence-based curriculum will provide the opportunity to set standards against
which student learning can be assessed taking into consideration the individual learner’s
interests, abilities and talents. The reform also seeks to create different pathways to enable
students have an opportunity to pursue different career pathways of their interest. The Needs
Assessment study provides the basis on which the Ministry of Education and policy-makers will
make critical decisions to set the various learning areas as well as the relevant pathways. This
will drive the education sector reforms that should lead the country to achieving the tenets of the
Constitution of Kenya 2010 and the Kenya Vision 2030. All these perspectives have
implications on the primary level of education and necessitate a more comprehensive alteration
of the education sector. This makes the need for an education reform urgent.
1.4 Research Objectives

The specific objectives of the study were to:
1. Establish desired general primary needs for curriculum reform
2. Determine desired competencies for the primary level of learning
3. Determine the talent identification and nurturing strategies to be adopted at the primary
level of the curriculum
4. Establish desired content/learning areas/pathways for competency based curriculum to
provide quality, relevant and accessible education
5. Identify resources suitable for competency based curriculum at the primary level
6. Determine desired pedagogical approaches for competency based curriculum at the
primary level
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7. Establish formative and summative assessment modes for competency based curriculum
at the primary level
8. Identify contemporary issues in society that need to be addressed by the curriculum
1.5 Scope of the study

The Needs Assessment survey was carried out for the levels of education for which KICD is
mandated to develop curriculum. This volume reports findings for the primary education level.
1.6 Rationale for the study based on the Context

The hallmark of relevance of any curriculum to society is the promptness with which the
curriculum adapts to changing societal needs. However, owing to the long time span since the
last review in 2002, the curriculum is not in tandem with the current needs and aspirations of
the nation as articulated in various policy documents. The Ministry of Education acknowledges
the need to reform the secondary school curriculum with the emphasis shifting from knowledge
reproduction to knowledge production and, to make ICT central to it. The proposed curriculum
reform has to be in tandem with the Constitution of Kenya 2010, Kenya Vision 2030 and the
East Africa Community Protocol.
The mandate to reform the curriculum lies with the KICD. This will include; reviewing of
learning materials and orientating the serving teachers and other field education officers such as
the quality assurance officers, curriculum support officers and Education Assessment Resource
Centre (EARC) officers. The Institute needed to undertake this Needs Assessment study in order
to ascertain the actual needs of the various stakeholders in primary education, and to inform
policy decision-making on the various aspects of the reform.
1.7 Summary
The demand for quality education is leading countries to adapt new curriculum content,
pedagogical skills and educational structures that emphasize the importance of producing
learners who can take initiative, and contribute to innovation in products and processes.
Education should be seen as a basis for development or a means for improving life and this can
be in technology, preventing disease, improving governance, agriculture and protecting the
environment among others. It should enable people to understand local, regional and global
contexts and shape their mindsets and actions in their daily life. Kenya’s transformation into a
9
newly industrialized country is hinged on the provision of a highly qualified human resource.
The country, therefore, needs an education system that will foster innovation and facilitate the
much needed social, economic and environmental development for sustainability.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1: Introduction
This chapter presents reviews of discussions of literature on curriculum issues that relate to the
core aspects of the study. First, a brief on relevant theories in curriculum has been presented,
followed by a situational review of the study within the field of education and discipline of
curriculum studies.
The core aspects of the study have been divided into themes or objectives that have guided the
Needs Assessment survey. These include the general societal needs, competencies, values and
attitudes, learning areas, nurturing of talents, resources, assessment and contemporary and
emerging issues. Among the articles reviewed include journals, policy documents, books, grey
areas such as circulars and other empirical studies.
2.2 Definition of Key Concepts

2.2.0. General overview
This section describes different understanding by scholars and other authors on meaning of key
concepts that have been used in this study. This has been done to give meaning to the concepts
used repeatedly in the study. They are not in any order of priority but they represent the themes
in the study.
2.2.1. Curriculum
Curriculum is described as a social construct, (Brady and Kennedy, 1999) that is grounded in the
culture of the people. It is also considered extremely important that the content of a curriculum
should support holistic student development and should transmit the local culture (UNESCO,
2000; Brady and Kennedy, 1999). It should also fulfill societal needs (Bugotu et al., 1973).
A curriculum must be broadened beyond traditional knowledge-based education to facilitate the

development of students’ ability to think and act creatively and morally (UNESCO, 2000;
11
Downs Perry, 1994) and to successfully practice competencies (such as problem-solving,
decision-making and negotiating) considered necessary for life in the 21 st century (Dimmock &
Walker, 1998; Tien, Ven and Chou, 2003). Furthermore, for a curriculum to do its work
successfully, it must be accessible to all students (Brown, 2003) and should support economic
and social development. In a broader sense, curriculum can be viewed as a roadmap for
achieving socially agreed development and education goals that embeds society’s vision,
knowledge, skills and values needed to live in and change the society.
As a field of study and discipline, curriculum has been expounded by Otunga, Odero and Barasa
(Eds, 2011) as a dynamic field that continually develops through a process, in a given design and
within a given social and physical context.
All curriculum decisions are defined in a framework that establishes the subjects, the time frame
and particular content, teaching learning strategies to be adopted and assessment criteria to be
used. Countries around the world organize education along curriculum framework. This defines
the perimeters within which the curriculum must be developed. It has many components; among
them are the underpinning principles and core values, general objectives, expected learning
achievements, guidelines on teaching and learning process and assessment (UNESCO, 2013).
Further the paper opines that it is the framework that provides coherence to the guidelines and
national standards that enable and support the development of the school curriculum. This is
affirmed by the intentions of KICD to develop a curriculum framework after the engagement
with the stakeholders during needs assessment.
The curriculum is designed for different levels of education systems. The process of curriculum
development in Kenya though centralized involves many stake holders and responds to a wide
range of society requirements. The curriculum seeks to encompass the dynamics of the
development of knowledge and various disciplines prevailing in the society. Taking these
dynamics into account is a sure way of preparing learners adequately both for their personal
performances and in the labor market as well as for their citizenship (IBE No. 15, 2015).
12
2.2.2. Learning areas
The school curriculum defines learning areas as content to be taught and learned, by whom,
when and where (UNESCO, 2015). The organization and sequencing of curriculum facilitates
learning. Within the learning areas, content, teaching and learning experiences, assessment and
resources are determined by the goals of education from which general and level objectives are
derived.
2.2.3. Competencies
Competency is a set of defined behaviors that provide a structured guide enabling the
identification, evaluation and development of the behaviors in an individual. Some scholars
consider ‘Competence’ to mean a combination of theoretical and practical knowledge, cognitive
skills, values and behavior used to improve performance; or a description of skills, knowledge,
attitudes and behaviors required for effective performance of a real-world task or activity
(Weddel, 2006). Others define it as the ability to choose and use cohesive or integrated
combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes with the aim to realize a task in a certain context
(Kouwenhoven, 2003).
Further, competencies are outcomes that learners should have acquired by the end of their
general education in order to succeed in academics, in self development, in acquiring
employment and success in jobs, and inclusion in a knowledge society. Job competencies are not
the same as job task. Competencies include all the related knowledge, skills, abilities, and
attributes that form a person’s job. This set of context-specific qualities is correlated with
superior job performance and can be used as a standard against which to measure job
performance as well as to develop, recruit, and hire employees.
In essence therefore, Competency-based curriculum is a system of curriculum derived from an

analysis of a potential or actual role in modern society and that tries to certify student progress
on the basis of validated or demonstrated performance in some or all aspects of that role
(Edwards et.al, 2009). In other words, competencies encourage a mastery of the relevant content
knowledge and of the associated skills; both cognitive and practical and includes also
internalization by the learner of the associated values (UNESCO, 2015). Competency is related
to capacity, that is, a person’s ability to evaluate information received and make choices based
13
on the same. It is a word used to denote a person’s ability to acquire, retain and evaluate
information (Drew, Hardman &Hosp, 2008).
2.2.4. Values and attitudes

The Needs Assessment survey not only defined competencies as abilities but also as values and
attitudes to be acquired by the time learners leave an education cycle. Values are the principles
and fundamental convictions which act as general guides to behavior, the standards by which
particular actions are judged as good or desirable (Halstead, 2000). Other views indicate that
values are the ideals that give significance to our lives, reflected through the priorities that we
choose and that we act on consistently and repeatedly (Brian, 2004). With the emphasis on
technology, innovation and science as a means of attaining the Vision 2030 goals there is a
tendency to pay less attention to moral and ethical issues which need to be given equal measure
of attention in development.
Value education include explicit and implicit school-based activity which promotes student
understanding and knowledge of values, and which develops the skills and dispositions of
students so they can enact particular values as individuals and as members of the wider
community. The things, ideas beliefs and principles that are of worth to a person shape his or her
values. People’s values help to define who they are and help determine the choices they make.
Living values provide principles and tools for development of the whole person recognizing that
the individual is comprised of the physical, intellectual, social emotional and spiritual dimension.
Education is best enhanced by positive values and attitudes. Therefore it is important for the
education system and the curriculum in particular to foster values and the teachers to understand
and apply values even as they emphasize on a competency based education.
2.2.5 Pedagogy
Instructional strategies and techniques of carrying out instruction in the delivery of curriculum
content are referred to as strategies. Pedagogy deals with the practice of teaching and learning.
This is where the teachers bring in the ‘how’ of teaching using instructional designs to convey
content to learners in order to achieve learning outcomes stated in the objectives.
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For effective curriculum implementation, the teachers must have the capacity to interpret the
curriculum through instructional strategies and techniques. These determine how much is learned
by the learners. Often, teachers rely on the traditional approaches of teacher centered learning in
their effort to cover the syllabi. However with the introduction of the 21 st Century skills and the
competence based curriculum, the instructional methods must change to more learner centered
approaches. Osakwe (2009, in APHRC, 2010) explains the learners centered approaches where
the teacher seeks to bring about the change in behavior of learners by imparting knowledge and
skills in an interactive way. This is where the learner constructs meaning from the experiences
received in their own perception.
2.2.6 Resources
These refer to any inputs that are use in the learning environment to effectively achieve the
desired outcomes. These could be human, infrastructure, realia or financial resources. They are
also referred to as teaching and learning curriculum support materials. Resources in education
include both book and non book materials and any other learning environment that provides any
other learning environment that provides a learning experience to a learner (KIE, 2010).
Resources in education play a very important role in facilitating learning (McAliney, 2009). For
effective curriculum implementation, quality physical and human resources are required. Indeed,
it is difficult to envisage learning without resources. Education resources include both book and
non-book materials, and any other learning environment that provides a learning experience to a
learner. Educational resources are critically important for ensuring wide access to quality
education (UNESCO, 2002) and are therefore selected and used to stimulate interest and
motivate learning.
2.2.7 Assessment
This refers to measuring learning outcomes. In the education context, it is the process of
ascertaining whether students have attained curricula goals. Otunga, et. al (2011: 121) refer to
assessment as evaluation, and go on to define it as ‘all systematic actions that focus on
determining whether the curriculum…is performing as designed…and establishing effects of the
curriculum on its users’.
15
Assessing learning outcomes is of great concern among stakeholders in Kenya. The main
concern being the lack of a holistic approach to learning since focus is greatly on performance in
a few learning areas. It fails to capture the whole learning that has taken place. Saltery (1989)
defines education assessment as a term which includes all the processes and products that
describe the nature and extent of children learning, its degree of correspondence with aims and
objectives of teaching and its relationship with the environments which are designed to facilitate
learning. Assessment is an important component in the teaching and learning process, since it’s
the basis of evaluating of the effectiveness of the implementation process of a curriculum.
Teachers and learners use various modes of assessment to determine performance as well as
identify gaps. The results and feedback from assessment enables teachers, learners, institutions
and governments to make decisions on curriculum.
2.2.8 Contemporary and Emerging issues

The cross-curricular issues are commonly areas which by their very nature have a strong impact
psychosocial behavior of learners. These are issues that touch on a number of different aspects of
the society and affect learners at all levels. These issues otherwise known as pertinent and
emerging issues, encompasses core-social and human values which manifest themselves in more
than one discipline: hence the term cross cutting. Issues that are considered pertinent and hence
mainstreamed as study areas in the curriculum include Life Skills Education (LSE), HIV and
AIDs Education, Gender Education, Drugs and substance Abuse (DSA) prevention, Child’s
Right Education, Child labour prevention, Integrity & Good Governance, Guidance and
Counseling Service, Environmental Education and Health Education. Other issues that have been
perceived to be pertinent in the recent past are; Peace Education, Values/Moral Education,
Disaster Risk Reduction, Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and National Values as
enshrined in the Constitution, to mention but a few.
2.2.9 Talents
There is no one universal definition of talented learners. In the United States of America, The No
Child Left Behind Act (Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 2002) define Gifted and
Talented as children, or youth who give evidence of high achievement capability in areas such as
intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who need
16
services and activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those
capabilities. In Australia Gifted and talented learners at School are defined as those who
demonstrate the potential for a high level of performance in different ability areas, when
compared to others of similar age, background and experience such as intellectual; Creative;
Artistic; Social; Physical; Spiritual (Department for Education and Children's Services, 1994).
In Korea, a gifted person is defined as one who possesses extraordinary innate abilities or visible
talents requiring special education to nurture them. The purpose of gifted education is to promote
self-actualization of individuals and have them contribute to development of society and nation
by scouting for gifted and talented persons and carrying out education suitable for ability and
aptitude in accordance with regulations so they can develop innate potential.
In Kenya, Koech (1999), Kochung’, (2003) and Kang’ethe, (2004) defined gifted and talented
children as those who at any educational level are identified as possessing demonstrated or
potential abilities that give evidence of high performance capabilities in areas such as general
intellectual ability, specific academic aptitude, creative and productive thinking, leadership
ability, visual and performing arts and psychomotor abilities. According to Kinyua (2014) gifted
and talented children as those with outstanding talents, who perform or show the potential of
performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared with others of their
age, experience or environment.
The Kenya government acknowledges the need for primary school curriculum to address
individual talents of learners. The curriculum tends to cater for talent in traditional academic
subjects, by recognizing academic achievement and excluding learners who are talented in sports
and performing arts. The curriculum to be developed should be an inclusive curriculum to cater
for the talented learners.
2.3 Situating the study within the Field of Education and Curriculum Discipline
The aspect of curriculum development can be traced to the national aspirations as envisaged in
the Kenya Vision 2030. The goal of curriculum reforms is to achieve the vision of ‘Nurturing
Every Learners Potential’. This seeks to elicit competencies and values, learning areas,
17
pedagogy, resources, assessment and development of talents as will be guided by the Curriculum
Framework for Basic Education.
For every level of education, contemporary and emerging issues as well as special needs
education permeate through as they essentially affect all learners irrespective of level of learning.
At every level therefore curriculum is developed where learning areas indeed takes cognizance
of the contemporary issues as well as learners with special needs.
Curriculum development is nested under the larger umbrella of the MOE with the other arms of
the Ministry, such as the TSC, education Directorates, ESQAC and KNEC. All these work
together to fulfill aspirations of the Social Pillar of the Vision 2030 alongside other sectors.
Situating the vision of the curriculum reforms to the Kenya Vision 2030 can be espoused
illustrated as Follows
Figure 2.1: KenyaVision2030
18
KENYA VISION 2030
Economic Pillar Social pillar Political pillar

Sports culture and arts
Gender youth and vulnerable GPS
Population urbanization and
Sectors housingwater and Sanitation
Environment
Health
Education and Training
MOEST
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT TSC ESQAC KNEC DIRECTORAT

E
ECD Curriculum: learning areas
Primary: Subject Contemporary and emerging
Secondary: subject issues
Tertiary: Training modules Special Needs Education
Mentally handicap
Hearing impairment
Cerebral palsy
Physically handicap
Deaf blind
Gifted and talented
Nurturing every learners potential

-Competences -Learning area -Pedagogy -Resources -Assessment
19
2.4 Review of Relevant Theories
2.4.0 General overview

Curriculum theory is an academic discipline devoted to examining and shaping educational
curricula. Within the broad field of curriculum studies, it includes both the historical analysis of
curriculum and ways of viewing current educational curriculum and policy decisions. There are
many different views of curriculum theory (Kliebard, 2004). Kliebard discusses four curriculum
groups that he refers to as humanist (or mental disciplinarians), social efficiency, develop
mentalist (or child study), and social meliorists.
2.4.1. Curriculum theory

2.4.1.1 Humanists
A common criticism of broad field curriculum is that it lays more emphasis on mental discipline
and education. "Mental disciplinarians" and Humanists believe in all students' abilities to
develop mental reasoning and that education was not intended for social reform in itself but for
the systematic development of reasoning power. Good reasoning power would lead to the
betterment of society. Harris described the subjects to be taught as the “five windows” into the
soul of the student: “grammar, literature and art, mathematics, geography, and history” and
prescribed it in that order to be taught (Kliebard, 2004, p. 15). Some critics view this group as
having too much emphasis on the "classics" as determined by the dominant groups in a society.
2.4.1.2 Social meliorism

This school of thought believes that education is a tool to reform society and create change of the
better. The socialization goal was based on the power of the individual's intelligence, and the
ability to improve on intelligence through education. An individual’s future was not
predetermined by gender, race, socio-economic status, heredity or any other factors. “The
corruption and vice in the cities, the inequalities of race and gender, and the abuse of privilege
and power could all be addressed by a curriculum that focused directly on those very issues,
thereby raising a new generation equipped to deal effectively with those abuses” (Kliebard,2004,
p.24). Some critics contend that this group has goals that are difficult to measure and a product
that has slow results.
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2.4.1.3 John Dewey's curriculum theory
Dewey felt that the curriculum should ultimately produce students who would be able to deal
effectively with the modern world. Therefore, curriculum should not be presented as finished
abstractions, but should include the child’s preconceptions and should incorporate how the child
views his or her own world. Dewey uses four instincts, or impulses, to describe how to
characterize children’s behavior. The four instincts according to Dewey are social, constructive,
expressive, and artistic. Curriculum should build an orderly sense of the world where the child
lives. Dewey hoped to use occupations to connect miniature versions of fundamental activities of
life classroom activities. The way Dewey hoped to accomplish this goal was to combine subject
areas and materials. By doing this, Dewey made connections between subjects and the child’s
life. Dewey is credited for the development of the progressive schools some of which are still in
existence today.
2.4 1.4 Social efficiency

Theorists such as Ross, Bobbitt, Gilbreth, Taylor, and Thorndike are Social efficiency
proponents who sought to design a curriculum that would optimize the “social utility” of each
individual in a society. By using education as an efficiency tool, these theorists believed that
society could be controlled. Students would be scientifically evaluated and educated towards
their predicted role in society. This involved the introduction of vocational and junior high
schools to address the curriculum designed around specific life activities that correlate with each
student’s societal future. The socially efficient curriculum would consist of minute parts or tasks
that together formed a bigger concept. This educational view was somewhat derived with the
efficiency of factories which could simultaneously produce able factory workers. Critics believe
this model has too much emphasis on testing and separating students based on the results of that
testing.
2.4.1.5 Developmentalism
Developmentalists focus attention to the development of children's emotional and behavioral
qualities. One part of this view is using the characteristics of children and youth as the source of
the curriculum. Some critics claim this model is at the expense of other relevant factors.
21
2.4.2. Curriculum Reform Theories
Since curriculum reform engages with redesigning the learning context, one of the curriculum
reform theories is Instructional Design theory.
2.4.2.1. Instructional – Design Theory

This theory offers explicit guidance towards a new curriculum that explains how to help students
learn and develop in the wake of emerging globalization. Learning is associated with cognitive,
emotional, social, physical and spiritual development (Reigeluth, 1996). “Theory One”
developed by Perkins, in Smart Schools (Perkins, 1992) describes the instructional design theory
which offers guidance for fostering cognitive learning as follows: Clear information, in terms of
goals, knowledge needed and performance expected; Thoughtful practice, in terms of
opportunities for learners to engage in learning actively and reflectively; Informative feedback,
in terms of clear and thorough counsel to learners, and; Strong intrinsic or extrinsic motivation.
Instructional design theory is design-oriented because it focuses on the means to attain given
goals for learning or development. It offers guidelines about the methods to use in different
situations in curriculum implementation. Values play an important role in the instructional
design theory. They underlie both the goals the curriculum pursues and the methods it offers to
attain the goals. This will articulated in this BECF which takes cognizance of the place of values
as an anchor for the pillars of curriculum.
2.4.4.2 Importance of Instructional Design Theory in Curriculum

As Pogrow (1996) states, the history of educational reform is one of consistent failure of major
reforms to survive and become institutionalized. Pogrow further asserts that the single biggest
tool in promoting curriculum reform has been advocacy. To help educators to improve
education, it is imperative that there be public or stakeholder participation. This should also be
done in other areas of education policy, as well as systemic change in the educational system
(Bathany, 1991; Reigeluth & Cartinkle, 1994). Systemic change emphasizes the need to give
organizations considerable autonomy to manage themselves with the purview of corporate
vision, rather than being directed from above (Ducker, 1989; Hammer & Champy, 1993). This
allows corporations to respond much more quickly and appropriately to their customers and
22
clients’ needs. The Institute aspires to engage stakeholders as well as parent participation it its
advocacy for a competence based curriculum.
Globally, fundamental changes in the education systems have important implications for
curriculum reform. Learners need to be able to think about and solve problems, work in teams,
communicate through discussions, take initiatives and bring diverse perspectives to their
learning. In addition, pupils need to learn more, yet they have little time available to learn it (Lee
& Zemke, 1995). Learners also need to demonstrate an impact of the achievement of national
goals of education. This is best explained by the theory expounded by John Hattie-
2.4.4.3 Visible Learning theory (2012).

Visible Learning means an enhanced role for teachers as they become evaluators of their own
teaching. According to John Hattie Visible Learning and Teaching occurs when teachers see
learning through the eyes of students and help them become their own teachers. It refers to
making student learning visible to teachers so that they can know whether they are having an
impact on this learning that is an important component of becoming lifelong learners –
something basic education wants students to value. The ‘learning’ part of visible learning is the
need to think of teaching with learning in the forefront and with the idea that we should consider
teaching primarily in terms of its impact on student learning.
When the teaching is visible the student knows what to do and how to do it. When the learning is
visible the teacher knows if learning is occurring or not. Teaching and learning are visible when
the learning goal is not only challenging but is explicit. Furthermore, both the teacher and the
student work together to attain the goal, provide feedback, and ascertain whether the student has
attained the goal. Evidence shows that the greatest effects on student learning come when not
only the students become their own teachers (through self-monitoring, and self-assessment), but
the teachers become learners of their own teaching. In successful classrooms, both the teaching
and learning are visible. This way of learning is essential for criterion referenced assessment
which seeks to make assessment part of learning, and is an essential component of the
competence based curriculum.
23
2.5 Review of Relevant Policy Documents
Education is the key to well-being and prosperity as it is impossible to attain high levels of
economic development and high standard of living without a highly educated workforce. This is
why education is well structured and guided by various national and international policy
guidelines. Policy documents reviewed include the Kenya Vision 2030, the Kenya Constitution,
2010, Sessional paper No. 2 of 2015, the Basic Education Act (2013), National Education Sector
Plan (2015), KICD policy documents, EFA goals as well as the Sustainable Development Goals,
among others.
Review of policy documents is necessitated by the fact that it is a national priority to align the
curriculum to address the aspirations of these policies as well as the EAC protocol. The
government is fully committed to achieving its national and international policies in education.
2.5.1 Societal needs

Every society has certain needs that must be fulfilled in order to succeed. Society influences
curriculum development because curriculum needs to be relevant to the needs of the society.
Consequently, as the needs of the society change, curriculum also needs to change in order to
reflect those changes and make it relevant (Treadaway, 2003).
The societal needs are clearly spelt out in the National Goals of Education. These goals of
education are embedded in the Vision 2030 ( Republic of Kenya, 2012) and include: Promote
national unity and patriotism; Enhance social, economic, technological & industrial needs for
national development; Promote individual development and self-fulfillment; Inculcate sound
moral and religious values; Promote social equality and responsibility; Respect for Kenya’s rich
& varied cultures; Implant international consciousness & positive attitudes towards other nations
and; Embrace positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection (KIE, 2008).
During the National Conference on Education (2003), it was noted that there was need for the
government to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE) goal by 2015, with the overall goal
of attaining EFA by 2015. The attainment of UPE would ensure that all Kenyan children
24
eligible for primary schooling had opportunity to enroll and remain in school to learn and acquire
quality education. However, various challenges with respect to access, equity, quality and
relevance, continued to constrain the provision of quality education and services. One of the
recommendations made was that the MOE, through KIE, should rationalize the curriculum for
primary education to incorporate health and nutrition learning and to place increased emphasis
on Physical Education and sports.
Over time, Policy documents have articulated the direction the country needs to take in order to
propel it development agenda. According to the recommendations made in the Sessional paper
No. 1 of 2005 on Policy Framework for Education, Training and Research, a breakthrough
towards industrialization can only be achieved through application of technology. It was
necessary to give prominence to technical education in all sub-sectors. The introduction of many
practical and vocational subjects was meant to prepare students for the world of work
The Kenya Vision 2030 places great emphasis on the link between education and the labour
market, the need to create entrepreneurial skills and competences, and the need to strengthen
partnerships with the private sector. The curriculum is supposed to develop these skills and
competencies. However, The Task Force on the Re-Alignment of the Education Sector to the
Constitution (2012) noted that the quality of education is not clearly spelt out so that the
curriculum delivery can focus on development of specific expected competences to be assessed.
The task force recommended structuring of the curriculum within a skills and competences
framework that identifies the knowledge, skills and competences all learners will acquire, and
which will provide both vertical and horizontal coherence.
The NESP (2015) makes it very clear that the curriculum is expected to empower the citizens
with necessary knowledge and competencies to realize the national developmental goals. Further
societal aspirations can only be realized through the implementation of a well designed dynamic
and responsive or relevant curriculum (Republic of Kenya, 2015). Curriculum is developed
based on the identified societal needs and the dynamism of the industry and the job market.
Consequently the curriculum reform has been preceded by needs assessment because the
stakeholders ideally should participate in this process.
25
Education should prepare workers for the 21st century by teaching skills necessary for industry
and commerce. Kenya Vision 2030 aims at making Kenya a newly industrialized, middle income
country providing high quality life for all its citizens by the year 2030. The Vision is based on
three pillars namely; the economic pillar, the social pillar and the political pillar. Kenya Vision
2030 places great emphasis on the link between education and the labour market, the need to
create entrepreneurial skills and competences, and strong public and private sector partnerships.
It articulates the development of a middle-income country in which all citizens will: have
embraced entrepreneurship, be able to engage in lifelong learning, perform more non-routine
tasks, be capable of more complex problem-solving, be able to take more decisions, understand
more about what they are working on, require less supervision, assume more responsibility, and
as vital tools towards these ends, have better reading, quantitative reasoning and expository
skills.
These expectations have considerable importance for the kind of education and training system
required to deliver the requisite skills, competencies and attitudes. As such there will be need to
address issues related to quality, service delivery, curriculum, relevance, teacher development
and management at all levels as well as trainers in the areas of technology and entrepreneurial
skill development.
The Task Force on re-alignment of the Education Sector (2012) was mandated to review and
align the education, training and research sector in accordance with the Constitution. Among the
issues raised in relation to the societal issues in the curriculum were that; there was too much
focus on academics and university education, thus looking down upon any other post-secondary
education. This had impacted negatively on middle level training which in essence produced the
bulk of the human resource required to drive the country towards Vision 2030. The implication
was that the primary, secondary and teacher education curricula did not address the dictates of
Vision 2030, the Constitution and regional integration.
The content of the curriculum has increasingly been considered dated with regard to the skills
and values needed to operate in the current world full of both uncertainties and opportunities.
Furthermore, a relevant curriculum is required to instill positive values, mould character, moral
26
and spiritual formation of the learners. Aligning the curriculum to address the aspirations of
Kenya Vision 2030, the Constitution 2010 and the EAC treaty is a priority of the National
government (Republic of Kenya, 2012). The content for Basic Education would therefore need to
be designed with the view of equipping the learners with relevant knowledge that emphasizes on
technology, innovation and entrepreneurship (GOK, 2007). In addition, the learners would have
an opportunity to develop their full capacities in order to live and work with dignity, enhance the
quality of their lives, make informed decisions and continue with learning as a lifelong
engagement.
2.5.2 Competencies
Over the years, the Kenyan curriculum has been objective based with limited flexibility in terms
of content packaging and autonomy for the teacher and learners. Apart from Kenya, the other
EAC member countries have adopted competence based curriculum and assessment. The Basic
Education Act (2013) stipulates policy and guidelines on curricula and points out that among
other activities undertaken by KICD on curricula developed, is to secure the competencies and
learning outcomes for the relevant structures and levels under the National Qualifications
Framework.
Additionally, the Sessional paper No.2 of 2015 has clarified the strategy on the policy on
curriculum and assessment by stating that KICD is expected to develop a repertoire of skills and
competencies necessary to inform a globally competitive economy. The curriculum policy
(2015) points need to have the curriculum spelling out expected competencies at every level.
Further, the curriculum should be designed to equip learners with relevant knowledge, skills,
competencies and values to enable them develop their full potential. This echoes what is also
contained in NESP of 2015 which affirms that curriculum developed will be competence based.
This will ensure that at each level, desired outcomes are achieved and learners can progress with
diverse interests and abilities.
Although these competencies should be addressed in the curriculum, they have implications on
the policy makers and the implementers. The school managers need necessary skills and
27
competences to monitor standards and quality of curriculum delivery as well as quality of
teaching in their schools. Further teacher trainers at all levels of teacher training education need
the necessary skills and competences to impart on their teacher trainees. Additionally, Quality
Assurance and Standards Officers should have the required skills and competences to add value
to the standards and quality of education in the learning institutions.
The Task force (2012) recommended core curriculum competencies to be used. These are
presented in levels from preprimary to senior secondary, and starts with very basic competencies.
As learners move from lower primary to upper primary, the foundational competencies get
enhanced and firmed up in secondary level. The Task Force recommended some core
competencies that should be acquired by learners and include: Communication skills,
manipulation skills, social skills, environmental awareness, numeracy, writing, enquiry skills,
ICT, talent potentials, observation skills, entrepreneurial skills, ethical skills, investigative skills
among others.
2.5.3 Values and attitudes

Article 10 of the Constitution of Kenya 2010 (GoK, 2010) contains the national values and
principles of governance to be upheld by all Kenyans. Education provides the best medium of
inculcating these values. The values include patriotism, national unity, sharing and devolution of
power, the rule of law, democracy and participation of the people; human dignity, equity, social
justice, inclusiveness, equality, human rights, nondiscrimination and protection of the
marginalized; good governance, integrity, transparency and accountability; and sustainable
development.
In Article 11 of the Constitution of Kenya 2010, culture is recognized as the foundation of the
nation and as the cumulative civilization of the Kenyan people and nation. Education and
training therefore is expected to: Promote all forms of national and cultural expressions through
literature, the arts, traditional celebrations, science, communication, information, mass media,
publications, libraries and other cultural heritage; Recognize the role of science and indigenous
technologies in the development of the nation; and promote the intellectual property rights of the
28
people of Kenya. The aspirations of the Constitution of Kenya 2010 therefore should be
embedded in the curriculum and taught to all learners across the levels.
In addition, the Kenya Vision 2030 states that the journey towards widespread prosperity
involves building a just and cohesive society that enjoys equitable development in a clean and
secure environment. Some of the related major issues that need to be addressed within education
have to do with living together in a cohesive society, having healthy individuals and education
that supports personal growth and development.
2.5.4 Learning areas

Currently, the primary school level has 12 subjects. Technical subjects are only offered in limited
number of secondary schools; hence pupils in primary schools are not exposed to technical
subjects. The Sessional paper no. 2 of 2015 expounds on the need to teach foreign languages in
our system of education for global competitiveness. This may imply secondary education to
cover more foreign languages and give opportunities to primary schools to teach foreign
languages. Aspects of education for sustainable development were also some of the key
recommendations made in this policy. Among other things that the curriculum should develop
are the 21st Century skills, and learners who maintain, improve and sustain the environment.
When the Constitution of Kenya 2010 was promulgated, the onus was on KICD to ensure that
the curriculum was in line with the spirit of the Constitution even before the curriculum reforms.
This necessitated amendment of some parts of the curriculum where deliberate effort was made
to respond to the needs of the Constitution, while making the subjects relevant and meaningful.
The reforms therefore will further address appropriate areas in the Constitution. Other areas to be
developed should enable learners to acquire relevant skills, knowledge and attitudes.
Although current curriculum boasts of a wide spectrum of subjects, it has often been seen to lack
flexibility, not cater for regional disparities and lacking in pathways to direct learners at the
secondary levels. According to the Curriculum Policy (2015), the curriculum has no emphasis on
accelerated or flexible modes of learning; neither does it permit entry and re-entry at different
levels. The learners are not able to make informed choices as they decide on career paths and
29
areas of interest. The Sessional paper No. 2 of 2015 clearly states that the curriculum will
provide knowledge skills and values, and competencies to enable learners to move seamlessly
from the education system to either further education or to technical/vocational areas. The
curriculum is also expected to apportion a certain percentage of the content to meet regional
needs (Republic of Kenya, 2015).
Kenya Vision 2030 lays importance on certain learning areas. Agriculture is seen as a major
contributor to the country’s GDP. It further echoes the importance of mainstreaming Science,
Technology and Innovation in the school curriculum (Gok, 2007).
2.5.5. Assessment
For the learning process to be complete, assessment must take place, whether it is school based
or at the end of cycle. Those that are school based are diagnostic and for placement, while the
national end of cycle examinations are used for transition to the next level. Assessment can either
be formative or summative. The summative assessment is usually carried out by KNEC through
national examinations, while other National assessments check the attainment levels of certain
competencies.
Summative assessments are based on utilization of a single metric to assess basic knowledge and
skills levels acquired by students. Used this way, it is an instrument of accountability. This
mode of assessment is preferred since teachers are able to check in a linear manner the level of
assimilation of information, facts and concepts passed to learners. On the other hand, formative
approach supports the learning process. The teacher is able to understand how students are
leaning, to identify problems the students may face in the learning process and to use feedback to
ensure that all have the opportunity to learn (UNESCO; IBE, 2015)
Among the shortcomings of the assessment modes in Kenya as outlined by the Taskforce Report
(2012) and the Sessional Paper No.2 of 2015, is too much emphasis on examination based
certification at the end of each cycle, lack of open opportunities for learners to pursue further
education and lack of harmony with the educational structures of East African countries. In
30
addition, teachers are not adequately trained in test development and evaluation procedures Gove
and Cvelich (2010).
Due to the importance attached to the examinations and too much competition, assessment is no
longer seen as part and parcel of the teaching learning process but as a gateway to determine who
can proceed to the next level of education. The policies recommend that in the reformed
curriculum, competencies and skills will be assessed and that the introduction of standardized
assessment testing across the basic education cycle will address this need (Republic of Kenya,
2015).Further forms of assessment have been proposed for every level in the Taskforce Report
(2012). They include observations, pupil profiling in core learning areas and social development
as well as standardized assessment. Quality assessment therefore, will ensure competencies in
the curriculum are attained. This is because assessments measure learner competencies and
evaluates the learning that has taken place.
2.5.6. Resources
According to the Taskforce Report (2012) the implementation of Free Primary Education,
though well intended had a broad curriculum requiring many textbooks and involved many other
infrastructure and resources. Most schools lacked basic requirement such as teaching and
learning materials, tuition equipment and physical facilities. Teachers especially for the practical
and vocational subjects were also inadequate.
As Textbooks play a crucial role in the education process, the government allocates 60% of the
tuition vote on textbooks annually since 2003 when this began. It is expected that currently, there
should be 1:1 pupil textbook ratio in order to cater for instructional materials for learners.
However this is not the situation and learners are still sharing textbooks in a ratio of 1:4 or more
in some schools (Buhere, 2015).
2.5.7. Contemporary and Emerging issues

The various contemporary and emerging issues have been identified from different policy
documents such as the Constitution of Kenya 2010, Kenya Vision 2030, Education for
Sustainable development (ESD), Children’s Act (2001), Millennium Development Goals
31
(MDG), Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), and NESP (2015) among others. Each of these
policy documents emphasizes different aspects of the cross cutting issues and education has been
identified as the wheel to nurture them among learners across all levels. These policy documents
articulate that learners across all levels irrespective of their age are faced with contemporary
lifestyles and challenges that necessitate decision making competencies. In particular, the
Sessional paper No. 2 of 2015, emphasizes that learners have issues ranging from sexuality, drug
and substance abuse, media influence in these times of technological advancement, and political
and social scenarios that influence their lives (Republic of Kenya,2015). Although the
curriculum has Life Skills Education Curriculum as well as curriculum support materials, cross
cutting issues remain a critical aspect of education, more so because emerging issues are not
taught in most schools (KICD, 2014).
The Education Sector Policy on HIV and AIDs (MOEST, 2013) and the Policy on Gender
(MoE, 2007) state that these contemporary issues should be mainstreamed into the existing
curriculum. Teachers should be given capacity to do this so that they in turn can help learners to
benefit from and cope with many contemporary and future challenges. The Sessional Paper No.1
of 2005 has paid attention to effective teacher development and utilization, while Kenya Vision
2030 lays emphasis on quality education and training. These can only be actualized through
effective capacity building of teachers.
The Constitution of Kenya 2010 gives more details on contemporary and emerging issues and
the direction education should take. This is stipulated in several Chapters such as two and six
which deal with principles of governance, leadership and integrity; chapter four deals with bills
of rights which include children’s rights; part two deals with environment; part three deals with
specific application of rights like children rights and persons with disabilities; chapter five part
two deals with environment and natural resources; while chapter twelve deals with national
security (GoK 2010). All these are cross curricular issues that need to be in cooperated in the
current curriculum reforms across all levels of education, lest it is rightly declared
unconstitutional. Other cross cutting issues like technology, health issue and drug abuse are also
emphasized in the Vision 2030.
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Although guidance and counseling is not a crosscutting area, education needs to address personal
development and mentor, mold and nurture the learners. This is appreciating that some learners
across all levels come from difficult social economic contexts. With the emphasis of parental and
community engagement in education in the education policies, the curriculum reforms will
engage all stakeholders including parents and members of the public.
The purpose for MOE requiring that the Task Force considers the issue of mentoring and
molding in the Terms of Reference demonstrate the importance of an individual‘s right to
dignified growth and development, free association and free speech. This is facilitated by the
education system, which prepares individuals to participate effectively in society in an informed
and acceptable way on the basis of values aimed at national cohesion and unity.
2.5.8. Talents
According to the curriculum policy (2015), the curriculum as it is does not give linkage of talents
to development of careers, further education or training. There is need to address the aspects of
identifying, nurturing and developing talents among learners. A composite part of development
of talents is innovation which takes the talent forward to the level of benefiting from the value of
the talent. Learners need to develop their talents and get to the point where they can be
entrepreneurial enough to generate income from what they have made or what they can do .
Kenya Vision 2030 calls for curricula that develop learners’ entrepreneurial skills, competencies
and talents. Additionally, Sessional paper no. 2 of 2015 expounds on the need to develop and
nurture talents for global competitiveness while the Taskforce Report mentions identification and
advancement of talents among core curriculum competencies.
2.6 Review of Curriculum in other Contexts

The process of curriculum development is initiated by a Needs Assessment which basically looks
at the situation of ‘what is’ and ‘what should be’. This calls for systematic investigation to
collect data and establish the need for curriculum reforms. Results of the Needs Assessment
supported by related literature are used to develop appropriate curriculum designs and delineate
33
the expected competencies. (Otunga et al, 2011). This section therefore presents related literature
reviewed on curriculum in other contexts, other than the policy document or other researches
done in the curriculum.

For a curriculum to be relevant, it must meet societal needs. Education is recognized as a key
means to ends of greater economic and social equality, eradicating poverty and of national,
economic, social and political development (IBE, 2015). This paper further argues that when
education in a country lacks relevance and quality, it creates a shortage of human resource with
appropriate mix of skills. This constrains holistic and inclusive development, sustainable growth
and global competitiveness. It further perpetuates social inequalities and exclusion, leading to
“social and political instability”, hence is a threat to peace and security of any society (ibid).
The curriculum is critically important in any society as it engages in a collective way the
knowledge, skills and values that need to be learnt by all. As a tool for giving effect to SDG 4,
which seeks to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all, the curriculum is well positioned to achieve this goal. It is the kind of
curriculum in place that determines whether education is inclusive, and therefore equitable. In
the way it is structured, the curriculum determines the quality of learning and the competencies
required for lifelong learning and holistic development (IBE-UNESCO, 2015)
Lovat and Smith (1995) argue that there is always an underlying social and politico-economic
philosophy which impacts upon education and the curriculum. Brady and Kennedy, (1999)
extend this argument by maintaining that curriculum is not an entity apart from society, it is
firmly embedded in it and thus is a social construct. But it is also a personal construct, as
curriculum represents a selection of societal ideas, skills, values and practices. Thus, the
curriculum is constructed by people, for people and as such should be relevant and all
encompassing so as to address all the needs of the society. National development is multifaceted
and goes beyond economic and material progress knowledge technology; equity and social
justice are elements of national development.
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The rapid development and proliferation of ICT and of related digital technologies are driven
towards a knowledge economy; it demands often higher levels of education in workers across all
sectors. Since personal development is one of the education goals, there should be links between
education and the individual. Access to education is pivotal to life’s chances and self-fulfillment
(Musuota, 1994). Additionally, Brown (2003) argues that to enable a society to progress,
education must be widely available to individuals.
Education is much more than a mechanical process, as it deals with human lives, destinations,
hopes and dreams (Disla, 2002). Thus careful thought needs to go into the selection of
curriculum content. The needs of the society must be taken into consideration. The societal needs
include the preservation of culture, industrial and economic needs, creativity needs, as well as
moral and ethical needs. Some of the countries that Kenya has benchmarked with in education
are South Korea and Malaysia. In these countries, teaching of moral education is taken seriously
among the core subjects right from pre-school through all the levels of education. These
countries also emphasize on the promotion of nationalism and patriotism through teaching of
history of the country in South Korea and Local studies in Malaysia (KIE, Bench Marking
Report, 2010).
The Kenya Education Commission of 1964 (The Ominde Commission) was formed to introduce
changes that would reflect the nation's sovereignty. The commission focused on patriotism,
identity and unity, which were critical issues at the time. The committee also laid emphasis on an
education that would foster social equality, preserve Kenya’s cultural heritage and reduce
poverty. Consequently, the content of History and Geography subjects were changed to reflect
national cohesion. One of the recommendations was that Kenya adopts a unified national
curriculum approach. This committee also laid emphasis on an education that was to promote
unity and patriotism.
Although the curriculum should be seen as a vital element for improving education, quality and
relevance of education to holistic, inclusive and sustainable development goals, it is a key means
for improving quality and equity in education this effective learning and ensuring consistent
alignment of learning with social aspiration and development goals.
35
2.6.2 Competencies
Competency based education identifies specific competencies and skills that must be mastered
by a pupil and are regularly measured against set standards so as to assess the effectiveness of
the teaching (Farrant, 2004). All competencies should be both demonstrable and amenable to
evaluation (Ross, 2000). Competency based training emphasizes on outcomes and skills rather
that processes of learning and the time taken to reach a prescribed standard of competency
(Evan, Haughey& Murphy, 2008). It emphasizes what the learners should know and be able to
do. Rather than education being focused on what the teacher thinks learners should know
(teacher-focused) it looks at learning from the point of view of the learner performance (learner-
focused) making as clear as possible what should be achieved and standards for measuring that
achievement (Republic of Kenya, 2011).
The competence based curriculum shifts away from the idea of knowledge, to one of skills and
abilities where emphasis is put on standards of achievements. In a competency based curriculum,
knowledge is closely linked with understanding rather than being identified in its own right. The
shift to competency based approach to curriculum and learning is an integrated and holistic
understanding of what it is that we want our young people to learn, be able to do and to become.
Global trends in curriculum designs are moving towards competence based approaches. Different
countries have different ways of developing competencies in their curriculum. In South Korea
and Malaysia, curriculum designs are a blend of both objectives and competencies based
approaches. The designs are both thematic and these themes are packaged in modular forms and
cut across all subjects. In the European Union (EU) countries, competencies are a combination of
knowledge, skills and attitudes appropriate to the context. For them ‘key competences are those
which all individuals need for personal fulfillment and development, active citizenship, social
inclusion and employment’ (European parliament, 2006: in IBE 10). Further it set out 8 key
competences for lifelong learning namely: mother tongue, foreign language mathematical
sciences and technology, digital competence, learning to learn, social and civic initiative and
entrepreneurship, cultural awareness and expression.
According to Scottish Government (2009), all children and young people are entitled to
opportunities for developing skills for learning, life and work. The skills are relevant from the
36
early year’s right through to the senior phase of learning and beyond. Curriculum for Excellence
is designed to transform education in Scotland, leading to better outcomes for all children and
young people. It does this by providing them with the knowledge, skills and attributes they need
to thrive in a modern society and economy laying the foundation for the development of skills
throughout an individual’s life. Providing individuals with skills helps each individual to fulfill
their social and intellectual potential. This is expected to be beneficial to the wider Scottish
economy. The skills should be developed across all curriculum areas, in interdisciplinary studies
and in all the contexts and settings where young people are learning. Scotland focuses on a
number of overlapping clusters of skills:
 Personal and learning skills that enable individuals to become effective lifelong learners
 Literacy and numeracy
 The five core and essential skills of communication, numeracy, problem solving,
information technology and working with others
 Vocational skills that is specific to a particular occupation or sector
The development of skills in Scotland is essential to learning and education to help young people
to become successful learners, confident individuals, responsible citizens and effective
contributors. The skills and attributes which learners develop should provide them with a sound
basis for their development as lifelong learners in their adult, social and working lives, enabling
them to reach their full potential. Every child and young person is entitled to support to enable
them to gain as much as possible from the opportunities to develop their skills which Curriculum
for Excellence can provide. Timely provision of support to meet individuals’ needs will enable
children and young people to effectively engage with opportunities for skills development.
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Figure 2.2: Developmental Skills for Learning
Successful learners with: Confident individuals with:

 enthusiasm and motivation for learning  self respect
 determination to reach high standards of  a sense of physical, mental and
achievement emotional wellbeing
 openness to new thinking and ideas  secure values and beliefs
And able to:  ambition
 use literacy, communication and numeracy And be able to
skills  relate to others and manage
 use technology for learning themselves
 think creatively and independently  pursue a healthy and active lifestyle
 learn independently and as part of a group  be self aware
 make reasoned evaluations  develop and communicate their own
 link and apply different kinds of learning in beliefs and view of the world
new situations  live as independently as they can
 assess risks and make informed
decisions
To enable all  achieve success in different areas of
young People to activity
become:
Responsible citizen with Effective contributors with

 respect to others  enterprising attitude,
 commitment to participate responsibly in  resilience
political, economic and cultural life  self reliance
And be able to And able to:
 develop knowledge and understanding of  to communicate in different ways and in
the world and Scotland’s place in it different settings
 understand different beliefs and cultures  work in partnership and in teams
 make informed choices and decisions,  take the initiative and lead
evaluate environmental, scientific and  apply critical thinking and new contexts
technological issues  create and develop
 develop informed, ethical views of complex  solve problems
issues
Source; Scottish government (2009)
2.6.3. Global views on values and attitudes in education

The values included in the Australian curriculum include: cooperation, freedom, happiness,
honesty, tolerance, unity, peace, respect, responsibility, simplicity, humility and love In
Singapore, the concept of a national ideology had an objective of preserving their Asian identity
in an era of globalization where they would be exposed to external influences. They outlined the
essential tasks in developing the National Ideology, namely: to find common values which all
38
can share; to preserve the heritage of the different communities; and to ensure that each
community also appreciates and is sensitive to the traditions of others.
The Singaporean education had a basis for developing values that were mainstreamed into the
curriculum. This promoted Singapore identity with key common values that all racial groups and
faiths would subscribe to and live by. Outside of these Shared Values, each community would
practice its own values as long as they are not in conflict with the recognized values inculcated
through the curriculum.
America has also implemented values and character education especially in the state of Georgia.
Values are considered to be important to a child's character formation. This fact is particularly
appropriate in the preschools and early school years. As students’ progress through schools, it is
important that their education provide instructional opportunities, which help them develop their
beliefs about what is right and good. The State Board of Education believes that there is a core
list of values and character education concepts that should be taught in their schools such as
these;
Table 2.1: Character Curriculum
 accomplishment  fairness  respect for authority

 cheerfulness  frugality  respect for others
 citizenship  generosity  respect for the Creator
 cleanliness  honesty  respect for environment
 commitment  honor  respect for health
 compassion  kindness  school pride
 cooperation  knowledge  self-control
 courage  loyalty  self-respect
 courtesy  moderation  sportsmanship
 creativity  patience  trustworthiness
 democracy  patriotism  truthfulness
 dependability  perseverance  tolerance
 diligence  productivity  virtue
 equality  punctuality
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In the Kenyan context, the guiding principles have been developed from the Values Education
Study (2003). They recognize that in all contexts schools promote, foster and transmit values to
all students and that education is as much about building character as it is about equipping
students with specific skills. They also recognize that schools are not value-free or value-neutral
zones of social and educational engagement. Although the curriculum in Kenya has addressed
values like nationalism, patriotism’ integrity and mutual respect, through integration and
mainstreaming and education is structured to promote positive attitudes towards good health and
environmental protection (KIE, 2006), much more needs to be done to inculcate this in learners
and not teach for achievement of a mean score only.
The three countries in the East African region have developed a competence based curriculum.
In Rwanda, the process began in 2014, and currently (2016), they are implementing it in phases
starting in the early grade learning as well as Form One (Republic of Rwanda, 2015). Just like
Kenya, Rwanda is building a knowledge based economy driven by science and technology. Its
curriculum framework translates the country’s education vision into learning experiences and
assessment. In view of the East African harmonized Curriculum Framework, it is imperative that
Kenya as a partner state adopts the agreement made among the partners in the East African
Protocol and revert to a competence based curriculum.
Principles guiding the competence based curriculum framework in Rwanda include; learner
centered approaches, teaching and learning that emphasizes on competencies rather than
knowledge domain, flexible inclusive learning that that has emphasis on talents, integration of
ICT and interconnectedness with cross cutting Issues such as sexuality, genocide studies,
financial literacy, and peace and values education among others (Republic of Rwanda, 2015).
Identifying specific basic competencies such as literacy and numeracy, and generic competencies
such as critical thinking, creativity and innovation, among others, depends on specific contexts.
When Kenya adopts the competence based curriculum, there will be need to establish both basic
and generic competencies depending on the views sought from the stakeholders.
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2.6.4. Learning areas
The curriculum in Kenya in the last century has been designed around the philosophy of subject
matter content. The main tenets of this subject matter philosophy underlie 19 th Century doctrines
of classical psychology. According to the doctrines, the mind is compartmentalized into specific
faculties which can be trained to accomplish a given task. The end task is passing examinations
which are taken after drills and learning through rote memorization. The learning environment is
characterized by competition and detailed mastery of facts of the subject matter.
Subjects in the curriculum vary from one country to the other. For instance the education system
in Japan runs from grade 1 to grade 16. Education is compulsory during the elementary and
middle level schools which comprises of the first 9 years of the education system. Transition rate
from middle to high school is at 98% (MOFA Japan, 2014). The graduation to high school and
the university is based on examination performance. The middle and high school curriculum is
offered in single institutions for continuity purposes.
The Australian system of basic education comprises of foundational curriculum in the first two
stages. The compulsory subjects in stage three are mathematics, English, science and foreign
language. The parent may choose to allow or deny their learners the opportunity to study
religious studies and sex education since they are not part of the national curriculum.
South African curriculum offers a broad range of subjects in the basic education system. The
subject choices differ from school to school but every learner must study English language out of
the 11 languages offered in the school curriculum (Exchange, 2012). The languages offered in
the curriculum are based on the eleven national (formal) languages allowed in South Africa.
In Ghana, children join education system at age 6 years (for grade 1 to 6). The stage transits to
junior secondary school which comprises grade 7 to 9 and whose admission is open to any
learner who completes grade 6 without the requirement of an examination. Junior secondary
schools are therefore in the same compound with the primary schools. Senior secondary consist
of 3 years starting from grade 10 to 12. The subjects did at this level include a set of core
subjects and a number of clusters of elective subjects (Keteku, 2008).
South Korea has a national basic common basic curriculum with electives. For early grade
learners, concentration is on mother tongue, Mathematics, Disciplined Life, Intelligent Life,
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Pleasant Life and ‘We Are the First Graders’. The emphasis here is on discovering oneself and
transition from home to school.
Similarly, Malaysia has a national common curriculum for primary level. Although Primary
curriculum has 14 subjects, only four are compulsory, which is Local Studies, Physical
Education, Citizenship and Moral education. The rest are either additional or optional. These
subjects include foreign languages for primary school level. It is clear that subjects in primary
schools in these countries are very distinct, unlike in Kenya where some subjects are integrated,
for example creative arts representing Music Art and Craft. These distinctions facilitate
development of talents in these areas. This gets hindered by subjects’ combination.
Often in many countries, the curriculum is too overloaded, overcrowded, “congested” and
outdated. In some cases, there has been reduction of the basics curriculum to a very small
number that people can focus on. The International Commission on Education for the Twenty-
First Century, proposed to UNESCO an integrated vision of education based on the four pillars
of “learning to know, to do, to be, and to live together.” Some advocate for the “4Cs (Critical
thinking, communication, collaboration and creativity) or the 7Cs (the 4Cs plus “computer,
character and culture”. Some speak of becoming “good capable and world-improving people”.
Others would say it is having people becoming “effective thinkers, effective actors, effective
relators and effective accomplishers” (UNESCO, 2012). The aspect of the 21st Century skills is
one which the curriculum cannot ignore in the development of its curriculum framework.
UNESCO (2000) regards ‘learning to do’ or to ‘act creatively’ as the second of its four pillars of
education needed to support society in the 21st Century. Amadio, Opertti and Tedesco (2014)
regarded curriculum in a wide context of having the most important values being acquired at
school and the most fundamental learning experiences required to ensure new generations are
prepared for life in the aspired society. Additionally, Brown (2003) opines that edifying young
people through fostering imagination and creativity, and a prime tool for doing this may be an
arts education that includes Art and Music. Jensen (1998) observed that a strong Arts curriculum
is at the creative core of academic excellence and lays the foundations for positive, measurable
and lasting academic and social benefits through building creativity, concentration, problem
solving abilities and self-discipline. In China, it is now creative students who are labeled as
42
“good students” rather than students who gain high scores through the traditional rote learning.
By learning and practicing art, the human brain actually rewires itself to make more and stronger
connections (ibid). Music, on the other hand, is a tool that primes the brain’s neural pathways,
enhances a wide range of academic and social skills. Creative Arts and other creative practical
subjects such as Home Economics and Industrial Arts therefore need to be in the curriculum.
According to studies done by UNESCO, the early grades learning in recent past had to do with
“learning to play and live with others”. The primary school supplements the skills learnt at ECD
with an addition of the 3 Rs (reading, writing and arithmetic). Kenya Vision 2030 urge for more
infusion of content on Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI) into the primary curriculum to
develop prerequisite skills in the learners for further training in STI. Further, the primary
education curriculum should mainstream technological innovation and entrepreneurial skills in
order to realign the Kenyan curriculum to the dictates and aspirations of Kenya Vision 2030
(KIE, 2010; GoK, 2007).
In addition to what is covered in primary school, secondary complemented this with the addition
o f Mathematics, languages, sciences and humanities. However, additions that are incorporated
in order to seek relevance and add skills with the future in mind have widened the scope of
content in the school curriculum. It congests the curriculum making it overloaded or
overcrowded. The year 2002 saw a national revision and rationalization of the curriculum after a
need assessment was carried out (KIE, 1999) and the recommendations from various education
commissions. Among the issues that were addressed included overloads and overlaps, revision of
objectives to ensure that they were achievable and ensuring that emerging issues were well
articulated in the curriculum.
2.6.5. Assessment
There are new trends in assessment the world over as governments endeavor to reform education
in order to meet their needs. These trends cover both alternative and authentic assessment.
Alternative assessments focus on the active construction of meaning rather than the passive
regurgitation of isolated facts. These place more emphasis on thinking skills, collaborative skills
and provide opportunities for multiple correct answers. Authentic assessment on the other hand,
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focuses on knowledge, thinking and skills. It aims at solving problems and accomplishing tasks.
These give a teacher a clearer picture of what the learners are able to do with the knowledge
acquired over a long period of time. Tests in this area are prepared with the success of the
learners in mind as opposed to the success of a few as in the case with norm referenced
assessment.
Countries have continually benchmarked with the best in the field of education in order to
improve performance. The Japanese Government resolved to reform their education in order to
catch up with the west through continued and aggressive research. Singapore has the best
education indicators in the world in Mathematics and Science as measured in the Trends in
International Mathematics and Science Survey (TIMSS). The Kenya Vision 2030 takes
cognizance of the achievements of a number of countries in education as well in the economic
indicators and makes mention of the rapid progress over a short time of South Korea, Malaysia,
Finland, Ireland, China and Chile. PISA studies carried out in America and Europe have
continued to inform policy on education and consequently testing.
Although the quality of education of Kenyan schools appears to be better than most of the Sub-
Saharan Africa; there is need to balance between quality and quantity, since this affects
assessment modes. The results from the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring
Educational Quality (SACMEQ) III survey in 2010 reveal that Kenyan learners, in standard six
generally perform well in both reading and mathematics tests compared to their counterparts in
15 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. For instance, Kenya is ranked 4th after Seychelles, Mauritius
and South Africa on standard 6 pupil’s reading competency level 8 and second after Mauritius on
standard six pupils’ mathematics competency level 8.
Educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom categorized what and how we learn in three domains
namely cognitive, psychomotor and affective. Although the curriculum in Kenya underscores the
need for holistic development of the learners as suggested by Bloom’s approach, the KIE (2010)
indicated that learning in Kenya mainly focuses on the cognitive domain or the aspect knowledge
only. Attitudes a central component of competencies are never assessed. The emphasis has been
on certification at the expense of learning. This often only fulfils a function of selection and as a
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regulation of opportunities for those who move ahead in the education system (UNESCO, 2015).
It becomes an indicator of the institution one moves to in the next level of learning and the career
path that is pursued.
Although the MOE in Kenya lays a lot of emphasis on school based continuous assessment, there
is a lot of pressure on curriculum implementers to perform highly in national examinations. This
results to teachers’ focusing on revision and drills for exams thus compromising the learning
process.
Unlike Kenya, South Korea and Malaysia puts a lot of emphasis on school based assessment. In
South Korea for example, there are no National assessments, though selected sample schools are
assessed at grade 3 and Form 1 to ensure standards of teaching and learning are maintained
(KICE, 2008). This means that transition from one level to another in basic education is
seamless. Although the Malaysian education system has national examinations at the end of
every level, the results, unlike Kenya, do not determine transition to the next level. At the end of
Level 4, the assessment determines the career path of learners (MOE, 2001).
The summative assessment at the end of both the primary school level cuts off learners from
proceeding to the next level of education. The competitiveness of the examinations leads to a
situation where the focus of assessment is shifted from informing learning and improvement in
performance. This is also cited in Sessional Paper No 2 of 2015 on Reforming Education and
Training Sector in Kenya and underscores the importance of developing the whole person and
emphasizes the need for a balanced curriculum.
According to Kellagan and Greaney (2001) regular, reliable and timely assessment is key to
improving learning achievement and should therefore be a fundamental component of an
effective teaching and learning process.
In an established competence based curriculum framework, the purpose of evaluation is spelt out
and goes beyond selection and certification. Since there is emphasis on the formative aspect of
assessment, the purpose includes monitoring progress and providing feedback. In the case of
45
Rwanda, assessment focuses both on knowledge and understanding, aptitude and practical tests,
attitudes and values (behavior) and generic competencies guided by specific indicators (Republic
of Rwanda, 2015).
Assessment of competencies is criterion referenced, as compared to assessment of an objective

based curriculum. Huitt, (1996) in his article ‘Measurement and Evaluation’ differentiates
between criterion and norm referenced assessment based on purpose, content, item
characteristics and score interpretations. Whereas criterion referenced assessment focuses on
determining whether each learner has achieved specific skills or concepts, norm referenced
assessment focuses on ranking learners with respect to the achievement of others in broad areas
of knowledge.
2.6.6. Pedagogy
For teaching to be effective it has to be systematic and stimulating. Teachers need to acquire
skills as they teach in order to make it motivating. Perrot (1984) in Otunga, et al (2011) identifies
several factors such as set induction, stimulus variation, explanation, questioning and
reinforcement as presentation skills of interaction. Others are use of examples, question and
answers and explanations. Instructional approaches also are discussed as simulation,
presentation, discussion and problem solving.
2.6.7 Resources
According to Otunga, et al (2011), there are two types of instructional resources; human and
non-human resources. The human resource includes the teacher or any other person interacting
with the learners, while the non-human is either print or non-print resources. Print resources
include course books, reference and supplementary materials as well as class readers, journals,
newspapers, workbooks, fiction, periodicals, study guides, magazines among many others.
Further Schonwetter (2008, in Otunga, et al, 2011) has given other forms of resources that exist.
These include, but not limited to multi-media presentations, teaching websites and repositories,
government sites, conference sites, trade sites and teaching and learning objects. Generally it is
the teacher who decides on the resource to be used to enhance teaching and learning alongside
the teaching method to compliment delivery of content and achievement of objectives. All this
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will depend on content and purpose of instruction, language level and class size, resource
availability and adequacy (ibid).
2.7 Review of Relevant Previous Research

2.7.0 General overview
Educational changes at the national level at the initiation or implementation stages must plan and
consider how people will react to change. There is need to consider how the process will be
affected by the existing circumstances. Sekui, (2004, in Wedell, 2009) observed that in Japan, an
educational change that involved new curriculum made teachers worry because of the required
new practices in classroom management styles and secondly the implementers may lack
confidence on the new styles they are expected to adopt. There is therefore need for
comprehensive rationale for the anticipated curriculum reforms. This section presents review of
relevant previous curriculum research that relates to the themes of this study.

In responding to the needs of the different dimensions of society, the curriculum should
exemplify the integrated conception of education as a cultural, social and economic policy
(Marope 2014). It is further pointed out that society’s expectations and demands are the
foundations for study programmes and disciplines which are constructed for future generations
(Moore, 2014). The sentiments advanced clearly show that education is an integral part of the
society, and the needs that arise from time t time.
Various studies have indicated existence of gaps in the curriculum as pertains to the societal
needs. The Bessey Committee of 1972 pointed out that the curriculum did not achieve the
national objectives because of the narrowness of scope and over emphasis on rote learning
(Republic of Kenya, 1972). The study established that the curricula neglected practical and
creative activities especially in agriculture and basic manual skills. The curriculum was also
found to be unresponsive to Kenya’s cultural heritage and the entire environment in which
children as well as young people grew. By 1977 in Kenya, secondary school graduates
surpassed the white collar jobs that were available aggravating the problem of unemployment in
the country. The Report of the National Committee on Educational Objectives and Policies
47
(Gachathi report of 1976) guided curriculum improvement during this period. The Gachathi
Report (Republic of Kenya, 1976) raised the issue of unemployment in relation to 7-4-2-3
education system. In view of this, the committee proposed that the secondary school education
curriculum should be redefined to make it practical with more emphasis placed on the teaching
of sciences, agriculture and vocational subjects. The 7-4-2-3 system of education lacked the
capacity and flexibility to respond to the changing aspirations of individual Kenyans and the
labour market needs. Consequently, there was an urgent need to change the curriculum to focus
on the acquisition of relevant and practical knowledge and skills that would lead to quality
employment. The rationale was that the existing system was too short and not rigorous enough to
give graduates enough practical education to fit in the world of work.
The year 2002 saw a national revision and rationalization of the curriculum. The revision
entailed refocusing the goals of education, the level objectives, subject general objectives and the
specific objectives. The findings of the Summative Evaluation (KIE,2010) for the primary level
stated that literacy, numeracy and communication skills had been achieved to a large extent but
there were gaps in the achievement of objectives on appreciation of values and the use of leisure
time; the curriculum content addressed nationalism, patriotism and national unity but social
context impeded the embracing of these values; the implementation of the primary education
curriculum content laid little emphasis on inculcation of practical skills necessary for economic
development; the primary school education did not adequately equip the learners with the
competencies to meet the demands of a knowledge based economy as per aspirations of Vision
2030 (KIE, 2010).
The summative evaluation of the secondary school curriculum made it apparent that the revised
curriculum had gaps that needed to be addressed if education was to have the desired impact on
the socio-economic and technological development of the country and specifically achievement
contemporary needs of the of Vision 2030. The key recommendation was re-alignment of the
curriculum to meet the societal needs and viewing the curriculum as an outcome of a process
reflecting a political and societal agreement about the what, why and how of education for the
desired society of the future.
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2.7.2 Competencies
Ford (2014) opines that Competence Based Education (CBE) and training is not a new concept.
Ford traces development of CBE to the theory of behaviorism whose proponent is the
psychologist Skinner, because it reflects instructional designs informed by the field of
Psychology, and measuring what learners are able to ‘do’ and at what level (standards- based
performance). The emphasis is outcomes versus process.
Until recently, CBE programmes were a ‘niche’, for adult learning and vocational education
aimed at the job market. Calls for more effective and demonstratable outcomes have attracted
interests in development of major competence based initiatives (Ford, 2014). In CBE, students
are assisted and not taught. It draws what the competence is, how it will be achieved, the
activities and content, and how it will be assessed. Ewell (2013) in Ford (2014) refers to it as
curriculum mapping. It clearly establishes and communicates the linkages between leaning,
assessments and specific competences.
A study carried out in Korea by IBE-UNESCO(2012),revealed that a CBE is not in conflict with
the curriculum in existence then, and that specific subjects continued to provide a critical path in
promoting acquisition of key competencies such as communication and efficient management.
The study further shows that competency skills recommended for Elementary level were;
problem-solving skills, communication skills and cooperation skills. A survey conducted in
Ghana by COTVET (2009), it was affirmed that Competency Based Training is an industry and
demand driven education and training programme, its products have a high demand on the job
market.
Rychen and Salganik (2001) carried out a study which revealed that a creative person should
have divergent thinking, problem solving skills, originality, and ability to see or create new
values. Considering the convergence on the need to nurture creativity in the curriculum and the
literature encountered, constructs of problem solving, divergent thinking, research and
innovation will find their place in the content of the proposed curriculum.
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Since the needs of the learners and how they can use knowledge, values and attitudes are the
focus of a competency based curriculum, UNESCO-IBE (2015), the primary school curriculum
should have a prime interest in developing various competencies within individuals. It should
realistically make room for learning to embody the opportunities to “know,” “show” and “do.” It
is through such engagements that learners are fashioned in their competencies, social behaviour
and other aptitudes as required, but not limited to their environments (Nanzhao, 2000).
The realization of these competencies also means that teachers who are the implementers are re-
oriented and re-trained on how to handle competencies in the curriculum. In analyzing pre-
service teaching education in sub-Saharan African countries where learning outcomes are low
and unequal, (Akyeampong et al., 2013) observes that the teacher training curricula in Ghana,
Kenya, Malai, Senegal, Uganda and Tanzania, place little emphasis on quality and variety of
teaching methods. He goes on to state that trainees are not prepared to ensure that learners
participate actively to understand the lesson. This goes against a competence curriculum in
which learner participation is at the core of learning.
2.7.3 Learning areas

A study carried out by KICD (2014) found out that ECD and lower primary curriculum is
expected to equip learners with language, arithmetic and reading skills. According to the study,
ECD and lower primary levels act as a springboard for the upper levels. A study by Herman
(2011) who investigated the role of vocational oriented education with that of national
educational institutions in 18 countries and found that the students who come from vocational
stream acquire the skills better than the others who do not have the vocational orientation. The
vocational streams of students have better chances to get employment as well as higher salary
because of the skill set they possess.
The teaching and learning of Mathematics, Sciences and Languages is important to the
assimilation and acquisition of the 21 st century skills. Since, the country’s Blue- print for
economic development flags the teaching of Mathematics, Languages and Sciences as
being vital to the country’s development. Studies have also shown that countries like
Singapore and Malaysia with high technological development have put great emphasis on
50
mathematics and sciences as a foundational requirement for their technological
advancement (Government of Malysia, 2012). Similar studies carried out in Singapore
indicate the emphasis on the 21st Century skills, which include creative and critical
thinking, communication and collaboration, and social and cultural skills. These are core
values that the Singapore education system sets to cultivate in all its students ( Soland et
al. (2013) and Voogt and Roblin (2012) pointed out that in Japan, as in Singapore, the
competencies and pedagogical moves associated with 21st Century competencies are seen
as a central means of using education to ensure sustained economic prosperity in the years
to come. These 21st Century aspirations have been articulated in a New Growth Strategy
(2010) announced by the Japanese government as well as in “The Future Vision on Career
Education and Vocational Education at School,” by the Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology (2011). Further, the 21st century competencies in the
Japanese classrooms were not dissimilar from Singapore: problem solving,
communication, collaboration and use of Information Communications Technologies
(ICT).
In spite of the proposed considerations and justification for the choice of content, Tawil (2012)
discounts the idea of looking at education from a purely utilitarian or instrumental approach, that
leans towards the gains at the individual or national level. He advocates for the humanistic
dimension to be emphasized to ensure a renewed purpose for education. Attention should be
given to sustainable human and social development.
2.7.4. Resources
Efforts made to provide resources through the Free Primary Education (FPE) program have had a
positive impact on the availability of resources in primary schools. Although studies (KIE, 1999)
indicate that teaching and learning materials such as textbooks and other reference materials are
available, concerns were raised about the quality of the recommended materials.
As Ngware, Wamukuru and Odebero (2006) observe, quality and adequacy of resources such as
physical facilities have a direct bearing on quality as they determine how effectively the
curriculum is implemented. These scholars have argued that quality education cannot be
achieved and sustained if the resources and facilities are not available in sufficient quality and
51
quantity. Apart from textbooks, AHPRC (2010) have observed that teaching aids significantly
contribute to learner achievement. Developing and using appropriate teaching resources have
been proven to improve learners’ achievement. It requires teachers who are creative, proactive
and who appreciate the power of resources in enhancing performance.
According to Twoli, Maundu, Muindi, Kiio, and Kithinji (2007), Oluoch, (1990) and Beswick,
(1975), the expanding scope of knowledge in many areas of education, necessitates the teacher to
be aware of the diverse types of teaching resources available for use, as well as those that can be
prepared using locally available materials. Twoli et al., (2007), recommend that the teacher
should carefully prepare a wide spectrum of learning materials, and effectively use them during
the teaching-learning process. Apart from teachers, field officers and head teachers have a part to
play in helping teachers to use teaching and learning resources. In a study on educational
resources, KICD ( 2014) indicated the need to sensitize head teachers and education field
officers on the key role that teaching and learning resources play in the teaching learning
process. The sensitization helps the school administration to encourage and support teachers in
their quest to develop teaching and learning resources.
Despite this important role, there have been challenges in education related to insufficient
numbers of trained teachers, over-stretched infra-structure and instructional materials (UNESCO,
2014). This focus on resources where priority goes to funding of text-books, teaching materials
and equipment is however criticized by Tedesco (1997).He proposes a more integral view of
education that seeks synergies between input, processes and outcomes.
The popular procedure for the distribution of the capitation, grant in Kenya has been according to
the number of children enrolled. In the views of Watkins and Alemayehu (2012) this procedure
disadvantages 12 counties in the arid and semi-arid areas that are home to 46% of the out of
school population.
2.7.5 Pedagogy
The instructional strategies adopted by teachers determine what will be learnt by the learners. An
assertion made by AHPRC (2010) in classroom observation study for mathematics implies that
pedagogical content knowledge was a major factor that influences how much content is learnt.
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Additionally, Osakwe (2009) in the AHPRC study (ibid) identify some variables for quality
classroom instruction that include attitude of the teacher, knowledge base, masterly of subject
and social cultural context. Effective communication by the teacher enables this context to be
well utilized to facilitate learning. Individual attention to learners is therefore important too in
enhancing learning. Darling –Hammond (1990) opines that policies on teaching affect the
teachers directly and hence if pedagogy has to change as a matter of policy, the policy too has to
pay attention to the knowledge base of the teachers. Wanzere (2002) suggests that there is need
to enhance the competence of the Kenyan teachers in the light of rapid, intensive and
fundamental nature of present day technological, economic, cultural, societal and political
changes.
Effective instruction which promotes what can be done with knowledge is more allied to active
participation Morin (2011). This is contrasted to passive participation which emphasizes
transmission and accumulation of knowledge (as during a lecture). Acedo and Opertti (2012)
note that the promotion of relevant pedagogies that promote 21 st Century skills has been
propelled by the wide range of learning conditions as well as the singular nature of each pupil as
a special being.
2.7.6 Talents
The National Youth Situation Analysis Report of 2009 indicates that majority of Kenya’s
population comprises of youth aged between 15 - 29 years. The report further noted that the
youth have talents but have no opportunities to exploit or market them. The report recommended
the need for resource centres where the youth could spend time to gain useful skills and develop
their talents such as sports, music and art. In response to this challenge the Kenya Government
through the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports established a pilot National Youth Talent
Academy in March 2010 to provide the youth with an opportunity to identify and nurture their
talents.
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Every society has its specially gifted persons who need to be given opportunities to develop and
exploit them to their full potential. These people need to be identified early in life so that their
talents can be nurtured for the benefit of themselves and the society (Kinyua, 2014).
There is no one universal definition of gifted and talented learners. In the United States of
America, The No Child Left Behind Act (Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 2002)
define gifted and talented as children, or youth who give evidence of high achievement
capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific
academic fields, and who need services and activities not ordinarily provided by the school in
order to fully develop those capabilities.
In Australia, gifted and talented learners at school are defined as those who demonstrate or show
the potential for a high level of performance in different ability areas, when compared to others
of similar age, background and experience such as intellectual; Creative; artistic; social;
physical; spiritual (Department for Education and Children's Services, 1994).
In Korea, Article 2 of the education Act defines a gifted person as one who possesses
extraordinary innate abilities or visible talents requiring special education to nurture them’. The
Act gives the purpose of gifted education as: ‘to promote self-actualization of individuals and
have them contribute to development of society and nation by scouting for gifted and talented
persons and carrying out education suitable for ability and aptitude in accordance with
regulations so they can develop innate potential.
Another definition according to Gagne (2004), states that giftedness is outstanding potential
while talent is outstanding performance. Gifted children may or may not be high achievers. The
talented children are marked by outstanding mastery in knowledge and skills in one or more
areas. These areas include but are not limited to Mathematics and Science which fall under
academic disciplines, sports and visual arts which can be categorized under physical, technical or
artistic ability, a category of problem solving ability and creativity and finally, communicative
and leadership ability (Gagne, 2004).
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In addition, the gifted education is aimed at helping gifted and talented persons to acquire
expertise, creativity, leadership, morality and self-directed learning attitude in accordance with
other legislative provisions which say that all members of a nation shall have right to education
according to ability and aptitude to promote self-actualization and contribute to development of
society and nation.’
The Gifted Education Programme was first implemented in Singapore in 1984 amid some public
concern. It was initiated by the Ministry of Education (MOE) in line with its policy under the
New Education System to allow each student to learn at his/her own pace. The MOE had a
commitment to ensure that the potential of each pupil is recognized, nurtured and developed. It
was recognized that there are pupils who are intellectually gifted and that there should be
provisions to meet their needs.
In Kenya, Koech (1999), Kochung’, (2003) and Kang’ethe, (2004) defined gifted and talented
children as those who at any educational level are identified as possessing demonstrated or
potential abilities that give evidence of high performance capabilities in areas such as general
intellectual ability, specific academic aptitude, creative and productive thinking, leadership
ability, visual and performing arts and psychomotor abilities, while Kinyua (2014) define gifted
and talented children as those with outstanding talents, who perform or show the potential of
performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared with others of their
age, experience or environment.
The Presidential Working Party on Education and Training for the Next Decade and Beyond
(Kamunge Report, 1988) noted that every society, Kenya included, has its specially gifted
children who need special education to develop their special intellectual, creative, artistic or
other talents to the maximum level possible. Accordingly, the committee recommended that such
children be identified early and special programmes developed to enable them to realize their full
potential in order to enable them to contribute to the society. Special educational programmes for
such children should be developed in the interest of national development. The committee
proposed the establishment of “Centres of Excellence” as pacemakers for advanced knowledge
and technology in order to meet the needs of the society.
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According to Kang’ethe and Mugo (2010), from 1964-2005 several gaps existed which showed
inconsistency in the implementation of educational policies and programmes. They also noted
that children who are Gifted and Talented are not mentioned in most of the Education Policy
documents in Kenya. According to them there has been no clear commitment and political
strategy targeting gifted and talented persons. During the National Conference on Gifted and
Talented Young Persons in Kenya (2010) it was noted that Kenyatta University and Kenya
Institute of Special Education (KISE) train teachers for learners who are gifted and talented yet
there are no programmes for learners who are gifted and talented in Kenya.
2.7.6.1 Identification methods of learners who are Gifted and talented

No single method of identification is appropriate for all types of gifted students. Multiple criteria
should be used which should include gathering as much information about the learners as
possible. Teachers are required to identify learners who are gifted in the whole process of
learning. The identification process should be continuous. Schools should also evaluate their
systems to ensure that they accommodate learners who are gifted and talented. Progress of the
identified learners should be monitored to ensure that, the programme is meeting their
educational needs (Kinyua, 2010).
The five key principles of identification according to Richert (1991) are: Defensibility-:
procedures should be devised to identify learners in all domains of giftedness and fields of talent;
Advocacy-: teachers should use assessments to promote learners’ interests and should not expect
learners to perform equally well on all measures ; Equity-: there should be equitable procedures
for identifying groups who may be disadvantaged by the mainstream identification procedures;
Comprehensiveness-: there should be the appropriate use of multiple sources of data; and
Pragmatism-: identification needs to be consistent with the level of resources available (Richert,
1991). Unfortunately without a common definition or understanding of learners who are gifted
and talented, it becomes difficult to design their education and what it should entail and even
methods of nurturing the talents.
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2.7.7 Assessment
An analysis of the assessment system in Kenya reveal that the high stake end of cycle
assessment, namely KCPE/KCSE which asses over 1.3M children annually compromise the role
of formative assessment (Mugo & Asiago, 2015). Despite being national examinations, they do
not improve learning as they act as sieves to determine certification and movement to higher
levels. This encourages basic learning at the expense of deep and underlying issues in the content
or the learning areas which produces extended analysis and application of the acquired
knowledge.
The current system of assessment measures a narrow range of competences. Numeracy and
literacy assessments are attempted by the national examinations which are not necessarily by the
government such as UWEZO. At a time when the teaching of the 21st Century skills or
competencies is coming to the fore, measurement of competencies and other soft skills is
important (Mugo & Asiago, 2015). These are currently not catered for by assessments in Kenya
schools.
The Taskforce Report (2012) pointed out that teachers are poorly prepared to develop tests and
evaluate learning. Formative assessment which should assess continuous learning do not play a
major role improving learning but of preparing learners on handling the national examinations.
A worrying trend is that schools find it easier to buy commercial examinations from which
teaching is done. These are prepared by entrepreneurs and not necessarily persons in education.
The problem may be rooted also in how the training of teachers was conducted.
With the competence based curriculum, there is need to conduct assessment for learning;
meaning that teachers can utilize assessments as analytical tools to improve students’ learning
(Mugo& Asiago 2015); it’s a part of teaching and learning process and not an after process
activity. Maclellan (2001: 307-318 in Mugo & Asiago 2015) observes that ‘assessment for
learning must be contextualized and represent meaningful tenets of human achievement with
skills and competencies that are used in real world context’
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These assessments dwell on cognitive domain at the expenses of other learner attributes and
competencies. Teachers with less cognitive potential are greatly disadvantaged. Hence teachers
dwell in factual knowledge and repetition of the Bloom’s taxonomy as they teach because
experience and routine has proved that it these low levels that the national examinations require.
Stein, Dawson and Fischer, (2010) caution that formative assessment should not be discussed as
opposed to summative assessment. Both are complementary tools that have a duty to support the
learning process. Atkin (1999) recommends that assessment should promote and motivate
learning processes, with an emphasis on using the outcomes to improve the quality of the
processes. It is however noted that the practice in Kenya in the recent past has reduced learning
to what goes to outcomes.
2.7.8. Contemporary and Emerging Issues

On mainstreaming of emerging issues in the school curricula, KICD (2014) conducted an
assessment across primary and secondary schools and found out that emerging issues were not
mainstreamed in all subjects, and not all teachers had knowledge on mainstreaming possibly
because of insufficient training in this area. Owino (2013) observed that as a non-examinable
subject, Life skills education becomes relatively inconspicuous and also negative attitude from
both teachers and learners down plays the role of implementing the cross cutting programmes in
the curriculum.
The KICD study confirmed that the attitude of teachers and learners impeded the teaching and
learning of emerging issues. Teachers lacked commitment and passion as there was more
emphasis laid on subjects that were nationally examined. Among other challenges cited in the
teaching of emerging issues were inadequate teaching and learning resources, inadequate time,
too much content and areas to cover under emerging issues and teachers lacked mastery in
handling emerging issues. It was worse for schools with special needs as there are no sign words
for representing emerging issues. School administrators were not supportive (ibid).
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A study done by UNICEF (2006) on Life Skills Education in Swaziland revealed that teachers
did not deem the subject as important since it was not in the curriculum. The MOE study tour
report to Zimbabwe and Malawi indicate the need to enhance the capacity of teachers to enable
them mainstream the emerging issues into the curriculum as stipulated in the Education Sector
Policy on HIV and AIDs.
The challenge of teaching contemporary issues largely lies in the methodologies applied. In
reference to environmental education, Choi et al, (2013) observe that failures of the common
models for teaching could be in their inability to embrace whole school approaches that use
practical demonstration of sustainable living to reinforce learning. This view is also advanced by
the Eco-school initiative in South Africa which provides certification for schools that link
environmental action and learning. Schools achieve more by being hands on in teaching and
learning approaches while linking the curriculum to practical actions like recycling systems and
water harvesting (Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa, 2013).The solution to
conveying information about contemporary issues lies in the ability of teachers and schools be
more practical as a way of reinforcing learning.
2.8 Rationale of the Study Based on Literature Review

Apart from the theoretical base, the study is anchored on policy documents and other literature in
different contexts. In view of recommendations for major curriculum reforms, the need to
undertake curriculum reforms is clear and justifiable; more so because of the need to align it with
the current trends, the Constitution and goals and aspirations of the national blue print of the
Kenya Vision 2030. As early as 2007, the Kenya Vision 2030 stated that;
“There is, therefore a need to re-orient education to focus on the changing economic and
technological trends, in line with the national aspirations as expressed in the Vision
2030” (GoK, 2007; pg 82)
The needs assessment survey for the curriculum reforms has been necessitated by gaps identified
in the literature including the policy documents. They have all shown the need for the desired
reforms in the curriculum but have not stipulated how the competence based curriculum for
Kenya should be designed. Some have suggested that the development of competence
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curriculum cannot be done without sufficient data to contextualize it in education for this
country. In essence there has been no research done in this area, a gap which this study seeks to
address.
This has been summed up by the Sessional Paper No.2 of 2015 and the National Education
Sector Plan (NESP) of 2015 which stipulates that according to National Curriculum Policy
Framework, the framework would be reformed using the stipulated curriculum development
process; and hence the needs assessment survey, which initiates the process of curriculum
development.
Since no research of this magnitude has been done in Kenyan for curriculum reforms, this study
will stand out as a baseline that will tease out at this initial period the variables for monitoring
and evaluation of the competence based curriculum as well as the final evaluation of the cycle.
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
In this Chapter, the philosophical paradigm that underpinned this study is explained, the research
approach is given, and then sampling, data generation techniques, data analysis process,
trustworthiness and ethical considerations are presented.
3.2. Research Paradigm
This study adopted the pragmatist research paradigm which informs the view that research is
guided by the value for the knowledge being sought .As opposed to the realist – positivist or
relativist – interpretivists who hold distinctive worldviews about the world as being real or
relative, this study drew from both paradigms to get a complete understanding of the subject
under investigation (Hammersley, 2013; Onwegbuzie, 2012; Schwandt, 2015). The subject of
this study – Needs Assessment for curriculum reform in Kenya - invites both perspectives since
it is expected that there are indeed aspects of the curriculum that would inevitably be universal
and standard across the entire republic; while, it is also expected that the curriculum ought to
take care of the unique interests of learners at certain levels, regions and with varied interests.
3.3. Research Design

This study used a descriptive survey design .Both quantitative and qualitative techniques were
used to collect data. The quantitative approach was used to describe variables and examine the
relationships amongst these variables (Dornyei, 2007; Creswell, 2009). Qualitative research on
the other hand made it possible to explore perspectives, attitudes, behaviors and experiences
(Dawson, 2009) and focus on meaning and understanding. Data is generated using non –
structured or semi structured instruments that allow for interaction of the researcher(s) and the
respondents in a flexible manner that could generate in-depth data from purposively sampled
participants in a naturalistic setting ( Denzin and Lincoln, 2005; Lichtman, 2013; Yin, 2014;
Jwan and Ong’ondo, 2011).
61
In this study, the Concurrent Mixed Approach design was used where both the Quantitative and
the Qualitative phases took place at the same time and they were weighted equally as illustrated
in Figure 3.1 below. Creswell (2009) posits that it is more manageable to collect both
quantitative and qualitative data at roughly the same time, rather than to revisit the field multiple
times for data collection (p.206).
Quantitative Quantitative Qualitative Qualitative

Data Data Analysis Data Data
Collection (QUAN) Collection Analysis
(QUAN) (QUAL) (QUAL)
Consolidation of QUAN
and QUAL Findings
Figure 3.1: Concurrent Mixed Approach Design
The Mixed approach has several advantages which were relevant to this study.
Creswell and Clark (2007, pp. 9-10), lists several grounds for use of mixed research.
These are:
1. It provides strengths that offset the weaknesses of both quantitative and
qualitative research. Quantitative research is weak in understanding the context or
setting in which people talk, voices of the participants are not directly heard and
researchers’ are in the background. Qualitative research makes up for these
weaknesses. On the other hand qualitative research is seen as deficient because of the
personal interpretations made by the researcher and generalization of findings to a
larger group.
2. It provides comprehensive evidence as researchers are given permission to use all

the tools of data collection available.
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3. It helps answer questions that cannot be answered by qualitative or qualitative
approaches alone.
4. It encourages researchers to collaborate across the sometimes adversarial

relationship between quantitative and qualitative researchers in social, behavioural
and human sciences.
5. It is “practical” in the sense that the researcher is free to use all methods possible
to address a research problem. Researchers are able to solve problems using both
numbers and words and combining inductive and deductive thinking.
The research methods that were used to generate both the quantitative and qualitative
data as well as the data generation techniques are discussed in the subsequent
subsections.
3.4. Research Methods
The magnitude of the Needs Assessment Survey for the primary level of education
made it amenable to the survey method. It sought to establish views, experiences and
attitudes of large number of participants over a relatively short period of time
(Cohen et al, 2007). As stated in Chapter One, the Survey sought to establish the
general needs for curriculum reform, the desired competencies, learning areas, talent
nurturing and development strategies, pedagogical approaches, learning resources,
assessment and contemporary/ emerging issues.
3.4.1 Quantitative Survey Method

Quantitative Survey Method was employed since the Needs Assessment is
categorized under educational research. In this study the needs of learners, teachers
and head teachers in Primary schools were assessed in terms of the reforms they
desire on the Kenyan Curriculum. To ensure objectivity, reliability and
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generalizability in the quantitative sense, principles such as representativeness of the
target population and probability sampling were adhered to . Accordingly, structured
questionnaires were used as the main data generation instruments, among other
structured tools such as observation and interview schedules (Bryman, 2008; Kothari,
2005).
3.4.2. The Qualitative Survey Method

The choice of qualitative survey was still based on the need to know general trends,
attitudes, practices, etc., but by generating qualitative data in the form of interviews,
focused group discussions, memoranda , emails, Facebook and other social media
platforms pictures, audio and video recordings that elicited in-depth data that
captured the voices of participants (Given, 205; Stake, 2014). Given the potential
implications of this study, this method was necessary to make it possible to capture
views from the diverse contexts (Creswell, 2012; Yin, 2014).
In this study, the Survey aspect was in terms of the spread of participants in all
Counties in the Country – Kenya and the fact that the data were generated from a
very large number of diverse participants (learners, parents, workers and key
informants) over a relatively short period of time. The survey was enhanced through
data generated from memoranda, and the social media. Nevertheless, the Qualitative
tenets of the study were still observed. That is, the researchers still used data
generation techniques (see the subsection on data generation techniques)
Critics of the qualitative survey method argue that it limits the richness of the data
and therefore the extent of potential interpretation because researchers sacrifice depth
for breadth, given the nature of a survey (Stake, 2014). Precautions were however
taken to ensure that it is designed carefully to yield sufficiently in-depth data
generated from different sources through multiple platforms in a flexible way
(Lichtman, 2013). Therefore, this method provided a powerful tool for amelioration
of the common criticism that Qualitative researchers work with very thin samples.
64
In the next sub-section, the specific data generation techniques used to generate data
within the two approaches are explained.
3.5 Target Population
The institutions targeted comprised of all Primary schools and Teacher Training
Colleges. Within the institutions, the study targeted all head teachers, Principals of
teacher training colleges, teachers, and learners in Primary schools and trainees in
Teachers Training Colleges (TTC’s). The target population size was 71, 384
(Ministry of Education, 2011). Table 3.1 illustrates the target population structure.
Various Education Field officers and other stakeholders were targeted, especially as
participants in the Key Informant Interviews to give information about the primary
school level. Table 3.1 indicates other respondents that were targeted.
Table 3.1: The Target Population Structure
REGION COUNTIES No. of Primary Schools.

Kiambu 3,187
Central
Murang’a
Nyandarua
Nyeri
Kirinyaga
Laikipia
 Mombasa 1,697
Coast
 Kwale
 Taita Taveta
 Lamu
 Kilifi
 Tana River
 Machakos 5,032
Eastern
 Makueni
 Kitui
 Meru
 Tharaka
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 Embu
Nairobi  Nairobi1, 241 1,241

 Garissa 404
N.
Eastern  Wajir
 Mandera
 Marsabit
 Isiolo
 Kisumu 4,821
Nyanza
 Siaya
 Homa bay
 Migori
 Kisii
 Nyamira
 Nakuru 7,176
R. Valley
 Narok
 Kericho
 Bomet
 Elgeyo Marakwet
 Nandi
 Uasin Gichu
 Turkana
 West Pokot
 Trans Nzoia
 Samburu
 Kajiado
 Kakamega 2,639
Western
 Vihiga
 Bungoma
 Busia
Total 26,197
Source: MOEST (2011)
Key:
PRY- Primary Schools
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Table 3.2: Other Targeted Organizations
Organization Units per category No. of

participants
Faith Based 2 faith-based organizations per county 2
Organizations
Field Officers 1) Quality Assurance and Standards Officers: 1
per county
2) 1 TAC Tutor per county 9
3) 1 EARC per county
4) 1 DICECE officer per county
5) 5 National Quality Assurance Officers
(MOEST Directors)
Other 1) KNEC 45
Organizations 2) KISE (5 per
3) CEMASTEA category)
4) Universities (Private and Public)
5) KEMI
6) KIPPRA
7) TSC
8) KNUT
9) FKE
10) Kenyan Diaspora and Embassies
3.5.1. Sampling Technique

The study employed a multi-stage sampling technique (Mugenda and Mugenda,
2009), which involved random selection of the respondents who were expected to
provide quantitative data. Purposive sampling was applied to select respondents who
provided qualitative data. The target population size of Primary Schools was
computed at 26,197 educational institutions in Kenya, as stated above (MOEST,
2011). In the Quantitative phase, the statistical procedure for sample size
determination was applied; the researchers compute the sample size at 1504
institutions (Survey System, 2012). This represents the sample size at 5% level of
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significance, with an error of 2.5%. The details of the sample design are set forth in
Figure 2 and Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Sample Size Determination
Sample size = Z 2 X (p) X(1-p) (1.96)2 x (0.5) x (1 –

0.5) = 1537
c2
0.0252
Where : Z = Z value (e.g. 1.96 for 95% confidence level)
p = percentage picking a choice, expressed as decimal
(.5 used for sample size needed)
c = confidence interval, expressed as decimal
(e.g., .04 = ±4)
Correction for Finite Population
ss
new = (1.96)2
ss = x (0.5) x (1 – 0.5)
(0.025)2
ss-1
1+
pop
= 1504
Where: pop = population
NEW SAMPLE SIZE 1504 Educational
Institutions
3.5.2. Sampling Procedure for the Quantitative Phase

The Sampling was done through the following stages
1. The country is divided into eight geographic regions, as used by the Ministry of
Education and each region is sub-divided into counties
2. From each county, sub-counties were selected as per the proportionate size of the
region, randomly (and purposively for marginalized areas).
3. From the selected sub-counties, educational institutions were selected
proportionately at random, as stipulated in the sample design ( Table 3.3)
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4. For the quantitative phase, from the selected educational institutions teachers
were selected at random in primary and secondary schools. The same proportional
selection technique will be applied for other institutions and field officers.
3.5.3. Sampling for the Qualitative Phase

Sampling was done using purposive techniques leading to identification of several
participants, institutions and key informants. A total of 2431 participants took part in
the study. The participants included primary school pupils, secondary and college
students, parents, teachers, heads of school, workers in the informal sector and
industry, Education field officers and various stakeholders. The list of participants is
presented in Table 3.4 below.
Table 3.4: List of participants in the Qualitative Phase
REGION PRY FLD/OF INF/S IND KEY TOTAL
Aberdares 92 10 06 07 20 307
Mombasa 49 09 05 07 19 187
Northern 146 11 04 04 21 431
Metropolitan 36 14 06 09 24 152
Garissa 12 06 05 03 08 58
Lake 140 09 05 04 21 384
Mau 208 12 05 06 18 647
Nzoia 77 12 04 06 19 265
Total 545 84 42 46 150 2431
The Qualitative data were generated using in-depth interviews with pupils and pupil
leaders in schools, workers in the industry/informal sector and key informants.
Focused group discussions were used to generate data from parents and learners. In
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addition, memoranda were sought and received from individuals and institutions
across the country. In total, about 250 memoranda were received. Further qualitative
data came from opinions in the print and social media.
3.5.4. Pilot Study

Before actual generation of the data, a piloting of the tools was undertaken in ten
counties in various regions across the country. These counties were randomly
sampled. The questionnaires and interview guides were tested for appropriateness of
question items in terms of language, content, clarity, time taken to administer as
well as general administration logistics. In addition, the pilot study was used to
determine whether: (i) the instruments would generate the type of data anticipated
and; (ii) the type of data desired could be meaningfully analyzed in relation to the
stated evaluation objectives. After the analysis of data collected from the pilot
study, ambiguities and unnecessary content in the questionnaires and interview
guides were addressed.
In pilot testing of tools, errors of omission or commission were corrected and

information provided about deficiencies and suggestions for improvement (Gay et
al, 2009). The piloting exercise ensured a common understanding and facilitated the
identification of challenges that were likely to occur when the tools were
administered to large number of similar respondents. Testing of the tools also
provided a realistic sense of how long each tool would take to administer.
3.6. Data generation process
KICD in collaboration with Ministry of Education, State Autonomous Government

Agencies such as Kenya Educational Management Institute, Teachers Service
Commission, Kenya Institute of Special Education, Universities and CEMASTEA
carried out the needs assessment over a period of two weeks in, 2016. Generally, the
reception by the respondents was quite warm. They welcomed and appreciated the
fact that their views were being sought on what needed to be reformed in the Kenyan
Curriculum for Schools and Colleges.
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23 teams were dispatched to visit different regions of the country – specifically to
schools, Colleges, Churches, the industry, informal sectors. In total 120 data
collectors participated in the research process and covered basically all the Counties
in Kenya (See the Table below). In addition, a call was made for memoranda from all
Kenyans in the Media and a total of 79 were received. Twenty five (25) teams, each
comprising four officers were dispatched to the counties. Each team covered 84
learning institutions. A total of 2100 learning institutions were targeted for data
collection countrywide. A total number of 7 instruments were administered. County
Education offices were the entry points into the selected districts. One-on-one
interview sessions were conducted with Faith based leaders, TTC principals. The
information they provided was captured using digital voice recorders.
Questionnaires for education officers and DQASOs were administered to the officers
at the Sub-county Education Headquarters. Within the schools, the head teachers
facilitated access to the teachers, learners, parents and SMC members.
Once the organization of the selected respondents was completed, respective data
collection instruments were administered. Using the observation schedule, available
physical facilities were observed to establish their adequacy and appropriateness. All
the established and accepted educational research ethical standards were adhered to
during the administration of data collection tools.
3.7. Data Analysis
Data Analysis for the Needs Assessment Survey entailed the dual process of
systematically applying statistical and logical techniques to describe and illustrate,
condense and evaluate data. Quantitative data were analyzed statistically while
qualitative data were analyzed thematically, as explained below.
3.7.1 Quantitative data analysis
The data from questionnaires were analyzed by use of the Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS) software Version 17.0. This software provided general
statistical information about the participants investigated and assisted in making
inferences about the population (McNeill & Chapman, 2005).
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3.7.2 Qualitative data analysis
The process of Qualitative data analysis involved six steps (Creswell, 2003; Jwan &
Ong’ondo, 2011). The first step involved transcribing all the interviews and Focused
Group Discussions (FGDs). During the transcription period, all the audio recorded
interviews were turned into text material and labeled; they later became the primary
data for subsequent analysis. The data was filed appropriately according to levels of
education. Data already in script form – mainly from memoranda and print
newspapers were also filed appropriately.
The second step was to do a workshop for all the officers involved in the data
analysis process using pilot data as dummies. This went on for about a week until the
team was confirmed to be consistent in coding process. The team was then divided so
that data for the Primary level was analyzed using the pre-determined themes
consistent with the research objectives.
The transcripts were first read to obtain a general sense of the information from the
primary level and to reflect on the data’s overall meaning. The third step was coding,
which took place in three stages: open, axial and selective described in Creswell
(2007) and Braun and Clarke (2006).
3.8. Trustworthiness of the Study
Trustworthiness is an important component that assures the readers that the findings
of this study can be trusted to inform policy and practice for curriculum reform. In
this section, the steps that were taken to ensure validity and reliability of the
quantitative research process are explained. Then, the steps taken to ensure
trustworthiness of the qualitative phase is also discussed.
3.8.1 Validity of the Study
The techniques used in validating the data collection instruments for this study
included content validity and construct validity. To ascertain that the items were
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relevant to the measurement of the intended content, the instrument was given to two
groups of experts; one group was requested to assess what concept the instrument is
trying to measure. The other group was asked to determine whether the set of items
or checklist accurately represents the concept under study. Apart from being tested in
schools, the tools were presented to a panel of experts and stakeholders for review
prior to data collection. They commented on the wording of questions and statements
and length of the instruments.
Construct validity was done to see whether the instrument reflects the intended
construct and tests the presumed construct .The main concerns were what the tool
was measuring and whether the scores would have a useful purpose and positive
consequences when they are used in practice (Creswell, 2009; Mugenda & Mugenda,
2012). Construct validity was done by comparing the items in the tools with
theoretical expectations and hypothesized behaviour to see how well they fit. Clear
definition of constructs were operationalized and provided to pitch the study on the
correct interpretation of the concepts. Use of mixed method approach also addressed
the construct validity of the study.
3.8.2 Reliability of the study

The reliability coefficient was established by using the split half reliability technique
which involved the administration of ‘two’ similar tests. Two ‘halves’ of the same
test were administered on the same sample. The data obtained were correlated using
the Spearman Brown Prediction formula of Npxy /1+(N-1)pxy, where pxy is the
predicted reliability coefficient for the total test.
At random, scored items were divided into two groups or alternatively, all the odd-
numbered items were grouped together and all the even-numbered items together.
Each subject’s total score was computed and the scores from the two groups of items
were correlated. Data with a high split-half reliability was considered to have a high
correlation coefficient. The higher the correlation coefficient obtained, the more
similar the forms and the higher the reliability (Mugenda &Mugenda, 2012; Craig &.
Wollack). The internal consistency of the items was determined from scores
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obtained. Cronbach’s coefficient alpha was computed to determine how items
correlated among themselves.
3.8.3. Trustworthiness of the Qualitative research process.
3.8.3.1. Credibility
The aim of the study was to assess the needs for curriculum reform. It was necessary
to ascertain the credibility of the study through triangulation, which basically
means bringing together various perspectives to check the extent to which the study
actually investigated what it set out to investigate.
The study utilized three types of triangulation: triangulation of data collection

techniques, triangulation of data sources, and triangulation of analysis (Rothbauer,
2008; Jwan & Ong’ondo, 2011). During the study, various data generation
techniques (interviews, focused group discussions, analysis of content in print and
social media and submissions in the form of memoranda).
In terms of data sources, the triangulation involved getting data from different
participants (Jwan & Ong'ondo, 2011). Each set of participants yielded different
evidence that provided different insights regarding curriculum reform. The different
sources were learners, parents, educations officers, various key
informants/stakeholders and various corporate institutions.The findings of the
Quantitative phase were triangulated with the results of the Qualitative phase so as to
give a more complete picture of the needs for curriculum reform.
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CHAPTER FOUR
FINDINGS ON PRIMARY LEVEL NEEDS
4.1 Introduction
The primary school level gives learners an educational foundation from where they spring to
other levels of education. It dictates the progression to secondary education and later to the
tertiary levels. This study was a needs assessment for curriculum reform in primary curriculum.
The findings focus on thematic areas that relate to the general primary needs, requisite
competencies and the necessary learning areas. Information is also presented on identification
and nurturing of talents, pedagogical approaches in the teaching and learning process as well as
appropriate assessment modes. The chapter ends with a discussion on emerging and
contemporary issues that need mitigation.
In every section and sub-section, the main points are stated and are backed by descriptive
statistics and citations from what the respondents actually said. These are referred to in
qualitative research as the voices of participants and serve as evidence intended to assure the
credibility of the findings, as stated in Chapter Three.
Responses were gathered from the primary school head teachers and teachers while an
observation schedule was used to gather information on availability of resources. Outside the
school, parents, employees in the informal sector, players in various industries and key
informants across various sectors provided the information.
4.2 General Societal Primary Level Needs

The general societal needs account for the perceived discrepancies between what exists and the
ideal. The needs assessment study sought to establish how the identified gaps could be bridged
through reforming the primary school curriculum. Head teachers and teachers in primary schools
were required to give their responses in regard to the extent to which societal needs should be
emphasized in the curriculum. They were asked to indicate the extent to which the identified
societal needs should be emphasized in the school curriculum using a five-pointer likert scale.
They were required to indicate their choices by selecting ‘N=Not at all’, ‘VL=very little extent’,
‘NS=Not sure’, ‘S=Some extent’ and ‘G= Great extent’. The responses were weighted out of 5
and averages derived. From the weighted averages, percentage mean ratings were further
75
derived. Head teachers and teachers’ responses on each identified societal need which
constituted the average percentage rating are presented in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Primary Head teachers and teachers responses on the extent to which societal needs
should be emphasized in the primary level curriculum N=842
From Figure: 4.1, it can be seen that primary school teachers, 91.16% and head teachers
92.50% were in agreement that there is a need for certain societal needs in the primary school
curriculum. Further details indicate that the teachers and head teachers rated the need for
patriotism and environmental protection as the highest in society. Other areas that were
considered pertinent in the curriculum include social development, Technological development,
and economic and Industrial development. The findings however pointed out to societal needs
that were given more priority than others.
4.2.1 Patriotism
A majority of teachers and head teachers expressed the need for the primary school curriculum to
perpetuate patriotism. It was ranked first by the head teachers (95.1%) and teachers (95.8%).
Additional findings showed that ethnicity and disunity in the country which are closely
associated with patriotism also dominated discussions among learners and parents who gave their
views. According to parents, education was not fulfilling its role in fostering peaceful
coexistence among different communities or countering other social ills which disrupt the
general well-being among people. They stated the need for education to enable learners live
76
together by encouraging learners to attend school away from their local environment. The
citation below is an example of the similar sentiments from the participants.
Parent: Education should promote unity and make our nation peaceful. However the current education
system which allows quota system has confined learners and teachers to their local environments
undermining interaction and cohesiveness unlike in the past. People used to fear hurting others because the
society and schools had people from different communities. (PA-FGD-NMP-BUN)
The situation was further compounded by disunity among political leaders and citizens alike. In
the view of learners, the political leaders were to blame for the deteriorating state of unity and
peace.
Pupil: the politics of the country is declining because the candidates opposition and incumbent leader are
always arguing now and then we need peace in our country (P-FGD-KAP-MAK)
Pupil:we need more political stability and not pointing fingers when problems arise (P-FGD-TRP-NYE).
These findings point out needs in the curriculum to ensure that citizens live together in peace and
harmony. According to the learners, the leaders had an obligation to reduce nationwide instances
of disunity among citizens, who were their followers. They were of the view that politicians
should work together, not engage in hate speech, tribalism, favoritism to avoid post-election
violence and other related political issues.
Pupil: Other issues that affecting us in Kenya are some politician incite people, they use hate speech in
rally in the name of supporting somebody and you find mostly in Kenya you vote for the person because
they come from your tribe. It is still taking place in Kenya because they were not taught at early stage. (P-
FGD-OSP-NAR)
An analysis of the findings shows that education is still considered as a vital component of
establishing patriotism in the country. It is further revealed that improvements need to be made
in terms of a curriculum that contextualizes the realities of challenges in society so that the
learners can relate what they are taught to their own experiences. In pointing out the gaps
highlighted in the curriculum, respondents indicated that what is learnt about living together is
not emphasized as a practical reality that learners should experience.
Parent:…..for example in class one we used to be taught about who is your neighbor, we were taught that
Ouma is your neighbor.. Kamau is your neighbor and would only tell them in regards to sentence
construction, but did not emphasize on them staying together…. (PA- FGD- JPP-LAK)
Much as social transformation through the curriculum has gained support, it requires to be
complemented by specific policy measures that ensure children in school are learning the
importance of tolerance (UNESCO 2014). This is because other factors outside the school exert a
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strong influence on patriotism and may perpetuate various forms of intolerance in society. The
pupils suggested that they need education that will bring about unity, working together and
helping one another. They also expressed the desire to interact with others peacefully.
Pupil: We can do a lot like trying to live together like people of one country and helping one another (P-
FGD-KRP–MUR)
Pupil: I would like to have good interaction so that I can socialize with people out there. (P-FGD-TRP-
NYE)
4.2.2 Environmental Protection

The protection of the environment ranked second among teachers and head teachers, at 93.2%
and 93.6% respectively. The learners demonstrated some level of awareness on the consequences
of environmental degradation, like global warming. They also acknowledged that though they
had some knowledge on practices that are favourable to environmental conservation, it did not
translate to environment friendly practices.
In school we are told not to be dirty…and not to rubbish the environment…when we have finished…even if
we have like biscuits…and we have already removed them from the paper bag…we go and put them in the
rubbish (pit) (P-FGD-JAP-NAI)
Pupil: “We have been taught how to keep the environment clean but up to now I never understand why we
keep throwing wrappers of food-stuff everywhere” (PL-SOP-USG).
4.2.3 Social Development

Another highlight for needs in the primary school curriculum was social needs. This was stated
by 92.05% of the teachers and 92.8% of the head teachers. Among pupil leaders, the negative
impact of corruption was cited as a drawback to social development. The pupil leaders called
for concerted efforts to stem the vice in the country. They further encouraged the use of legal
mechanisms to ensure that the perpetrators of corruption faced the necessary legal action.
` Pupil: We need to stop corruption. Corruption is really hitting us so it requires a stun action taken on the
perpetrators’. (PL- FGD- KIP-USG)
Learners and parents underscored the need for the curriculum to address tribalism. They cited the
vice as the cause of unnecessary conflicts, killings, discrimination and as impacting learning
negatively in certain areas. The parents stated the need for education to help learners to live
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together. They observed that education should promote unity and peace by encouraging learners
to attend school away from their local environment.
Parent: Education should promote unity and make our nation peaceful. However the current education
system which allows quota system has confined learners and teachers to their local environments
undermining interaction and cohesiveness unlike in the past. People used to fear hurting others because the
society and schools had people from different communities. (PA-FGD-NMP-BUN)
Parents in areas prone to insecurity wanted an education that would improve social stability.
They expected their children to make good choices against joining terror groups.
Parents:You know when we educate our children we have expectations. We want our children to help us
as parents and also to help our country with issues of security, we want them to get the knowledge and
tactics on how to help our country. But first we have to educate them. We also want them to be able to
protect us as you know you can’t employ a security person who is not educated on security measures We
want education that will help our children to be the future leaders and stay far away from groups like al
shabaab. They will be making wise choices and believing that education is the start of their good life. And
us as parent we will witness their success by seen the fruits of our children in education. (PA-FGD-MAR-
BAR)
This view clearly shows that parents expect good values to influence character formation and
deter their children from joining dangerous terror groups. Other factors mentioned included
specific cultural practices that still go on in some communities. Pupils identified harmful cultural
practices as factors that are disruptive to the well-being of the society.
Pupil: If people are educated they leave the bad cultural practices and so, many girls will finish school (P-
FGD-LGP-MAR)
4.2.4 Technological development
Responses given by teachers and head teachers on the technological needs at the primary school
level were rated at 88.4% and 91.3%, respectively. Responses on technological development
were mainly focused around the use of computers in schools. Suggestions for technological
advancement centered around the provision of computers in schools and ascertaining that pupils
started using them. The parents and pupils also expressed a need to introduce technology in
schools. Early initiatives and in the use of technology in schools were found particularly
advantageous for technological development.
Pupil: We should introduce computers in at least every school especially to young children as young as
about 10yrs or even 8yrs. (PL- KIP-USG)
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Another benefit according to parents was that the use of technology can contribute to the
improvement of education by giving pupils an opportunity to do their own learning by carrying
out their research.
Parent: teach pupils in computer because if they teach them how to use the computers may be they could
enable them for example to research more about the education they get like subjects they learn more about
them (PA-FGD-BPP-KAK)
Despite these advantages, other respondents faulted the use of technology in schools. They
observed that technology is misused sometimes. They pointed out that it has aided the leakage of
national examinations.
Parent: ... It is sometimes used negatively. For example leaking of exam is largely through technology.
(PA-FGD- UNP –MAK)
4.2.5 Economic and Industrial development.
The responses on primary level needs to fulfill economic and industrial development were still
high among teachers, at 87% and head teachers at 89%. Owing to the challenge of the ever
growing population, amidst limited job opportunities, parents acknowledged a skills based
education that can lead to job creation and make Kenyans economically independent.
Parent: Earlier you could survive without education but nowadays the country is overpopulated so we are
trying to educate our children to be skilled, able as well as possess some attributes which will enable them
in this tough life (PA-FGD-MAP-BAR)
To support economic development further, the parents added that education in Kenya should
focus on self-employment and creating employment rather than creating job seekers. At the
personal level, there was also need for an education that leads individuals to contribute to overall
economic growth of Kenya.
The general needs for curriculum reform tended to shed light on the disconnect between
education and the realities in Kenya. These include the social, economic, political as well as the
technological contexts. Pupils and parents underscored the need for education to help learners to
relate curriculum content to real life, so as to solve problems and address real challenges
affecting the country.
Parent: …..to me I feel the gap is that even when we are teaching we don’t relate that content or real life,
……..of-course the gap is that, we don’t emphasize that the moment you teach everything in class let the
child see the same in real life. There is a disconnect between the content and child’s experience. Maybe as
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we come up with the curriculum, we will see the ways of emphasizing that it is not the objective of getting
things right but also the objective of applying every content you teach in real life.( PA- FGD- JPP-LAK)
The findings are an expression of a new role that the curriculum is expected to play. The
expectations expressed are that in changing the different dimensions of society put forward, the
curriculum will exemplify the integrated conception of education as a cultural, social and
economic policy (Marope 2014). It further points out that society’s expectations and demands are
the foundations for study programmes and disciplines which are constructed for future
generations (Moore, 2014). Recognition of the inseparable link between the society as it is and
education, could be the only successful means of ensuring the reformed curriculum speaks to
needs of Kenya.
The inter-relationship between the various forms of development was also brought out by the
findings. The respondents stated that social development depended a lot on a corruption free
environment where leaders exhibited integrity. From the study findings, it was further noted that
politicians impacted heavily on national development. The parents were of the view that
politicians should reduce politicking and concentrate on development work. Similarly, security
and peace would spur economic development. It was clearly demonstrated that certain social
challenges like insecurity and drug abuse were often related to poverty, which had denied some
children the opportunity to continue with their education. The findings expound on cyclic nature
of the challenges in the various dimensions of the society.
Parent: For Kenya to develop better, it needs educated people, Kenyans to be educated... children are
smoking bhang, the chew miraa, they fight, the steal, what I am saying is Kenya should protect us because
the country is not safe, poverty is high, and that’s why people are killing one another, a lot of robbery, most
of them are poor they cannot help themselves. (PA-FGD- MAP –KWA-)
We need to develop our roads, improve security, the cleanliness of our environment, improve technology
and water facilities.(P-FGD-KIP-USG)
Implicit in this is also the need for a curriculum that attempts to work through the challenges
based on a more integral view. The curriculum policies underlying the curriculum reform process
and implementation should avoid separating and segregating in order to safeguard identities
(Lenoir, Xypas and Jamet, 2006) or adopt perspectives that reject and expel those who are
different. In its application, the curriculum should encourage social justice and peaceful conflict
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resolution. Similarly, concerns for proper use of resources and the environment should be in-
built.
This calls for the creation of experiential situations in and out of school to develop a curriculum
that strives for a country whose economy can be supported by a society that is peaceful and
cohesive. The political development is expected to be in touch with the social, technological and
cultural realities of its people. The solutions to the challenges outlined will therefore need to be
tackled through curriculum approaches that target inter-relationships between the various facets
of the society outlined. They also need to be re-contextualized by offering solutions that bring on
board cognitive, ethical and emotional dimensions.
4.3 Competencies
Competencies generally refer to a set of skills, knowledge, attitudes and behaviors required for
effective performance of a real-world task or activity. The survey further established the extent
to which 21st century competencies should be incorporated into the primary curricula. The
identified competencies were twenty one items, clustered into four 4Cs of the 21 st century skills
including; communication, collaboration, critical thinking and creativity whose results and
discussions are presented below.
Primary school head teachers and teachers were required to rate the skills, values, attitudes and
knowledge that should be emphasized in the curriculum. They were required to indicate their
choices by selecting ‘N=Not at all’, ‘VL=very little extent’, ‘NS=Not sure’, ‘S=Some extent’ and
‘G= Great extent’. The responses were weighted out of 5 and averages derived. From the
weighted averages, percentage mean ratings were further derived. Primary school head teachers
and teachers’ responses on desired competencies classified under communication are presented
in Figure 4.2
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Figure 4. 2: Primary Head teachers and teachers Responses on desired competencies classified under
Communication
The findings show that all the respondents rated each sub theme above 90%. The overall
percentage rating for communication, leadership and management was 93.7%. This implies that
these are the competencies that are expected to equip the learners for 21st C challenges and make
them seize the opportunities brought about by new forces locally and internationally. Similar
studies carried out in Singapore by (Soland et al, 2013 and Voogt and Roblin, 2012) provided a
roadmap on key values that were in their education framework for 21 st Cs which included;
creativity, critical thinking, communication, collaboration, social and cultural skills. The
education sector emphasizes these core values that are expected to be cultivated in all its
learners.
4.3.1 Communication
Communication had the best rating for desired competencies at 96.6% and 96.2% among head
teachers and teachers, respectively. Respondents from the informal sector and key informants
were also of the view that communication is paramount for developing the ability to live with
others. As components of communication, social interaction skills were emphasized. The skills
were required to make learners live in their communities peacefully and behave appropriately.
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Respondents in the informal sector noted that these skills were critical for any meaningful
relationship in the world of work. They criticized the bias in just teaching Mathematics and
English which may be absent within the social environment in which learners are bound to find
themselves.
Inf: They need clear understanding of proper inter-personal and social relationships, including the long-
term consequences of poor decisions to an individual and the society at large. We need a workforce with
strong resentment towards corruption and well equipped to fight it morally and otherwise. A workforce
that appreciates the ethnic diversity and is able to amicably integrate in all engagements. (INF-SEC-NAI)
Digital literacy was also viewed as a means of enhancing communication and cooperation. Key
informants expressed the need for learners at the primary school level to acquire technological
skills. They made suggestions that children should start as early as ten years. The practical mode
of delivery of content on technology was considered most productive because it allowed children
to use realia.
ME: Digital literacy should be achieved at 10 years of age. This includes understanding communication
principles, how to operate computers, internet usage skills and understanding of the basic principles of
digital technologies and issues surrounding use of digital use (security and privacy, digital citizenship).
(ME-ED-AC)
4.3.2 Creativity
The primary school head teachers and teachers’ responses on desired competencies classified
under creativity are presented in Figure `4.3
Figure 4.3: Primary School Head teachers and teachers Responses on Competencies under Creativity
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The findings indicated that competencies associated with creativity were rated high by over 85%
of both the head teachers and the teachers. The average rating of all the creativity competencies
was 90.5% of the teachers and 91.1% of the head teachers. These responses can be closely linked
to a study carried out by Rychen D.S. and Salganik L.H (eds.) (2001) which revealed that a
creative person should have divergent thinking, problem solving skills, originality, and ability to
see or create new values. Considering the convergence on the need to nurture creativity in the
curriculum and the literature encountered, constructs of problem solving, divergent thinking,
research and innovation will find their place in the content of the proposed curriculum.
The idea of entrepreneurship was prominent among respondents given the current situation of
unemployment being experienced in the country. Parents expressed a desire to have children who
are independent and able to do something in order to earn a living. Setting up a business to
propel one’s specialization was seen as key to reducing the dependence syndrome, since it would
make people independent.
Parent: ...children to develop skills on entrepreneurship such as ICT and on business matters. We also
want to develop positive skills and talents in business. (PA-FGD- KAP –MAN)
Parent: such a child should be independent, someone who can do things for her/himself. Those are
children who should be able to do something to earn living ... they should have skills even in business. A
very independent child. (PA-FGD- UNP –MAK)
While focusing on the curriculum content, secondary school students on their part reiterated that
at primary level, Home science, Art &Craft, Music should be learnt so that learners can be able
to use the skills learnt in life, earn a living from the arts and also to nurture their talents early
enough.
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4.3.3 Collaboration
under collaboration are presented in Figure 4.4
Figure 4.4: Head teachers and teachers’ responses on competencies classified under collaboration
Collaboration was considered a major desired competence with an overall percentage rating of
90%. This critical because if knowledge is learned to support the performance of skills then
learners will satisfactorily excel in aspects of knowledge, skills and values (Soland et al 2013 and
Voogt & Roblin, 2012). Key informants noted that it was necessary for the curriculum to in-
build the modeling of social and inter personal relationships as well as negotiation as a
composite part of the teaching and learning process.
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4.3.4 Critical Thinking
under critical thinking are presented in Figure 4. 5
Figure 4. 5: Primary head teachers and teachers’ Responses on desired competencies under Critical
Thinking
The percentage rating for critical thinking and related competencies by primary school head
teachers was as follows; critical thinking 92.2%,reflection79.4% and decision making 95.6%.
The overall mean percentage rating for the three aspects was 89.06% while teachers rated the
same aspects slightly below 90%. This is consistent with other competencies rated earlier hence
should be emphasized in the curriculum. The results show a strong consensus among different
respondents on the aspect of critical thinking, reflection and decision making, presumably
learners to develop critical thinking skills and the ability to adapt to new learning situations as
they transit form one sub sector of education to another.
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4.3.5. Practical Skills for self reliance
Parents observed that the curriculum currently in place favours learners who progress through
secondary school and university. They expressed the need to teach skills that enable those who
do not proceed to secondary schools to earn a living. Parents faulted the kind of education that is
offered for having a lot of book knowledge that cannot help learners who do not go beyond
primary school. Skills such as tailoring and agriculture would help them earn a living.
Parent 1:. lakini kuna wale watabaki kiwango yao imefika..mwisho wao in class eight. sasa ni afadhali tu-
involve the way nimesema iyo skills ili isaidie huyu mtu hajaendelea. for example, mambo ya technical
skills, hii ya kutumia…ya kufanya kazi kwa mkono…mambo ya kufanya tailoring…hizo vitu zingine
zenye at least ata-survive nae. kwa sababu akiacha class eight, hapo ni mwisho yake. labda arudi nyumbani,
aanze mambo ya farming. na labda in primary, hatukuona mambo ya agriculture…ilitolewa. mambo ya
music, tunaona watu wengi wako na hiyo talent lakini haiwezi fanyiwa primary ionekane. ( PA-FGD-
OPP-NAR)
Parent 1:but there are those who will remain at the class eight level. It is better like I said to have them
involved in skills so that they assist those who have not progressed. For example, technical skills that entail
working with the hands …tailoring and other skills that can allow them to make a living. When they
complete class eight it is their end. Unless they return home and start on farming, and probably Agriculture
was not offered in primary schools. We see that many people have a talent in music but it cannot be fully
developed in primary school. ( PA-FGD-OPP-NAR)
The concept of self reliance was considered quite an important outcome of the practical skills
that education should inculcate. The respondents were therefore of the opinion that alongside
academic knowledge, children should be in touch with realities of life like feeding animals and
farming. This according to parents should also manifest in the ability to make real things that are
used in day to day activities.
INF: They are learning too much academic, and forgetting to associate with the normal life. They should
be involved, exposed to practical life integration such as feeding animals at home and farming. Within the
locality they belong to, they should do what is done there((INF-SEC-NYE).
Parent: this is where they should be able to make real thing like baskets, ropes, mwiko. Today people with
these skills are scarce. (PA-FGD- UNP –MAK)
INF: I can only begin by saying that they should be creative …Just like 8.4.4, in our time when you got to
class six we had practice of making funny things such as mats and it was depending on how creative you
were. That time you find that children are motivated by what is being done. ((INF-SEC-USG)
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4.3.6 Self-care and Personal Development Skills.
Parents and learners felt that education should equip the child with skills that give them a sense
of responsibility over themselves and help them navigate through their daily life. Parents and
learners attributed the improvement of self-care and personal responsibility to the teaching of
Home Science at primary school. They observed that the teaching of the subject at the primary
school level would impart skills necessary for daily living. The learners could also be
encouraged to extend their services to the community.
Parent: This issue really hurts me because whenever clothes are torn, however minor, these children
cannot repair them. They would rather throw away the clothes since they lack the skill of repairing
them…They cannot also replace a button... During my time we used to be taught in school. We learnt how
to sew clothes using a needle and that is the knowledge I use even now (PA-FGD- DPP-NBI)
Pupil:I think they could not have cancelled the Home Science because most children like our class you can
find most children, you can find a class eight pupil doesn’t know how to sew their shirts when they are
torn, they do not even know how to fix their buttons because they are not taught. They still wait for
someone so that they can be taught . I think they should teach these things for our better future when we
will be independent and require such skills in our life (PL-SOP-USG)
Parents justified the skills because they lay the foundation for any other pursuits that a learner
chooses to undertake beyond the primary school. Learners on the other hand indicated that it was
necessary for the primary school curriculum to equip them with knowledge to facilitate transition
into secondary school.
Parent: A child who is able to read and write, be able to interact with others and be self- reliant (PA-FGD-
KIP–MUR)
4.3.7. Skills for Career Development
The findings from the study outlined certain broad skill areas that the curriculum should expose
learners to. In the context of career development, the various fields would help them explore
their areas of interest and finally guide them to a particular area. This contributes to
differentiation amongst learners by allowing those with inclination towards certain areas to
choose their paths.
Parents: At least a child should have basic knowledge of various aspects of life, basic knowledge be it
business, science and technology, carpentry, art craft such like things, even mechanics. He should be able
to have basic knowledge that will help him or her develop interest in a particular thing (PA-LKP-HOB)
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It was additionally pointed out by respondents in the informal sector that skills that are needed in
job market should be focused on at all levels of education, including primary schools. It was
expected that education at this level should develop self-driven, all-rounded graduates who are
able to comfortably go for self-employment as an alternative to formal employment, considering
the increasingly reducing opportunities in the job market. This could be achieved through
linkages with industry to establish the specific gaps in the labour market and tailor education
towards the development of such skills.
INF :Education should ensure that learners who leave school at different levels all the way from Primary
school to University have interest in skills at those levels that are required and now missing in various
industries and which they can easily learn. This will lead to quality output at all levels in industrial work,
and inject some certainty in the prospects of improved and regular incomes for all workers who attain some
skills. This can be achieved if a thorough research is done on skills required in various industries at all
levels (INF-SEC-NAI)
Apart from supporting their engagement in the informal sector, pupils suggested that there was
need for skills and knowledge that will prepare them for careers in the formal sector such as
journalism.
Pupil: When I finish class eight, I want to get a good education grade and join university, and do a good
course of journalism. (P- FGD-MAP-NAR)
4.3.8 Values
The respondents expressed a general view that the society had lost most of its values. Special
reference was made to the negative impact of corruption which had adversely affected our
society. They expressed the need to deal with corruption through high levels of integrity.
Parent: ... Corruption is finishing this nation. I don’t know where we shall get leaders of integrity. The
courts are corrupt. Law breakers are taken to corrupt court. Judges are corrupt. Where is integrity? Those
who set exams are teachers and are the same people who disclose the questions. Very high integrity is
needed in this area. (PA-FGD- UNP –MAK)
Learners also identified values like humility, kindness, respect, hard work, patience, love, peace,
responsibility, honesty, obedience, kindness, truthfulness, good morals and integrity that would
lead to good behaviour as a result of discerning right from wrong. They added that the
curriculum should embody civic responsibilities and the national values as enshrined in the
constitution. They proposed that curriculum should revive the values like honesty and love.
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Teachers and parents in their lead role as people who can be emulated were expected to act as
role models since learners would likely look up to them to model behavior. Support from home
would bolster values. Parents suggested that learners should also learn religious values in order
to equip them for the world of work.
Values identified include: discipline, organization, cleanliness, respect, patriotism, obedience,

respect of other people’s opinions. Parents in a rejoinder indicated that the transmission of values
would only be successful if practically demonstrated. Since children could only emulate, what
they saw, it was the responsibility of teachers and parents to model good values all the time so
that children would best learn through observation.
Parent: Teachers to be united this will help the children to take them as their role models. Also the parents
at home should refrain from bad behaviors which can lure the children. The parents should set a perfect
example to their children. Knowing that child will emulate what the parents do (PA-FGD-MAP-BAR)
The parents indicated that values should be taught from an early age since they form the learners’
character and cited some of the values to be included in the curriculum like discipline, respect,
politeness and hard work.
Parent : At the lower level is also where behavior begins. The way you teach a child is the way he/she will
become. If you see a child needs correction, this is when you should correct the child. If you want the child
to go to church, then take him/her to church and he will learn that he should attend church. The child
should also learn to respect his/her elders, their teachers as well as those who follow him/her. The child
should also be taught what is bad and that is how we will get rid of rudeness amongst our children. A major
contributor towards spoiling our children is the way we pamper our children. We pamper our children so
much to the point where when they go to upper classes and the teachers address them harshly, some end up
committing suicide. We as parents need to take the responsibility of instilling good behavior in our children
alongside the teachers.(PA-FGD-SEP-NYM)
The respondents also felt that respect and obedience were important elements in the formation of
learners. They said that these characteristics should be extended to parents, teachers and anybody
older that the learners.
Parents: ….it’s a must the child should know respect first. To respect parents, teachers and anybody
who’s older than him/her; and everybody in general. To be a child with respect …..and to be obedient
and wherever he/she is sent, he/she should run, to respond once called, that is what I would like a child
to have. .(PA-FGD- NYP -NYM)
Parents wanted the return of the cane as a form of punishment to deter indiscipline and instill
moral values in children in primary schools. They were also of the view that if guidance and
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counseling were strengthened, values such as obedience, honesty, cooperation, dedication and
responsibility could be acquired by learners.
Parent: The removal of corporal punishment and human rights requirements, have made it difficult for
teachers and parents to instill expected values. However, if guidance and counseling has strengthened
values such as obedience, honesty, cooperation and dedication to responsibilities should be emphasized to
a great extent. (PA-FGD-SJP-BUN)
The values postulated in the findings can be demarcated, albeit not inextricable, into two
categories. The first one is the set of universal values, which also amplifies certain national
values, including tolerance, peace, democracy, inclusion, equity and social justice among, others.
These are not entirely divorced from other values like love, kindness and humility which have a
place in society and how people relate at the personal level. It is however evident that that they
are not mutually exclusive since the absence of any value leads to some disequilibrium in the
society.
4.3.9. Attitudes
The importance of education as a transformative tool was articulated by industrialists who

suggested that education should first of all develop the person. According to them, change of
mind sets was a key factor in giving knowledge that what they learnt in school should alter their
thinking and enable them to create jobs, not just rely on white collar jobs. There is need for
education that will change people’s mindset and help them realize that the knowledge acquired in
school can be used in various ways, not just in white collar jobs
Industrialist…change the mind set and get a different mentality …because why we end up all looking for
white collar jobs.. .that has caused so much unemployment… there is more to education rather than you
getting a job.… passing exams is not the only thing in life …you can live…happy life not necessarily
through cheating your way into the system and having all the shortcuts that people are taking…Let people
learn patience, to value honesty and above all to know that they should be accountable for whatever action
that they do …later on they will pay for them dearly . (MAN-IND-BAR)
Pupils suggested that it was necessary for people to develop positive attitudes towards certain
subjects that do not necessarily interest them, teachers and life in general. In addition pupils
should be confident and cultivate a sense of independence.
Pupil: ...the blame can also be put on us because we have negative attitude towards the subjects and also
towards the teachers when we don’t understand... I would like to be a singer but if the teachers will not
show us an example of how singers do we will be afraid and say I can’t do this because if the teachers can’t
do even me I can’t do... The teachers should not be abusing us because, let’s say you’ve not done the work
the teachers has given. Now when you go apologize to the teacher the teacher tells you, “So. You go move
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away from me.” You will feel fear from the teachers in class and you will not understand (P-FGD-BJP –
MUR)
They also suggested that education should help learners to develop positive attitudes for
application in their future, including helping others. Such an attitude should be directed to both
self and others. They also pointed out the need for attitudes that foster unity, cohesion and
nationalism.
Pupil: I would like to have values like honesty, love for people, intelligent, trustful… I would like to be
able to help others who are in difficult situations and help them get solutions to their problems (P-FGD-
BUP-LAK)
Respondents indicated that pupils should be encouraged to appreciate one another despite their
varied backgrounds since some live in the slums. Further, respondents suggested that orphans
and most vulnerable children should be cared for and accorded equal opportunities.
Pupil; we should be taught on how to live with orphans despite our different family backgrounds.”( PL-
SOP-USG)
Learners would like to see their teachers committed to their work, serve as role models and not
just salary matters.
Pupil: We need teachers that do not just need money but they are ready to teach us what is good and what
we should not do. (P-FGD- BJP –MUR)
These findings on competencies give options for a curriculum whose focus is more on how
knowledge, values and attitudes can be used, (UNESCO-IBE 2015), rather than just acquisition.
These options embed the needs of the learners and their interests, which are by extension, a
reflection of development prospects of the societies with which they interact. The findings show
that suggestions made for learning areas are quite broad. The concept of looking at educational
programmes as a collection of separate strands, commonly known as subjects and disciplines is
slowly being overtaken by new ideals, entrenched in the transnationalization of topics and
competencies. The change is inclined towards generic non-domain specific competencies such as
critical thinking and problem solving, creativity and learning to learn. Included are also cross-
curricular topics like global citizenship, sustainable development and inclusion.(UNESCO-IBE
2015).
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Additionally, the findings show that curriculum in its current state could benefit from
interventions that would enrich the content and processes, and make them more engaging to
create and transform the learner in tandem with the ever changing national and global contexts.
This because in terms of conceptualization and implementation, the primary school curriculum
does not embody the organizing principles outlined for competencies. The theoretical nature of
implementation (KIE, 2008) reduces the opportunities for creating the situations that enable
graduates to exit and fit into real life or work.
Learners at the primary school level must be provided with suitable situations, to attain the
proposed competencies as they exit into real-life, or work related situations. Learning contexts
without sufficient resources and supportive activities identified before are likely to inhibit
development of the envisaged competencies. The need for comprehensive overview of the real
life contexts to create futuristic curriculum programmes and adaptable learners is unavoidable.
The outlined learning outcomes can be rendered invalid for the next level in instances where
there is disharmony between the curriculum and the real life circumstances to which learners are
expected to exit.
In a competence curriculum, learner participation is at the core of learning. Teachers in Kenya’s

primary schools need to understand the theory and practice of a competence based curriculum.
Cardinet (1982) maintains that without real transformation of pedagogical and didactic actions of
teachers, it is unlikely that learners will develop actual competencies. The observation of
(Akyeampong et al., 2013) that trainees are not prepared to ensure that learners participate
actively to understand the lesson calls for re-orientation and re-training of teachers to alleviate
the pedagogical problems linked to quality and variety of teaching methods.
Alternative assessment procedures are also needed to support the new way of learning.
Competencies cannot be effectively measured with multiple choice or paper-and-pencil tests
(Resnick & Resnick, 1992; Quellmalz & Haertel, 2004; National Research Council, 2006, that
are common practice in Kenyan primary schools.
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4.4 Learning Areas
Learning areas refer to content that has been designated in the curriculum to be taught and
learned. The learning areas are clearly defined to show who is targeted by specific content, when
and where .The study sought to establish the extent to which learning areas identified should be
emphasized in the school curriculum. Responses were obtained from heads of institutions,
teachers and curriculum support officers. The respondents were asked to indicate the extent to
which the identified learning areas should be emphasized in the school curriculum using a five-
pointer likert scale. They were required to indicate their choices by selecting ‘N=Not at all’,
‘VL=very little extent’, ‘NS=Not sure’, ‘S=Some extent’ and ‘G= Great extent’. The different
individual learning areas were clustered into broader learning areas and composite means for
each of them calculated. The findings are presented according to the broader categorization.
4.4.1 Extent to which Art and Design should be emphasized in the school curriculum
The responses were classified according to levels and based on the broader categorization.
Figure 4.6 shows responses from heads of schools, teachers and Curriculum support officers on
inclusion of art and design in the primary school curriculum.
Figure 4.6: Head Teachers, Teachers and Curriculum Support Officers Mean Percentage Responses
on the extent to which Art and Design should be emphasized in the school curriculum
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Inclusion of design was rated highly with a mean percentage rating of 91.8% by the head
teachers and 88.4% of the teachers in primary schools. On average, the percentage rating of
inclusion of both Art and Design was high (above 80%) by the heads teachers. The curriculum
support officers mean percentage rating of both art and design stood at 86.6% which was also
high. This means that while designing the curriculum Art and Design should be considered.
The primary school head teachers, teachers’ and curriculum support officers’ responses on the
extent to which agriculture, technology, vocational and technical subjects should be emphasized
in the school curriculum Figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7: Head Teachers and Teachers Mean Percentage Responses on the extent to which
Agriculture, Technology, Vocational and Technical Subjects should be Emphasized in the School
Curriculum
The head teachers 95.2% and 92.0% of the teachers strongly supported emphasis of technology
in the school curriculum. Vocational and technical subjects were least rated at 87.4% of the head
teachers and 85.4% of the teachers.
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Other respondents, including learners, parents and key informants decried the removal of
practical subjects such as Agriculture, livestock rearing, Home Science, Creative Arts and Music,
from the Primary curriculum. Vocational courses such as engineering, carpentry, masonry,
handcraft, wood work, motor vehicle mechanics, needle work, cookery, knitting, tailoring were
also proposed to form part of the curriculum at the Primary School level. Respondents credited
food security to Agriculture and suggested its inclusion at the basic level as a compulsory
subject. They suggested examination of those subjects.
KI: And also another thing is that I will say that most of the economic activities of the community is
livestock so if they can be taught something that is related to livestock, the drop out from the school can be
useful to these nomads and at least when they drop out if they come back to the animal they don’t become a
burden to the parents, but they can help to keep livestock which is the economic activity of the people so
that will also be a great assistance so that they are taught what they are brought up with instead of going to
agriculture and things that are very rare here....(KI-CDE-GAR)
The advantages attributed the technical subjects are mainly their ability to raise levels of
economic empowerment at the individual level and also contribute to the overall economic
development.
4.4.2: Extent to which Physical Education should be emphasized in the school curriculum
The head teachers and teachers rated the extent to which Physical Education should be
emphasized in the primary school curriculum. Their findings are presented in Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8: Heads Teachers and Teachers Responses on the extent to which P.E. should be
emphasized in the school curriculum
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Majority of the head teachers (94.6%) and 92.8% of the teachers strongly supported emphasis on
P.E. in the school curriculum. This indicated that P.E. is important in schools and thus should be
emphasized in the envisaged primary school curriculum. The parents laid emphasis on the
importance of Physical Education in the school curriculum. On the contrary, exclusion during
implementation down played its importance.
4.4.3 Extent to which subjects categorized under Humanities should be emphasized in the
school curriculum
The head teachers and teachers rated the extent to which humanities subjects should be
emphasized in the school curriculum. Their findings are presented in Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9: Heads teachers and Teachers Percentage Responses on the extent to which subjects
categorized under Humanities should be emphasized in the school curriculum
Subjects categorized under Humanities were rated highest by the head teachers (91.2%) and
teachers 90.4%. This implied that humanities subjects should be highly emphasized in the
envisaged curriculum. Learners and parents preferred the teaching of History, Geography and
Social Studies to raise the learners’ consciousness of the different cultures nationally and
internationally. They suggested that learners should be taught relationships between nations as
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well as basic history of their country. Respondents were of the view that in Social Studies topics
about economics should be emphasized rather than cases of human evolution.
Parent: So in primary children should be able to find out who she or he is really is, to value others, know
human relations, the reason why nations are related to one another at least should there, should know the
basic history of their country and country’s development, should also be able to speak and write good
English and good Kiswahili, apart from international thing… that child should be able to do basic
mathematics, should be able to do some work in science to understand himself, plants some form of
agriculture at this level the child should be exposed to every form of a stage sine if you denies the child that
kind of a ability then at higher stage when he narrows down to specific area, there are areas which will
miss overall. (PA-FGD-MGS-USG)
4.4.4 Extent to which Environment and Climate Change Aspects should be emphasized in
the school curriculum
The head teachers and teachers rated the extent to which environment and climate change aspects
should be emphasized in the school curriculum. Their findings are presented in Figure 4.10.
Environment and Climate Change subjects should be emphasized in the school curriculum
Almost all the head teachers (99.8%) indicated that climate change subjects should be
emphasized in the envisaged curriculum. The head teachers 97.4% and 98.8% indicated that
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environment and hygiene and sanitation subjects respectively should be emphasized in the
envisaged curriculum.
Head teachers and teachers’ responses on the extent to which entrepreneurship should be
emphasized in the school curriculum are presented in Figure 4.11.
entrepreneurship subject should be emphasized in the school curriculum
Majority of the head teachers (89.0%) and teachers (84.8%) indicated that entrepreneurship
should be included in the envisaged competency based curriculum. The respondents underscored
the role of entrepreneurship in spurring economic growth and industrial development. Content on
financial literacy would enable learners to acquire skills to save, spend wisely and invest.
Pupil: …what about the person who scored D? Where do they go? If you are taught how to become an
entrepreneur they obviously will have an idea of making ends meet that is starting small and then growing
big.” (PL-SOP- USG).
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4.4.5: Extent to which 21st Century subjects should be emphasized in the school curriculum
The head teachers, teachers and curriculum support officers rated the extent to which
Mathematics, Languages and Science subjects should be emphasized in the school curriculum.
Their findings are presented in Figure 4.12
Figure 4.12: Head teachers, Teachers and Curriculum Support Officers Responses on the extent to
which 21st Century subjects should be emphasized in the school curriculum
The findings show that majority of all the respondents (above 90%) supported emphasis of
Mathematics, Languages and Sciences in the envisaged curriculum. The head teachers, teachers
and curriculum support officers overall mean percentage ratings for the subjects were 97.8%,
96.8%, and 94.1% respectively.
The importance of Mathematics, Science and Languages to the assimilation and acquisition of
the 21st century skills is highly emphasized in the country’s blueprint for economic
development which flags the teaching of mathematics, languages and sciences as being vital to
the country’s development. The respondents affirmed the vital role played by Science and
Mathematics in relation to employment, innovation, food security and prevention of diseases.
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Pupil: ability in Science and Maths so that I can make a clone of human being …we should learn sciences
to avoid transmission of diseases, mechanism (P-FGD-HPP-KIL)
Studies have also shown that countries like Singapore and Malaysia with high technological
development have put great emphasis on Mathematics and Sciences as a foundational
requirement for their technological advancement.
4.4.6: Extent to which Home Science should be emphasized in the school curriculum
The head teachers, teachers and curriculum support officers rated the extent to which home
science should be emphasized in the school curriculum. Their findings are presented in Figure
4.13.
Figure 4.13: Head teachers, Teachers and Curriculum Support Officers Responses on the extent to
which Home Science Subjects should be emphasized in the school curriculum
Inclusion of health and nutrition was rated highly with a mean percentage rating of 98.0% by the
head teachers, 97.6% of the curriculum support officers and 97.2% of the teachers. Learners also
underscored the need for health education, including good grooming. They also needed to be
aware of Ebola and other emerging health issues. Some key informants were of the view that
age appropriate health education content should be taught in line with Articles 10, 11 and 24 of
the Constitution of Kenya 2010.
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On average, the mean percentage rating of inclusion of the home science subjects was high by
96.9% of the head teachers, 96.9% of the teachers and 97.3% of the curriculum support officers.
This means that while designing the curriculum home science subjects should be highly
considered.
4.4.7 Languages and Communication
Learners expressed the need to learn English and Kiswahili in order to be able to communicate
and prepare them for careers such as law and journalism as well as for transition to higher
education. Some respondents were of the view that public speaking, writing, research and good
manners should form part of the curriculum. Further, basic Fasihi ya Kiswahili and Literature in
English and indigenous languages should be introduced in middle classes and should later be
offered as optional in upper classes. Simple class readers can be prescribed in achieving this
objective. Parents highlighted the need for Kiswahili to be emphasized for the role it plays in
communication within East Africa.
Pupil: To become a lawyer you should know English to communicate with those who do not know other
languages (P-FGD-MAP-NAR)
Parents emphasized the role of mother tongue as laying the foundation for communication and
the need to anchor it in the curriculum just like in countries like Japan.
Parent……countries like Japan, India, Korea, they all speak their language. In our country, mother tongue
should not only be taught but also doing an exam in the same. (PA- FGD- UNP –MAK)
With regards to language, the respondents were of the opinion that language should lay emphasis
on comprehension, written expression, writing, oral and reading fluency. The learners in primary
schools suggested an improvement of their interaction with the outside world through foreign
languages. The languages include German, French, Arabic, Hindi, Russian and Chinese.
Pupil: We should learn foreign languages like German, French, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, Indian … so that
we can be able to communicate with foreigners (P-FGD-HPP-KIL)
4.4.8 Technology and ICT Related Subjects
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Findings from the study show that key informants underscored the need for technology in
education especially in this digital era. They added that this would make children adaptable to
the technological evolution in a world where everything is being computerized. It was observed
that the information should be imparted early, to equip learners with the skills earlier, instead of
waiting until they had advanced beyond primary schools. The element of teacher preparation
came to the fore as a means of ascertaining that learners were not ahead of their teachers in
technology.
KI: …if we compare developed countries and developing countries, countries like U.S, U.K these young
children are exposed to these things so they grow up knowing them so they can come up with new ideas if
you are exposed early to these things you can develop your talents e.g. when you grow up you can come up
with a lot of apps and whatever basing that you had these things earlier in your life. (KI- ROU-HOB)
The parents also observed that there is need to look at a framework for implementation of ICT in
the curriculum in anticipation of the challenges it may pose in relation to acquisition of linguistic
skills. It was important for education to develop ICT skills without jeopardizing the quality of
language that learners are expected to acquire.
4.4.9 Value-Related Subjects
The respondents suggested that CRE, IRE and HRE should be given priority in the curriculum
reform, since religious education is a guardian of values and morality. Some were of the view
that CRE should be a standalone subject unlike the current status where it is integrated with
Social Studies. Additionally, pastoral programmes, social ethics and guidance and counseling
should reinforce religious subjects in promotion of positive values in the learners. They also
observed that while African Traditional Religion is taught in the current CRE syllabus, it is
misplaced and therefore should be taught as a separate entity. However, they suggest that it can
be mentioned as an introduction to what Africans believed in before the advent of Christianity.
Learners stated that unity should be taught in schools. An organization proposed that a new
subject be introduced to cover positive attitudes, mutual respect, harmony, nationalism,
patriotism and religious tolerance. They suggested that this new subject could replace CRE.
KI: There needs to be a new subject to cover these three values where the various cultures will be studied
for the purpose of understanding how they can be moulded into nationhood. This subject should replace
religious education at primary level, which can be best taught as an option during pastoral studies. (ME-
RI).
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Similarly, a learner indicated that CRE should not be taught in school citing the multiplicity of
religions existing in the school context.
Pupil: we should also learn science, English, and many more. A subject like C.R.E should not be learnt
because in our school, we have many religions like Muslims and Hindus. They learn C.R.E and when they
go back to the mosques they don’t understand anything ( P-FGD-TRP-NYE)
The loss of African cultural values also raised concern. Parents observed that there is general
neglect of the African culture and the curriculum should therefore ensure that content in this area
is provided so as to avoid a situation where the Western culture will take over the youth.
4.4.10 Social and Life Skills

Additionally, the respondents emphasized the importance of including social and life skills such
as self-esteem, critical thinking, self awareness in the curriculum in order to prepare learners to
deal with day to day challenges.
Parent: ….there is the subject that started called ‘ life skills’ it was started and died afterwards…. If life
skills were taught today, some of these social problems we have could have been taken care of, it taught
children how to take care of themselves and others people. It taught them how to have interpersonal skills
and how to treat about other people… .(PA- FGD- JPP-LAK)
Pupil: …good manners, social values… health education… interaction with others… life skills…, so that
Kenya isn’t left behind. (P-FGD-NAP-LAK)
In the Kenyan context, the findings show that the decisions that are made about the learning
areas, content or subjects have put into consideration many factors. First, the national aspirations
and prevailing needs of the nation should provide the building blocks for the curriculum of the
future. Secondly, the policies and vision for education at a given time become the over arching
goal. In Kenya, the curriculum framework for basic education is founded on opportunity and
excellence as some of the key pillars underlying its development (KICD, 2016).
The discourse on the choice of subjects or content in the curriculum is centered on the debate
between content that makes provisions that are authentic for the individual learners in their
society, without necessarily marginalizing the nation from the pre-dominant global trends that
are shaping education. Ideally the option of providing a broad base that gives the learner an
opportunity to choose and have a niche in areas of interest would be the best. That opportunity
must also be largely aligned with preparing the learner for further studies and skills for adult life.
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The renewed emphasis on content that suits education in the 21st Century needs an intricate
balance in the choice of learning areas. On the one hand, proposals for taking care of the
learner’s aspirations ought to be adhered to. On the other hand, the local societal challenges,
national needs and global interests should also be defined in the learning areas, which are
predictions of the future being forged by education. Decisions also have to be reached on the
level of fusion of the content areas or disciplines and the non-domain specific competencies.
In spite of the proposed considerations and justification for the choice of content, Tawil (2012)
discounts the idea of looking at education from a purely utilitarian or instrumental approach, that
leans towards the gains at the individual or national level. Instead, attention should be given to
sustainable human and social development. The humanistic dimension should be emphasized to
ensure a renewed purpose for education.
4.5 Learning approaches
These are the instructional strategies and techniques used in the delivery of curriculum content.
Broadly known as pedagogy, learning approaches deal with the practice of teaching and learning.
Primary schools head teachers and teachers were also presented with items in a questionnaire
which sought to establish the level at which they felt that different learning approaches should be
used to deliver the primary level curriculum. Likert scale was used to establish the frequency at
which they would prefer using the different learning approaches with options of never, rarely and
always on the scale. Their responses were analyzed and presented in form of tables with
percentage ratings and average percentage ratings per cluster.
4.5.1 21st Century teaching strategies
The head teachers rated brainstorming at 92.67% while discussion had a percentage rating of
95.3%. A larger proportion of primary school head teachers preferred use of discussion method
to brainstorming. Teachers rated discussion highly with a percentage rating of 96.3%. This
compares very closely with the level of rating this approach that was given by the head teachers
at 95.3%. Teachers had a rating of 87.70% on brainstorming and this was a bit lower than the
rating given by their head teachers. It is though worth noting that both approaches had relatively
high percentages in terms of preference by the respondents. This shows that both the head
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teachers and teachers highly prefer the use of discussion method. During discussions, learners
sharpen their communication skills and they also learn how to collaborate.
4.5.2 Practical Methods of teaching

Primary school head teachers and teachers responded to a set of items in a questionnaire
regarding the extent to which they would want to adopt practical based methods of teaching.
Their responses are presented in Figure 4.14.
Figure 4.14: Head teachers and Teachers Responses on use of Practical Methods of teaching
Majority of the primary school head teachers (96.7%) rated experiments high while teachers
rated use of demonstrations highly (96.0%). All the same the two approaches were rated highly
by over 90% of the head teachers and teachers. This implies that experimentation and
demonstrations should be emphasized while delivering the primary school curriculum as a large
proportion of head teachers and teachers shows high preference in use of this method. When
demonstration and experimentation methods are used to deliver the curriculum, it is likely that
important skills will be acquired by the learners hence making them competent in performing
some certain tasks in their day-to-day lives. Use of field excursions and projects had ratings of
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82.7% and 85.0% respectively by the head teachers and 82.3% and 79.7 % respectively by
teachers.
4.5.3 Learners’ Activity-Based Strategies
Primary school teachers responded on the extent to which they would want to adopt learners’
activity-based strategies of teaching. Their responses are presented in Figure 4.15.
Figure 4.15: Head teachers and Teachers responses on the extent to which Learners’ activity
strategies should be used in delivering the primary school curriculum (N=534)
Debate and dramatization featured prominently with ratings of 89.3% and 87.3% respectively by
the head teachers while for the teachers’ songs and dramatization featured prominently at 86.3%
and 86.0% respectively. All the same debate, dramatization and songs were highly rated by over
85% of the head teachers and teachers. This means that both head teachers and teachers at this
level highly prefer the use of these three learner-centered approaches. Learner-centred
approaches are deemed fit for use in a competence-based curriculum because they provide
opportunities for learners to use individualized materials, have flexible learning time and to get
continuous feedback from the facilitator. Reciting, riddles and dances had percentage ratings of
83.0%, 79.7% and 79.0% respectively by the head teachers whose ratings were very close to the
teachers at 82.0%, 81.3% and 78.3% respectively.
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4.5.4 Experiential Learning Strategies
Primary school level teachers’ responses on the extent to which they would want to adopt
experiential approaches of learning are presented in Figure 4.16.
Figure 4.16: Head teachers and Teachers responses on the extent to which Experiential learning
strategies should be used N=837
A similar number of head teachers and teachers gave high ratings of experiential learning at
91.0% and this was followed by role plays with a percentage rating of 87.7% by head teachers
and 87.3% by teachers. Story telling had a rating of 84.0% by head teachers and 85.67% by
teachers. These three approaches were rated highly and it implies that they are fit for use while
delivering the primary level curriculum. Comparing the rating given to storytelling by their
secondary school counterparts, the rating is higher in the primary level and this implies that
teachers at this level would prefer use of the storytelling approach and probably this is due to the
age of the learners they deal with. Simulations, nature walk and drills were given slightly lower
ratings by both the head teachers and teachers probably again due to the tender level of the
learners.
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4.5.5: Lecture Approach
The head teachers rated this approach at 61.67% while the teachers rated it at 56.67%.
Comparatively, this rating is relatively low. Lecture is one of the traditional methods of teaching
where the teacher acts as the “tower of knowledge”. With the technological advancement,
learners are able to access knowledge on their own and therefore this assumption that the teacher
is the one who knows everything no longer holds. It therefore implies that lecture method will
not find a place among the preferred learning approaches if Kenya as a country intends to deliver
the competence-based curriculum effectively. Furthermore, lecture method does not promote
active participation by the learners during the learning process
4.5.6: Other learning approaches to be used in delivering the primary level curriculum
Respondents were given an opportunity to state any other method that they thought would be
used to deliver the primary level curriculum. Other learning approaches as given by the primary
school head teachers include giving of assignments, conducting research, competing in
answering questions in various schools, conditioning, co-operative learning, drama festivals,
virtual tours, peer teaching, question and answer, reading story books, use of resource persons,
student facilitation, free play and apprenticeship. The teachers had similar suggestion like those
of the head teachers in use question and answer method and making use of resource persons. The
teachers also suggested use of case studies, team teaching, observation, e-learning, games and
discovery method.
The findings show preference for pedagogical approaches that are participatory, application
oriented, practical and based on local resources . In addition, they observed that benefits of the
approaches will not be better realized in isolation but must be done through well trained teachers
and continuous research.
It is also evident that the expansion and democratization of basic and secondary education has
led to cultural, social and individual diversities among learners, (Ainscow and Opertti 2012),
causing a shift from the traditional teacher-centered learning to student-centered learning. In the
observation of (Morin 2011), effective instruction is more allied to active participation which
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promotes what can be done with knowledge, instead of passive participation which emphasizes
transmission and accumulation of knowledge (as during a lecture).
This shift in pedagogy calls for use of different strategies like exploration, discussion,
experimentation and brainstorming to effectively engage learners to acquire requisite knowledge,
skills and attitudes. The wide range of conditions for learning and singular nature of each pupil
as a special being (Acedo and Opertti, 2012) make it imperative to use relevant pedagogies that
promote these 21st century skills and competencies.
Giving more attention to the place of the learners also means that planning for classroom
interaction, execution of the plans and classroom assessment practices are constructed from the
learners and their needs. The vision of the curriculum reform, “nurturing every learner’s
potential” can only be realized when inclusive pedagogies are in use. Those pedagogies
according to Florian and Black Hawkins (2010) accommodate the expectations and needs of
learners by creating options for them to choose how, where and with whom to learn.
Teachers in Kenya are yet to be well grounded in learning approaches that encourage
participation of learners as they acquire desired competencies. This is mainly the traditional
teacher- centred methodologies that focus on the teacher that pervade most classrooms. The
implication for teacher capacity is for an ongoing teacher assessment programme that compares
the teacher levels against their classroom needs. There is need for teacher training to inculcate in-
depth knowledge regarding the theoretical and practical application of different pedagogical
techniques.
Pedagogical skills are undoubtedly central to the teaching and learning process. However, the
emphasis on inclusive pedagogies overlook to a great extent the role of the teacher as the
educator and the necessary support for generating quality learning processes (McLean,
2014).This has probable consequences of laying down what the teachers are expected to do
without adequately preparing them on the use of effective pedagogical practices for improving
the learning process. The imperatives of achieving educational goals should include the
provision of qualified, professionally trained, motivated and supported teachers as a
priority(UNESCO, 2014b).Another consideration that should be made during the curriculum
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reform is the combined strengthening of the teaching role, of the curriculum and of pedagogy
(UNESCO,2015) .
4.6 Nurturing the Potential and Talents of Learners
Gifted and talented children are those who are generally thought to be different due to exemplary
performance, ahead of their peers. The importance of talents as an option for easing the current
situation of unemployment and poverty in Kenya was seen by parents and learners as an
opportunity that education can exploit to improve the livelihoods of many citizens.
Parent : We can nurture the talents of students who are not good at class work but they could perform very
well in other fields, if we could change the syllabus such that it can accommodate this kind of students, our
society could be better off, such that if the student does not continue with his studies he could have
something to do for earning after class eight.( PA-FGD-MGP-LAM)
The view expressed by parents about nurturing talents gives an opportunity for talented learners
to eventually earn a living from what they can do. This was seen by respondents as a viable
alternative to the perennial challenge of limited chances for progression, especially among
learners who do not attain academic excellence. It is also a possible solution to the challenge of
unemployment because an important part of talent development is innovation. However, this
level is yet to expanded to ascertain that learners do not lose out on the prospects of their talents
due to lack of innovation.
The head teachers, teachers and curriculum support officers were asked to indicate the extent to
which various strategies can be used to nurture the learners’ potential and talents. According to
the head teachers, nurturing of learners potential and talents may be best enhanced through
curriculum enrichment and games and sports at a percent rating of 96.0% and 94.9%
respectively. Among the teachers, games and sports was the most preferred strategy at a percent
rating of 96% with curriculum enrichment coming second at 93.4%, a case similar to that of the
head teachers. Clubs and societies received a high rating of 91.6%. There was convergence of
views in suggestions of strategies for nurturing the learners potential and talents among the head
teachers and teachers.
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Also featured prominently as strategies for nurturing learners potential and talents were; special
schools for gifted and talented (94.3%), clubs and societies(90.9%), ability grouping and
mentorship programs(90.8%), cooperative learning, competition among schools and academic
conferences (90.3%) and special needs classes(90.2%).
Cooperative learning, competition among schools, academic conferences, ability grouping and
mentorship programs as well as special needs classes were also considered vital for nurturing
learners’ talents by the primary school teachers at a percent rating of 89.7%, 89.4% and 88.2 %
respectively. Early admission to school and; accelerated learning and advanced placement had a
lower ranking at 74.9% and 81.4% respectively by the head teachers and 67.8 % and 78.2%
respectively by the teachers. Parents also stated that teachers ought to identify talents from an
early age and help nurture them. Additionally, parents and pupils encouraged the provision of
opportunities to compete with other schools as well as provision of requisite facilities and
equipment for sports, drama and Music.
Parents: ...children in standard one and onwards need to be given time to discover their talent...so that by
standard 8 the know their talent..that i can sing...i can do Home science and so on. So we have seen that
children can be profiled by engaging them in varied activities .yes but also I can also say even exposure..the
teacher can help the learners to do a variety of things like take them where people are doing things like
making music...making pots.or they can have a place in the compound...a small shade where they can go
and paint...or even paint, drama...we need to widen it.( (PA- FGD- JPP-LAK)
Pupil: ... introduction of them in school. ….. provision of materials …… availability of talent clubs...
practice….. encouragement. …. competition with other schools….availability of big playing field and
facilities…..be given hope. (P-FGD-NAP-LAK)
A similar situation was observed from the 33 curriculum support officers who rated the
following strategies on nurturing the learners potential and talents as follows ; curriculum
enrichment ( 95.2%), special needs classes(94.6%), special schools for gifted and talented(94%),
ability grouping and mentorship(92.8) and clubs and societies (92.2%). This reflects a clear
position for the inclusion of these areas in the new curriculum. The other strategies ‘which were
preferred by the curriculum support officers included; games and sports 89%), cooperative
learning, competition among schools, and academic conferences (84.6%) and early admission to
schools (84.2%) and accelerated learning and advanced placement at (81.2%).
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Curriculum enrichment the most preferred strategy according to Renzulli and Ries, 2009 as it
extends the mastery of the curriculum by providing a series of planned activities to reinforce the
curriculum content by enriching the learning environment, learning experiences and teaching
approaches. It justifies the existence of opportunities that guarantee exposure of learners’ talents.
According to parents however, an overloaded curriculum was viewed as an impediment to early
specialization in specific areas of interest, thus limiting the development of talents. They posited
that when children have a few subjects to concentrate on, there is likelihood that their talents will
be nurtured adequately. This would also make it possible to clearly determine the pathways that
are suitable to what they would be inclined to.
Parent: … let’s specialize early... to add on that, students should not be taking too many subjects and they
will just specialize on just few, they should be taught only subjects they will specialize on. I will give an
example of India, they have so young specialists on every field because they check on the talents of the
student and teach only what is best to nurture that talent.(PA-FGD-MGP-LAM)
Identifying and nurturing the learners potential and talents through curriculum is also critical for
the learner’s self-fulfillment and for the country to realize economic development and therefore,
the envisaged new curriculum should nurture every child’s potential. Children blossom through
the academic curriculum when sports and arts are integral to their learning environment. As
opposed to having many subjects, the idea of having subjects that could lead to the development
of talents was pre-dominant among learners. They expressed their interest in subjects like Music
and urged that schools should offer them.
Pupil: In music there are many schools there are many talented students in singing and if it is not taught
they will leave their talents but if it is taught they will teach themselves a lot about music and when they
grow up the will be better musician (P-FGD-MIP-MAK)
In spite of the push for subjects that are relevant to learners’ talents, the parents equally reiterated
the importance of basic education as a prior requirement. They added that all talents require
some form of basic education.
Parent: It is important to allow the child to complete education. Let him finish class 8 na tumsukume
amalize form four tu (let us push him to finish form four). When he has class 8 and form four certificate, he
will have gained more in education. Furthermore, the child needs basic education even in whatever talent.
He/she should be able for example to communicate effectively. (PA-FGD-KAP-MAK)
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The findings of the study depict the conceptualization of talents quite broadly to account for
what Gagne (2004) defines differently as either gifts or talents. According to this definition,
giftedness is outstanding potential while talent is outstanding performance. In this study, the
findings on talents combine both gifts and talents as one. The findings refer to identification as
the point of recognizing the potential the learner has, what Gagne (2004) calls a gift, while
nurturing is the support given to realize the performance, which Gagne (2004) calls talent.
The difference in conceptualization clearly points to educators and curriculum reform to take
cognizance of the fact that gifted children may or may not be high achievers. If they are clustered
together under the wider umbrella of “talented” as understood by most respondents, they could
be ignored and disengaged to become under achievers if little effort is put in unraveling their
potential. The talented children on the other hand are marked by outstanding mastery in
knowledge and skills in one or more areas. These areas include but are not limited to
Mathematics and Science which fall under academic disciplines, sports and visual arts which can
be categorized under physical, technical or artistic ability, a category of problem solving ability
and creativity and finally, communicative and leadership ability (Gagne, 2004).
To tap on all these, the design of the curriculum in all its intents and purposes must encompass
opportunities that are personalized to respond to the learner’s needs. Similarly, there is a need for
differentiation at the levels of pace of delivery, the complexity and depth of content being
offered and the teaching methodology. It is only by fulfilling such conditions that diversities
among learners’ talents will be addressed.
In terms of the depth and engagement with their particular area of interest, interaction with
specialist expertise through modeling and relevant facilities is recommended to spur the gifts and
talents to greater heights. The curriculum development process is therefore required to keep pace
and sometimes get ahead of the learner’s needs. This means that the educational programs may
be required to cooperate with communities outside the school to reinforce what the school cannot
afford in relation to facilities and expertise.
Currently, the educational programs in Kenya have age brackets during which learners are
expected to be in certain levels of education. However, differentiation in paces of learning may
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not fit in well with the fixed programs which do not allow for progression of learners whose
abilities surpass a certain level. Implications for the curriculum design is the inclusion of
accelerated learning programs that take cognizance of the fact that some learners can cover in 3
years, what their peers take 7-10 years to cover.
A prerequisite to nurturing gifts and talents is identification. (Kinyua, 2014), observes that
multiple criteria need to be employed to get as much information about the learners as possible.
It therefore requires that teachers continuously identify learners who are gifted and talented in
the whole process of learning. Findings showed that the task requires involvement of many
stakeholders as a way of ensuring that children get support from home and school as their gifts
and talents are identified. This implies creating a supportive environment through the
collaborative engagement of more than one stakeholder, in the curriculum implementation
process.
The new curriculum and by extension schools will have to embed within them strategies that will
enable every learner to harness their potential through well-developed learning activities that
will lead to the identification and subsequent development of these areas of potential and talent.
For schools, it becomes imperative that they evaluate their systems and to ensure that they
accommodate learners who are gifted and talented.
Progress of the identified learners should be monitored to ensure that, the programme is meeting
their educational needs. Findings of the Needs Assessment showed that parents proposed that
children should be monitored in order to know what is best for them. Kinyua, (2014) further
strengthens the position that monitoring is a serious contributing factor to tracking how well
talents are being developed. This means that for this to happen and produce tangible results, an
important consideration in curriculum design and implementation includes teacher capacity
improvement.
To be able to implement the curriculum effectively, teachers’ mind sets need to be re-oriented
towards differentiation and continuous monitoring, as means of addressing children with varied
achievement capabilities. They must be professionally empowered to make distinctions and
group learners according to different models like interest or subject acceleration. This will
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certainly ensure that learners’ interests are taken care of, without being wrongly grouped where
they do not belong.
4.7 Learning Resources
Learning resources are geared towards enhancing learning, teaching and content delivery.
Educational resources are the teaching and learning items, structure materials and human
resources that assist the teacher to effectively and efficiently deliver content. In recent years
there has been a shift among educationists from the traditional teacher-centered learning to
student-cantered learning. It is has been established that effective instruction is more allied to
active participation in the teaching learning process (as in laboratory work) than to passive
participation (as during a lecture). This shift in pedagogy calls for use of different strategies to
effectively engage learners to acquire requisite knowledge, skills and attitudes.
In line with the Education for All (EFA) initiatives, Millennium Development Goals
(MDG’s),Sustainable Development Goals(SDG), Education for Sustainable Development (ESD),
the Constitution of 2010, Sessional paper no 1 of 2015, the realization of Kenya’s Vision 2030,
of providing a globally competitive quality education, training and research for development,
will be achieved through adoption of pedagogy that emphasizes exploration, collaboration,
experimentation, creativity, critical thinking and innovation. This calls for the provision of
relevant resources that promote these 21st century skills and competencies.
4.7.1 General Teaching and Learning Resources
The survey sort to establish the availability of resources which are important in implementing
and actualizing a competency based curriculum. Information was obtained by observing the
available resources in the schools. Figure 4.17 shows the availability of general teaching and
learning resources in primary schools.
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Figure 4.17: Non Availability of Materials
The findings show that art room (92%), music rooms (90.8%), technical subjects (86.5%), home
science (84.8%) and science laboratory (63%) were observed and rated highly as unavailable in
the sampled institutions.
In the provision of a globally competitive quality education and training this will be possible
through adoption of pedagogy that emphasizes exploration, collaboration, experimentation,
creativity, critical thinking and innovation. This calls for the provision of relevant resources that
promote these 21st century skills and competencies. But from the discussion above this will be
impossible if the resources are not available and even if they are available, they are inadequate.
From the findings, it is evident that learning achievement and overall quality education rely a
great deal on in-puts into the teaching-learning process. Contradictions have existed in the last
decade between access and quality. It is observed that whereas impressive gains have been made
in access, improvements in quality have been slower. This has been mainly due to insufficient
numbers of trained teachers, limited infra-structure and inadequate supply of instructional
materials, especially among the disadvantaged (UNESCO, 2014).
This focus on resources where priority goes to funding of text-books, teaching materials and
equipment is however criticized by Tedesco (1997). He asserts that the investments and
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associated goals, with conditions and inputs that support the teaching and learning process limits
the function of the curriculum. Instead, a more integral view of education that seeks synergies
between input, processes and outcomes is espoused.
In Kenya, the capitation grant has been distributed according to the number of children enrolled.
Spending per pupil is often not adequate for resources especially when countries base their
allocation on enrolment figures. Watkins and Alemayehu (2012) however fault this procedure
pointing out that it disadvantages 12 counties in the arid and semi-arid areas that are home to
46% of the out of school population. This worsens the already bad situation for the learners who
are first-generation learners, whose home environments are non-literate. They need additional
support in the form of higher spending per pupil.
One of the main aims of the transformational arguments for the inclusive education agenda is to
understand, identify and remove barriers that hamper the democratization of education. These
include institutional, curricular, and pedagogical and teachers’ barriers all of which in one way or
another are associated with resources. According to Thomazet, (2009), educational systems
should re-think their visions, cultures, policies and practices with a view to reducing gaps in
financial and human resources. These proposals resonate with those that have been made for
educational reforms in the Kenyan context. They aspire to ensure equitable provision of
resources.
4.8 Assessment
Assessment is an important component of improving education. Through assessment feedback

can be provided to effect changes that enhance the teaching and learning processes. Primary
school head teachers and teachers were asked to respond to the effectiveness and validity of the
various assessment forms used in our school system on to determine learners’ outcomes. The
different forms of assessment were clustered into formative and summative and overall mean
rating for each of them calculated. The responses were constructed in the form of a likert scale
with “level of extent” being the construct of measurement. Their responses are presented as in
Table 4.1:
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Table 4.1: Head teachers and Teachers responses on the extent to which various forms of assessment
contribute to effective measurement of learners’ achievements at Primary level
Formative assessment Percentage rating Summative assessment Percentage rating
Head Teachers Teachers Head Teachers Teachers
Continuous assessment 97% 95% End of term examination 90.4% 92%

Project work 85.2% 79% End of year examination 88 % 89.2%
National examination 85% 83.6%
Project work 85.2% 79%
Overall Mean Percentage Ratings 91.1% 87% Overall Mean Percentage Ratings 87.15% 85.95%
The head teachers’ and teachers rated continuous assessment highest at 97% and 95%
respectively followed by end of term examination at 90.4% and 92% respectively. The least
preferred form of assessment by the head teachers was national examinations which were rated at
85% while teachers least preferred project work at 79%. Other forms of assessments suggested
by the head teachers and teachers were aptitude test, assessment of research, co-curricular
assessment observation and oral assessment. The learners and the parents addressed both
summative and formative assessment modes of assessment with varying opinions. They were of
the general view that both types of assessment should be used to assess learning.
Ind…apart from the national exams I would also go for continuous assessment test. There is nothing wrong
with this. It will give continuous feedback. And again, the more you are taught at different classes, the
more you understand the language of instruction which is very important.(MAN-IND-MAK)
4.8.1 Formative Assessment
The finality of summative assessment in determining the grades of a learner was the main reason
for preference of formative assessment among respondents. Learners indicated that examinations
should not be conceptualized as an end to themselves but as a tool of measuring the extent to
which learning has taken place.
Pupil: Pupils should understand we are not coming to school to pass the examination. We are coming to
school to learn and to gather skills and knowledge so that we may make our country develop. (P -BMJP –
MUR)
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The parents stated that credibility and comprehensiveness of examinations would be attained by
testing learners regularly and using the results for the final assessment grade.
Parent...we need to take regular exams that build up…so you don’t do one exam that seals your fate. (PA-
FGD- JPP-LAK
Parent: ...Should anything happen such as sickness this is likely to affect performance. The tests should be
national but continuous with marks counting towards the final grade. This is the only time the true
performance of the learner can be determined (PA- FGD-KRP–MUR)
The parents underscored the importance of continuous assessment as a way of taking stock of the
learners’ progress. They asserted that certain factors usually affect learners during the final
examinations and interfere with an otherwise good performance. Given a chance through
formative assessment, a record of what has been learnt could be availed . Industrialists were also
in agreement that best results about the overall attainment of learners would be attained through
formative assessment.
Parent: That final assessment is not enough. You might find a child who has been good from the lower
levels but might get a time, might be he/she is affected psychologically. This means he is not able to
continue performing well. The expectations in the final exams fail. When such a person performs badly,
we forget about him or her completely. There is need for learners to be assessed early, such that, in case
they get to a point that they relax, we get to know the problem so that we can work together to prevent
losing a child. You might have a child doing well from class one, but when he/she gets to class six or
seven, they change. This stage could be adolescence. He/she will disturb in class seven, eight, form one
and two. On reaching form three, they start being good. If assessed at the middle and the average done,
such a person will not get lost. (PA- FGD-MVP- KAK)
Ind…the best kind of assessment would be the progressive assessment… The final exam normally captures
some kind of a drill program. It focuses on the final lap but the one capturing step by step would be better
provided its more inclusive of content. (MAN-IND-KAK).
Formative assessment was additionally perceived as a fair way of appreciating the varied
learning styles among learners and recognizing individual differences among them. The
opportunities offered by assessment allows for the use of observation as a measure of
ascertaining the extent to which learners can practically demonstrate what they have acquired
through theory lessons in class.
Ind:the best way is to assess these students on what they have learnt, because students have different
avenues of learning, there are some who are talented, they can memorize it in short time there are others
who will take a lot of time and when they grab the information they are okay with it. What should happen
is to assess progressively. For example if it is subject that the student is doing there should be a CAT that
the student does on the subject that they have been taught also they could put the practical aspect in that a
teacher might have taught a certain lesson but he or she should be put in real life so that they try to solve
the same problem in a different manner in such a way, a teacher will be able to gauge and assess if the
student has got the concept or not. There should be a progressive way to test students. (CEO-RIV-UG).
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Parent…think if we could do school based exams with most being practical …so they are assessed on
practical skills along with written…this may be credible. So that we can see you doing it yourself. (PA-
FGD- JPP-LAK )
Respondents added that formative assessment gives continuous feedback about learners and
builds their capacity to understand the language of instruction .This helps them to learn better by
really internalizing that information. Additionally, it would discourage rote learning.
Ind: apart from the national exams I would also go for continuous assessment test. There is nothing wrong
with this. It will give continuous feedback. And again, the more you are taught in different classes, the
more you understand the language of instruction which is very important (MAN-IND-MAK).
Continuous assessment was also credited for its ability to evaluate all aspects of learning such as
academic work, behavior and talents. Parents were of the opinion that such assessments provide
a holistic representation of the learners’ attributes, including values.
Parent: In my view assessment should not be pegged on one final examination, more so, talents,
attendance, behaviour can also be examined and this will encourage learners to work hard in all
aspects. (P-FGD-SJP -BUN).
Parent: I think it could be better if there is evaluation to test children if they have passed
especially in values, may be standard four exam time and then standard eight that would be best.
(PA-FGD-MGH-USG)
From the parents’ observation, continuous assessment would be useful in allowing for placement
and progression of learners along different interests and pathways. The idea of termination of
learners’ education because they had not succeeded through the traditional summative
assessment was found punitive and discriminatory. A situation was envisaged where
examinations will lead to the fair treatment of learners from both public and private schools
during the allocation of places in secondary school.
Parent: it can start from primary and secondary. But this testing should not be used to terminate the
education of the child. It does not mean those who do not do well in the test are stupid. They also have
their potential... It would be better if we had people assessing those who are able to make baskets and allow
them to pursue that line. (PA- FGD-UNP –MAK)
College student: Give equal opportunity to private and public schools to join schools in secondary school.
(CS-FGD-NTC–NAR)
Though the findings show that respondents seemed to agree on advantages of formative
assessment, some parents however, raised concern about the integrity in regard to school based
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formative assessment. They perceived school based formative assessment to be subject to easy
manipulation through biasness, corruption and favoritism.
Parent: …well the question of honesty may still make school based exams even worse! (PA- FGD- JPP-
LAK )
Parent: one if we do it annually it may come back to the teachers who are teaching that school and my
worry to the teachers teaching same school is that they tend to favor their own students and that is why they
are even tempted to cheat for students so if you use that as a tool of assessing the students may be
everybody will be any achiever (PA-FGD-MGS-USG)
To improve the credibility of assessments administered in schools, parents were of the opinion
that school based assessment should still be managed by authorized institutions like KNEC, to
minimize on instances of favoritism by teachers administering these assessments in their own
schools. They came up with a suggestion that national examinations should be done at the end of
every class or standard 4, 6 and standard 8. They went further to state that the marking of these
examinations should be carried out by different teachers who teach other classes. They also said
that there should be anonymity in the identification of learners, using random numbers. Another
suggestion was for the learners to do a general paper to assess their understanding of
contemporary issues. Parental participation in following up the daily assessment of their children
was also suggested.
Parent : my suggestion would be this, assessment institutions that we have in this country especially
KNEC should be given a proper mandate to conduct various forms of assessments, not just academic but
they can do other different forms under that cycle and they make it official that this time we do particular
assessment. (PA-FGD-MGS-USG)
Parent: The parent must watch the child and his/her school work daily (PA- FGD-WAP –KWA)
Beyond individual schools, another mode of formative assessment suggested by the pupils
involves inter- school competitions to assess if pupils are learning. These could be organized in
terms of monthly examinations per zone or district. Debates, speed tests and inter-class questions
with other schools were among the preferred forms of assessment at the primary level.
Pupil: For example, when there is a maths contest or a science contest, those ones help to know if the
children are reading and understanding well. (P-FGD-TRP-NYE).
4.8.2 Summative Assessment
The importance of summative assessment was expressed by some respondents who viewed
KCPE as an examination that is useful for the placement of learners to secondary school, which
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is the next level of progression, after primary school. The examination, according to parents,
helps to determine whether or not learners were working hard during the eight year duration in
primary school.
Pupil: … there is no other way. And if you fail it means you didn’t learn anything from class 1 up to 8 and
you were never serious….( P-FGD-BUP-LAK)
The preference for summative assessment was also based on the view that it was critical for
ensuring that equality prevailed. As a national examination, KCPE was in this case recognized as
being more credible, compared to school based CATs given the controls put in place during its
administration. Due to widespread copying during administration of CATs, parents commented
that KCPE is well set and treats learners equally.
Despite the support for summative assessment, the findings show that respondents also suggested
that the continuous assessment marks should count towards the final KCPE grade. Pupils and
parents expressed the view that summative evaluations by themselves may not give an objective
evaluation of what the learners shall have learnt at any one given level. They encouraged secret
setting of examinations to limit the loop holes in examination leakages.
Pupil: because we have heard many cases of pupils stealing KCPE the best thing is they bring out the
KCPE papers the child does but they must remember other exams which they did in those exams the pupils
did not steal they must take all the marks for the whole term and take the average then add to KCPE that
way they will be true evidence that the pupil didn’t steal the exam. (P-FGD- NGP- MAK).
Respondents suggested that summative assessment could be made more meaningful by

improving the examination format. Parents and learners faulted the use of multiple choice items.
They preferred structured to objective questions which they agreed could lead to guess work.
With regard to establishing the extent of learning achievement, parents proposed the use of
structured tests. These, according to them had the advantage of helping to determine the ability
of learners to express themselves in writing.
Parent : on exams, some students use guess work on this national exams, let exam have some explanations
rather than multiple choice so that a child can read and understand before attempting the examination, like
the way secondary is done, let primary be done the same. There is no need of doing away with these exams
(PA-FGD-MGP-LAM)
The need to broaden the parameters of assessment was also emphasized in connection to
summative assessment. The respondents suggested that in addition to written examinations, there
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should be practical components in final examinations which would give learners a chance to
excel in other areas apart from the cognitive dimension.
Parent: There should be practical examinations even at the primary level so that individuals’ talents can be
identified. Because writing of examinations is not the answer, there could be some people who have gone
through class one to standard eight and they do not know how to read, but in the farm such a person is
number one. So if evaluated on farming, the person will become number one. But in written examination
they may become number one, but it will be understand where their talent is. (PA-FGD - MVP -KAK)
In view of the challenges associated with summative examinations alone, it is apparent that
respondents suggest a certain method of assessment that takes into account progressive tracking
of learners’ attainment and also providing a national comparison of learners’ performance.
Ind:..There is need to marry the two because normally those continuous assessment will say what a student
was some years back but it is important to know that there is development and the time they are leaving the
institution the person have developed…(MAN-IND-KAK)
From the findings, it is evident that the need to uphold the place of learning still remains
paramount in the face of arguments for or against the types of assessment to be administered in
the curriculum. The findings are aligned to the argument advanced by Stein, Dawson and
Fischer, (2010) .They state that formative assessment should not be discussed as opposed to
summative assessment. Instead, they both should be viewed as complementary tools that have a
duty to support the learning process. It is however noted that the practice in Kenya in the recent
past has reduced learning to what goes to outcomes. Atkin (1999) recommends that assessment
should promote and motivate learning processes, with an emphasis on using the outcomes to
improve the quality of the processes.
The findings in the survey show that assessment that is usually carried out in primary schools in
Kenya does not reflect a comprehensive attainment of the learners. The concept of multiple
intelligences (Gardner, 1998), and long term attainment of the learners are excluded in the
current curriculum implementation and assessment practices. There should be theoretical
justification for teaching environments and teachers who can offer opportunities for a wide
array of assessments, that foster cognitive and non –cognitive competencies.
The consideration of learners’ performance based on summative assessment alone, while

excluding their individual and diverse needs jeopardizes objective judgment of performance.
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This implies more targeted and relevant modes of assessment that provide a more balanced and
holistic understanding of the learners’ progress in various abilities.
4.9 Contemporary /Emerging Issues

Cross cutting issues are matters that touch a number of different aspects of the society, on
general principles such as democracy, human rights, good governance, children's rights, gender
equality, population and family life education, poverty alleviation, environment and
development, to mention but a few. Cross-cutting issues are commonly defined as topics which,
by their very nature, have a strong impact on all operations in a given field and, therefore, must
receive special attention hence their inclusion in the intended new curriculum. These issues cut
across all the levels of education. Hence they need a lot emphasizes in the future curriculum. To
address crosscutting issues and also to make learning meaningful, hence to enable learners
develop deep understanding of what they learn, teachers need to use participatory and
cooperative teaching methods. Participatory and cooperative teaching methods help learners
develop critical thinking, reflect on their own situations and get insights of their own situations.
The various cross cutting issues were identified from different policy documents such a: Kenya
constitution 2010,vision 2030, Education for Sustainable development (ESD), Child Act (2001),
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Sessional
paper no 1 of 2015 among others. Each of these documents emphasizes different aspects of the
cross cutting issues and education has been identified as the wheel to nurture them among the
youth.
The Constitution of Kenya 2010 is the supreme law of Kenya and gives more clarification on
the direction education should take in several chapters. Chapter 2 and 6 deals with principles of
governance, leadership and integrity; chapter 4 deals with bills of rights which include child
rights; part 2 deals with environment; part 3 deals with specific application of rights like children
rights and persons with disabilities; chapter 5 part 2 deals with environment and natural
resources; chapter 12 deals with national security. All these are cross cutting issues and if they
are not in cooperated in the future curriculum, it will out rightly be declared unconstitutional.
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The other cross cutting issues like technology, health issues and drug abuse are emphasized in
the blue print of developing the country to a middle level economy, the Vision 2030. A few of
the cross cutting issues have been included in the current curriculum but in the envisaged
curriculum, they need to be emphasized. The primary school head teachers, teachers and
curriculum support officers were required to rate the extent to which various cross cutting issues
should be emphasized in the envisaged primary school curriculum. Their responses are presented
in Figure 4.18.
Figure 4.18: Head Teachers, Teachers’ and Curriculum support officers responses on extent to which
various cross-cutting issues should be addressed in the primary school curriculum.
On average 94.8%, 93.4% and 93.0% of primary school head teachers, teachers and curriculum
support officers respectively affirmed the need to have cross-cutting issues addressed by the
curriculum. The highest rated cross-cutting issues was drug and substance abuse by 97.9% of the
head teachers, child right by 97.6% of the teachers and financial literacy by 95.8% of the
curriculum support officers. The least preferred cross-cutting issue by the head teachers was
environment at 91.2%, financial literacy by teachers at 87.4% and health and hygiene by
curriculum support officers at 89%.
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4.9.1 Drug and substance abuse
The mention of drug and substance abuse by head teachers as an area that requires mitigation is
mainly due to its negative impact on a large population of the youth, who hold the promise for
the future. Learners added that the challenge of alcohol abuse had also pervaded primary schools
with peers influencing each other to leave school.
Pupil: Rafiki zake ,wanamwambia aache shule akakunywe pombe.( P-FGD-KEP-NYM)
Pupil: Friends, tell them to leave school to go and drink alcohol.( P-FGD-KEP-NYM)
They noted that irresponsible consumption of alcohol was destructive to professionals like
lawyers doctors and called upon the authorities to ban it.
Pupil: Like in Kenya we have very many lawyers, doctors, lecturers…… who are down here because of
the alcohol. They should ban totally”. (PL-SOP-USG)
Parents in a rejoinder indicated the serious negative effects that alcohol and substance abuse bear
on both the individual and society, and the need for the curriculum to address these issues
alongside peer pressure. Worth noting, is the association of insecurity, murder, Alshabaab
insurgence, HIV and as well as early pregnancies, to the abuse of substances. The magnitude of
danger posed by the use of drugs is therefore significant because it impacts on personal health,
social and economic well being.
Parent: When we talking such issues to me, my opinion these things such as Alshabab are here in different
families, HIV and Aids, drugs, Miraa... children killing their own parents, because the child has taken
drugs, this is brought about by the people selling these drugs and the government knows them. (PA-FGD-
MAP –KWA)
The respondents singled out the coast region as a hot bed for drugs. In terms of approach, the
provision of adequate trained staff and counselors to meet the shortfall currently experienced in
schools would alleviate the challenge. The experts would provide the much needed
individualized attention and mitigate risks associated with substance abuse that threaten the
society as a whole.
Parent: we should have retrained teacher counselors who are not less than three to do the work effectively.
In the environment we should have people outside to counsel our pupils, outside counselors should be
training those who are outside to stop taking drugs, counselors inside should train students about what will
happen to them if they start taking drugs. All educational levels should play that role of ensuring that
students grow morally upright, let them be properly motivated. Like in European schools every school has
many counselors, fewer lessons and every student should be well attended personally and after may be a
month some changes will be seen on that child. So we will be moving together (PA-FGD-MGP-LAM)
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There was also the need for a multi-pronged approach, at home, at the school level and at the
national level. Learners observed that some responsibility to make a change lies with the parents.
Pupils: the parents should monitor their children and take care of things like phones. (P-FGD-HPP-KIL)
The parents stated that all subjects should support the fight against drugs and other contemporary
issues in society. It is however evident that these initiatives are already and place and could be
stepped up to bolster the efforts already in place.
Parent : they should be taught subjects which could be of help them, although this one is not taken
seriously. If we talk about drugs, we have a lot of topics in science so if it’s possible it should be given
more time or have something we call interdepartmental, they should interact well and everyone do the work
effectively, things like gender violence, early marriages let them come to the world, we have this people
who do just do one task and after that they sit on the staffroom doing a lot of nothing. It is time for
administrators to do their job and fire them. All government resources should be geared towards these
contemporary issues. So the ministry should strategize and solve the problems of common people on the
ground send specialists to solve specific issues e.g. gender violence we should have a person specialized for
that, security officers to check on responsibility of parents, if all this departments will integrate and work
together then in three years we will have total change in Kenya. (PA-FGD-MGP-LAM)
At the national level, the suggestions for a multi-sectoral approach was viewed as a rapid
solution to the myriad of contemporary and emerging issues in society. The parents suggested
that specialized personnel are allocated duties that are relevant to the specific underlying
problems in the society. In their view, the blame should not just be targeted to the children taking
drugs. The peddlers should be arrested as well.
Parent : we should not only be blaming our children for taking thing like drugs, those drug smugglers and
peddlers should be arrested first, those who are selling too should also be arrested, ‘like in coastal region
we are highly affected because our Men are not performing their responsibilities because of this drugs, they
are marrying like four wives and every day they are fighting. So what do you expect the children to be
doing? Children become psychologically affected, Women marrying each other. (PA-FGD-MGP-LAM)
It is clear from the findings that awareness on the long term consequences of abusing certain
drugs and substances can be increased through education. According to WHO (2013), this is true
especially in reference to the low and middle income countries, Kenya included, where
consumption of tobacco products is increasing. In its formulation of National Goals of
Education, Kenya put into consideration a component of health and environmental protection, in
recognition of the positive impact that education could have in alleviating health related
challenges. The goal intends that learners “Embrace positive attitudes towards good health and
environmental protection”, (KIE, 2008). In addition, the Government has instituted NACADA to
coordinate activities of eradicating the drug menace in Kenya. In spite of these initiatives, drug–
related challenges that interfere with the overall well-being of citizens still abound.
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The findings do not however solely acknowledge the place of education as a solution to the drug
problem. It is apparent that there are many influences that lead to the use of drugs in the country.
Joint efforts must therefore be put into action, to include other interventions beyond education. It
is only through such efforts that the magnitude of danger posed by the use of drugs can be
reduced, across the broad spectrum of personal, social as well as economic well-being of
citizens, especially the youth.
4.9.2 Child Rights
Teachers brought out children’s rights to the fore as a key factor that impedes education at the
primary school level. They outlined child labour as one of the incidences of inequality that led to
exclusion of children from schools. Pupils and parents acknowledged that some children make
little money by doing menial jobs like grazing cows while others get good payments from
picking tea. Engagement in these economic activities, alongside other violations of children’s
rights like sexual harassment were among the major interferences with education.
Parent: Child labour is also a factor that contributes to failure of pupils to learn. Orphaned children are left
with people that expose them to child labour like fishing, becoming house girls …sexual abuse like
guardians, step parents abuse some of the children and this makes the life of that child very difficult. In
some schools some of the male teachers take advantage of the children. (PA-FGD-MIP-HOB)
Parent: The issue of money is more emphasized than schooling. For example in our area it is a tea zone
there is a tendency of people failing to continue schooling because tea is well-paid. (PA-FGD-KRP –
MUR)
Other factors that limit equal learning opportunities were manifested in gender biases like early
marriages, Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) and sexual harassment of the girl child. They also
raised concerns that the girl child seems to be favoured over the boy child. These were also
condemned as practices that prohibit learners from continuing with their education and deny
them a future. The learners strongly expressed the need for cases of sexual harassment to be dealt
firmly.
Pupil: Female Genital Mutilation should be eliminated so that girls can have chance to make their future
and go to school. In most of the primary schools, the government should strictly address the issue of sexual
harassment. (P-FGD-HPP-KIL)
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Child marriage accounts for a total of 2.9 million girls in sub-Saharan Africa and South and West
Asia (UNESCO, 2014).This accounts for one in eight girls in sub-Saharan Africa. According to
analysis for this report, provision of primary education has the capacity to avert child marriage
by 14%, from 2.9 million to 2.5million in sub-Saharan Africa and South and West Asia. If they
had secondary education, it would fall by 64%, to just over one million. This evidence proves
that access to primary education and subsequent reductions of bottlenecks that reduce transition
to secondary education certainly help girls to overcome forms of discrimination that inhibit their
progress. The proposed reform entails a seamless transition across the primary and secondary
school levels.
Parents decried lack of uniformity in the provision of education to learners as a result of poverty,
lack of supervision of the learning process as well as inequitable distribution of facilities. They
noted that some schools without facilities were judged on the same platform with those that are
well equipped at the end of the year. They affirmed that poverty was a hindrance to acquiring
education.
Parent: One of the issues affecting the learning is poverty. Besides having free primary education some
pupils still are unable to attend school. The little money asked by school the parents are not able to raise.
So poverty is a major problem. (PA-FGD-MIP-HOB)
According to Bergh and Melamed (2012), the poor people view education and jobs as the two
most important ways to improve their well being. Whereas it is clear that education reduces
poverty and increases economic growth (Hanushek and Woessmann, 2012b), the possibility of
this change still remains a dream for the very poor in society who do not get good quality of
education as revealed in the findings. Reduction of inequality in education is the only way of
ensuring that chronic poverty is banished in societies. Evidence from countries like China,
Republic of Korea and Taiwan Province of China shows that the high levels of economic growth
that they have experienced is as a result of reducing education inequality (UNESCO, 2014).
Equitable provision of education is therefore a prerequisite to the reduction of poverty, a form of
social inequality that denies children rights like access to quality education.
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4.9.3 HIV and AIDS
Concerns for good health and hygiene were discussed in relation to the prevalence of HIV and
the need to provide love and support to both the infected and affected. This was among 96.1% of
the head teachers. Lack of medicine for those affected learners was cited as an issue affecting
learning. Parents felt that there is need to teach learners about HIV and AIDS in carrier subjects
such Social Studies and Science.
The idea of using the school curriculum to teach learners about HIV and AIDS in carrier subjects
such Social Studies and Science is not entirely new because it has been practiced in Kenya
However, there are still myths that associate having sex with a virgin, with the cure of HIV.
Such myths should be addressed by the curriculum as they contribute to new infections, which
need to be reduced. In a study that analyzed 26 countries in sub-Saharan Africa that account for
about half of new infections among adults, it was evident that literacy skills are critical for
improving levels of knowledge of how HIV is transmitted. It went further to show that in sub-
Saharan Africa, 91% of literate women know that HIV is not transmitted through sharing food,
compared with 72% of those who are not literate (UNESCO, 2014).The findings show that there
is still room for the curriculum to be used to reduce new infections. This would especially be
useful where certain myths associated with HIV still exist.
4.9.4 Environmental Conservation
The need to address environmental issues in the curriculum to was highlighted by 92.8% and
92.1% of curriculum support officers and teachers respectively. Learners were conscious of the
obligation to meet expectations of sustainable development. They observed that being taught
how to keep the environment clean develops in them a sense of responsibility.
Pupil:..When you have been taught on how to keep the environment clean, and on the compound there are
some papers, you will be able to collect them and put them in a bin and maintain cleanliness,.( P-FGD-
BUP-LAK )
The learners also seemed aware of the pressing environmental challenges. They could easily
identify with the day to day occurrences that interfered with environmental conservation. Key
among them was noise pollution. Schools located near the road are affected by noise from cars,
lorries and motor bikes. Learners raised concern that noise pollution affects them as they travel
to school and back home.
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Pupil: It is the bike and the cars and the lorries which make a lot of noise it really affects our education (P
FGD - OPP-USG).
Parents indicated that pollution from industries affects soil through acidic rain. They raised the
issue of environmental degradation through poor waste disposal.
The findings also show that learners are knowledgeable on terminologies like “environmental
conservation” and “global warming”. They identified pollutants as wastes emptied into the rivers
and use of aerosol sprays. They observed that certain factors either impacted or were impacted
by the environment negatively brought challenges to education. These include growth of slums,
harsh climate, water shortage, dirty environment, dirty toilets, blocked sewage systems and
poaching of wild animals. In addition, the learners suggested interventions that could help reduce
these adverse effects of poor environmental management. A pupil suggested communal clean-
ups and a forestation to manage the environment.
Pupil: They can be told not to cut off the trees because when we cut them the environment will not be good
and we shall lack a lot of things. So we can try as they say when you cut one plant two. So if you cut it
plant another one. (PL-FGD-KRP-MUR)
The problems associated with environmental degradation do not seem to stem from ignorance
among the learners. Through education, they have been familiarized with the risks of not
undertaking actions towards saving the environment. The gap between what there is and what
should be is as a result of lack of positive environmental attitudes and behaviours.
Pupil: “We have been taught how to keep the environment clean but up to now I never understand why we
keep throwing wrappers of food stuff everywhere” (PL-SOP-USG).
The failures of the common models for teaching environmental education could be in their
inability to embrace whole school approaches that use practical demonstration of sustainable
living to reinforce learning (Choi et al, 2013). This view is also advanced by the Eco-school
initiative in South Africa which provides certification for schools that link environmental action
and learning. Success stories of the initiative include schools that practice hands on teaching and
learning approaches while linking the curriculum to practical actions like recycling systems and
water harvesting (Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa, 2013). In Kenya, the
positive behaviour change towards the environment can happen with a curriculum that has
practical linkages with environmental issues that affect the nation. Learning about the
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environment should not be done in isolation. It should be reinforced with situations that are
meaningful to the improvement of the environment.
4.9.5 Technology
Head teachers and curriculum support officers underscored the relevance of technology in the
digital era, with responses among head teachers at 95.2%, while curriculum support officers
responded at 94.6%.In spite of this, the high responses, there are misgivings about the emerging
issues in technology, including misuse of such resources. Pupils who are the main culprits in
improper uses of technology were in agreement and suggested that appropriate use of
technology should be included in the curriculum in order to avoid over-indulgence at the
expense of learning. Pornography and spreading hate speech were some of the common uses
among youth and teenagers.
Pupil: Parents should not give their children phones because sometimes they cannot sleep because of use
of calls they make to other people….. (P-FGD-MAP-NAR)
The parents indicated that the curriculum should address issues on electronic media by reversing
people’s current pre-occupation with issues that are not necessarily helpful to the learners.
Parent: it is as if our society wake up in the morning we eat politics and in the evening we still eat politics
and sleeping with politics...There are some current issues should be talked about on air, like education. We
have come up with things like internet, Facebook, phones are there nowadays even when you go to matatus
everybody is just talking to the phone … I don’t know where we will be as far as much we want ICT we
are also destroying the society and our children(PA-FGD-RKP-HOB)
Deploying technology in education is a means of facilitating learning. The proven benefits in the
use of technologies lie in those that have the potential to support classroom teaching like
interactive radio and television programmes (UNESCO, 2014). The growing popularity of
computers and portable electronic devices should not be perceived as a means of replacing
classroom teaching. Learning outcomes can only improve when teachers are trained to make the
best use of the technologies available and when learners have better access to them within and
outside the school. There should also be control measures that prohibit learners from using (ICT)
in destructive ways that may lead to undesired social behaviours.
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4.9.6 Insecurity
Parents raised concern about the issue of insecurity in the country and how it impacts on
education. In areas where there are conflicts as a result of different ethnic communities, parents
observed that their children are unable to learn well. They said that the cause of discrimination
was because they come from a different place or they may be from a different ethnic community.
Parents:There are communities around …Some communities have tribal clashes and those tribal clashes
affect the children going to school and they are not able to learn, they feel that there is no security in the
schools. (PA-FGD-BPP-KAK)
Similarly, insecurity also came about due to terrorism and radicalization. Pupil leaders observed
that teachers from other regions were not willing to teach them and risk their lives. Many of their
schools were therefore under-staffed.
Pupil: There is lack of security. Most of the teachers go. Like those who are non locals have gone away.
The children are left alone. So I think many teachers should be increased in schools also the facilities.
Nationhood (PL-FGD-AFP-GAR)
Both the learners and their parents were in agreement that tribalism, terrorism and radicalization
were the causes of unnecessary conflicts, killings and social discrimination. As a way of dealing
with the issue of insecurity, pupil leaders suggested teaching about nationalism and national
cohesion. Parents pointed out the need to sensitize the young people against feeling like heroes in
doing what is wrong. A lasting solution to this challenge according to parents is the creation of
employment opportunities.
Parent: ... They end up in some criminal activities, such as terrorism and other activities. You see our
children are involved in that area because they don’t get employment. You educate the child, he completes
secondary, you pay school fees, they go to university. After finishing the university, there is no job... we
want it to develop positive altitudes so that our learners are not involved in terrorism and radicalization ...
there is social unrest in our area. People will say….“Tonight will I sleep, should we be comfortable at night
today, Are we going to be safe in school?. (PA- FGD-KAP –MAN)
The findings above indicate that the provision of an education that can be translated to some
gainful engagement can arrest ethnic or religious intolerance in societies. UNESCO (2014)
affirms that when education promotes growth and employment, the incentives for disaffected
young men to engage in armed violence is dampened. In accordance with the associations that
have been made between education, employment and conflict, it is foreseeable that education is a
reliable channel for impacting positively on ingrained attitudes. More on the vital role of
education in solving problems related to intolerance is evidenced by Huang et al, (2009) who
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observe that one year of schooling increases the probability of trusting people by 2.4%. This then
implies that schooling contributes to harmonious co-existence by reducing mistrust.
Though the issues have been raised as having an effect on Kenya as a nation, many of them are
not peculiar to the Kenyan context alone. They have already been singled out to receive global
attention through consolidated efforts of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which are
slated for achievement in the year 2030.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents a summary of the key findings of the Needs Assessment Survey of the
primary school level. The conclusions drawn from the findings of the study have also been
presented. Based on the conclusions, recommendations have been made.
5.2 Summary of Key Findings
The need to perpetuate patriotism dominated responses by the head teachers (95.1%), teachers
(95.8%). Discussions with learners and parents also called for the reduction of ethnicity and
disunity in the country. Issues of Environmental degradation as well as corruption and insecurity
were also highlighted among the general needs of the society. In the area of competencies; those
that make learners adaptable to the 21st century took the lead. Similarly, the findings revealed
the need for competencies that develop self-reliance, self-care and personal development. Values
of honesty, humility and love were proposed for inculcation. Among critical learning areas
brought out by the findings were those with the ability to raise levels of economic empowerment
at the individual level and also contribute to the overall economic development. Content that is
suitable for education in the 21st Century like Critical thinking, Communication, Collaboration
and Creativity were also cited as important, with a high ranking above 90%. Others were
Mathematics, Languages, Sciences, ICT and Entrepreneurship. Findings of the study elaborated
on pedagogies that are more allied to active participation which promotes what can be done with
knowledge, instead of passive participation which emphasizes transmission and accumulation of
knowledge. In the area of gifts and talents, identification and nurturing can only happen when
there is differentiation at the levels of pace of delivery, the complexity and depth of content
being offered and the teaching methodology. In terms of resources, the study found out that
equitable provision of trained teachers, infra-structure and supply of instructional materials were
yet to be attained in primary schools. More findings show that lack of integrity in assessment and
narrow parameters are main causes of dissatisfaction with the summative assessment of primary
school education in Kenya. Finally, on contemporary and pertinent issues, findings show that
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drug and substance abuse, contravention of children’s rights, forms of social inequality and HIV
and AIDs, are among the social challenges with far reaching consequences.
5.3 Conclusions
5.3.1 General Societal Needs
Drawing on the findings provided on the general needs of the society, it is evident that ethnicity
and disunity, environmental degradation, insecurity, as well as economic and industrial
development are some of the key factors that characterize the needs of the society in Kenya. The
findings further demonstrate inter-relationships between the various dimensions of the needs in
society. Social development depends a lot on a corruption free environment where leaders
exhibit integrity. Similarly, security and peace would spur economic development. It was clearly
demonstrated that certain social challenges like insecurity and drug abuse were often related to
poverty. The centrality of education in accelerating the pace of achievement of these needs is still
recognized. There is however a disconnect between societal needs and education that is offered
in Kenya.
5.3.2 Competencies
An important basis for making decisions on options for competencies in a curriculum is focusing
more on how knowledge, values and attitudes that can be used, rather than just their acquisition.
It is concluded that there is a desire for primary school curriculum that incorporates
competencies that create humans with capabilities for their real life contexts and the global
community. There is an emerging trend inclined towards generic non-domain specific
competencies such as critical thinking and problem solving, creativity and learning to learn.
Included are also cross-curricular topics like global citizenship, sustainable development and
inclusion. The current instructional practices and limited resource provisions are a hindrance to
competence based curriculum which requires situations that can build the expected
competencies. The findings show that curriculum in its current state does not offer enriched
content and processes, that are engaging to create and transform the learner into a person with
competencies that are in tandem with the ever changing national and global contexts.
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5.3.3 Learning Areas
The findings show that achieving content that would satisfy needs of most learners ideally rests
on providing a broad base that gives the learners an opportunity to choose and have a niche in
their areas of interest. That opportunity must also be largely aligned with preparing the learner
for further studies and skills for adult life. Through such an approach, together with a rigorous,
high-quality experience, learners will acquire knowledge, skills, values that lead to self-learning
and social learning.
5.3.4 Nurturing and Developing Talents
It can be concluded that the conceptualization of gifts and talents is not standardized. This could
lead to disharmony in nurturing and developing what has not been clearly and collectively
defined. The current curriculum does not to have a framework for identifying and nurturing
talent. Consequently, need arises for the curriculum to consider best ways of inclusion of this in
order to respond to the uniqueness of each learner in the school community. Moreover, the
perception of talents is limited and does not broadly encompass innovation. This component
encourages learners to get to the point where they can be entrepreneurial enough to generate
income from what they have made or what they can do.
5.3.5 Learning Resources
The current scenario paints a picture of scarcity of resources. The over-stretched infra-structure,
inadequate supply of instructional materials and teaching staff in most learning institutions have
immensely contributed to poor delivery of curriculum and access to quality education . In Kenya,
the system of resource allocation , based on enrolment figures disadvantages 12 counties in the
arid and semi-arid areas that are home to 46% of the out of school population. Moreover, the
rigid framework for investment in education with conditions and inputs to support the teaching
and learning process limits the optimum functioning of the curriculum.
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5.3.6 Pedagogy
Based on the findings of this study , it is the traditional teacher- centred methodologies that
pervade most classrooms .Interactive pedagogical approaches that focus on the learner’s active
involvement are however preferred for developing globally competitive learners. Though quality
teacher education and sufficient resources are necessary for suitable pedagogical approaches,
teachers are not well grounded in learning approaches that encourage participation of learners as
they acquire desired competencies.
5.3.7 Assessment
From the findings in the survey, it is concluded that assessment does not reflect a comprehensive
and long term attainment of the learners. Teaching environments and teachers do not offer
opportunities for a wide array of assessment that foster cognitive and non –cognitive
competencies. The consideration of learners’ performance based on summative assessment
alone, while excluding their individual and their’ diverse needs jeopardizes objective judgment
of performance.
5.3.8 Emerging and cross-cutting Issues.
There are continuous occurrences of pertinent and emerging social issues that have a
considerable influence on the well being of the society. The complexity of these emerging issues
and magnitude of their impact cannot be handled without organized learning experiences in both
formal and non-formal settings. The challenge is worsened by lack of initiatives that employ
hands- on teaching and learning approaches while linking the curriculum to practical actions.
5.4 Recommendations
5.4.1 General Societal Needs
In pointing out the gaps highlighted in the curriculum, the findings and conclusions indicate that
what is learnt is not emphasized as a practical reality that learners should experience.
Improvements need to be made in terms of a curriculum that contextualizes the realities of
challenges in society so that the learners can relate what they are taught to their own experiences.
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More experiential situations in and out of school should be applied to bridge the gap between
what exists in society and what the country aspires to be across all the dimensions.
5.4.2 Competencies
The conceptualization of the competency based curriculum and its implementation should create
the situations that enable graduates to exit and fit into real life or work. The learning
environment should be well equipped and activity oriented to create supportive situations for
development of competencies for real-life or work related situations.
For learners to develop actual competencies, real transformation of pedagogical and didactic
actions of teachers must be implemented.
Decisions also have to be reached on the level of fusion of the content areas or disciplines and
the non-domain specific competencies like critical thinking and problem solving, creativity and
learning to learn.
Competency based learning cannot be effectively be measured with multiple choice or paper-
and-pencil tests that are common practice in Kenyan primary schools. It is recommended that
alternative summative and formative assessment is used to support the new way of learning.
Teachers in Kenyan schools need to be re-oriented to understand the theory and practice of a
competence based curriculum. Futuristic curriculum programmes and instruction need to be
created and continuously validated by creating linkages with real life contexts.
5.4.3 Learning Areas
Choices for learning areas should make provisions that are authentic for the individual learners in
their society, without necessarily marginalizing the nation from its development priorities and
the pre-dominant global trends that are shaping education.
To factor relevance to the needs of learners and the society, the competency based curriculum
should provide for variety with regard to learning areas. Reference should also be made to the
Basic Education Curriculum Framework for decisions about learning areas to be taught at a
particular level.
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The competency based curriculum needs to prioritize vocational and practical subjects, foreign
languages, Agriculture, Home Science and Music. Such a curriculum must first be clearly
envisioned, then developed and implemented.
Technical and vocational training needs to be re-branded to attract learners and enable them
make decisions early about the paths they will choose.
Concerted efforts should be made to incorporate and emphasize the humanistic and social
dimensions of education to ensure a renewed purpose for education.
5.4.4 Talents
The curriculum should be reformed and fashioned around the needs, talents and abilities of
learners. Additionally, the reform should seek to create a pathway to domicile talents. Given the
key roles that both teachers and parents play, they should be equipped to enable them utilize
appropriate strategies and infrastructure for identifying and nurturing talents.
Moreover, the understanding of talents should encompass the component of innovation to

encourage learners to be entrepreneurial enough to generate income from what they have made
or what they can do. This is likely to improve livelihoods of the youth since they will take the
talent forward to the level of benefiting from the talent.
The Government of Kenya should initiate linkages with industries targeted at absorbing
innovations emanating from the talents.
Education should create space for personalized learning in and through the curriculum.
Personalized learning respects, understands and builds upon the uniqueness of each person
within collaborative environments viewed as learning communities where all are needed and all
support each other. This should be done within the context of supportive resources, both human
and material, to enrich the experience
In terms of the depth and engagement with their particular area of interest, interaction with
specialist expertise through modeling and relevant facilities is recommended to spur the gifts and
talents to greater heights. The curriculum development process is therefore required to keep pace
and sometimes get ahead of the learner’s needs. This means that the educational programs may
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be required to cooperate with communities outside the school to reinforce what the school can
afford in relation to facilities and expertise.
5.4.5 Learning Resources
To improve equity in resource allocation, an alternative to the present distribution of the

capitation grant according to the number of children enrolled should be reviewed. This will allow
for additional support in the form of higher spending per pupil, especially where standards of
education are low.
A more integral view of education that seeks synergies between input, processes and outcomes is
espoused for the provision of a variety of teaching and learning resources in different formats
including use of modern technology that are compartible with 21 st Century skills.
In order to address the high teacher pupil ratio, it is important for the government to train
adequate teachers, since they are necessary in curriculum delivery.
5.4.6 Pedagogy
Inadequate grounding in learning approaches that encourage participation of learners calls for a
teacher assessment programme that compares the teacher levels against their classroom needs.
This will ensure that they have the theoretical and practical application of different pedagogical
techniques to support learners as they acquire desired competencies.
For the 21st century skills to be developed there is need for effective learning management to
support both learning outcomes and skills.
Appropriate pedagogical approaches should be encouraged through progressive government

policies to help learners to discover, develop talents and consolidate their real life attributes such
as exploration, self-assessment and problem solving.
Teacher training does not prepare trainees to ensure that learners participate actively to
understand the lesson. This calls for re-orientation and re-training of teachers to alleviate the
pedagogical problems linked to quality and variety of teaching methods. The approach for
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teacher support in preparation for implementation should target practicing teachers, those who
are in colleges as well as those entering the service, after graduation. Steps should also be made
towards preparing supportive teachers in the implementation of new learning areas.
5.4.7 Assessment
More targeted and relevant modes of assessment that provide a balanced and holistic
understanding of learners’ progress in various abilities need to be developed.
Alternative assessment is needed for both summative and formative assessment to support the
new way of learning, since competencies cannot be effectively measured with multiple choice or
paper-and-pencil tests
There should be a deliberate effort to develop diverse set of assessment modes to enable learners
to perceive learning as a way of demonstrating their talents. Measures could also be put in place
to incorporate talents into final marks awarded. Assessment can be tailored to level and needs of
an individual pupils.
5.4.8 Emerging Issues
There is need to strengthen partnership with community, private and business sectors to ensure
learners achieve the desired values. This will help to minimize the gap between education and
societal challenges.
Models for teaching pertinent and emerging issues in schools should embrace whole school
approaches that use practical demonstration of pertinent and emerging issues to reinforce
learning.
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APPENDICES
Appendix1
Knowledge, skills, work habits and character traits commonly associated with 21 st century skills:
The following list provides a brief illustrative overview of the knowledge, skills, work habits,
and character traits commonly associated with 21st century skills:
 Critical thinking, problem solving, reasoning, analysis, interpretation, synthesizing
information
 Research skills and practices, interrogative questioning
 Creativity, artistry, curiosity, imagination, innovation, personal expression
 Perseverance, self-direction, planning, self-discipline, adaptability, initiative
 Oral and written communication, public speaking and presenting, listening
 Leadership, teamwork, collaboration, cooperation, facility in using virtual workspaces.
 Information and communication technology (ITC) literacy, media and internet literacy,
data interpretation and analysis, computer programming
 Civic, ethical, and social-justice literacy
 Economic and financial literacy, entrepreneurialism
 Global awareness, multicultural literacy, humanitarianism
 Scientific literacy and reasoning, the scientific method
 Environmental and conservation literacy, ecosystems understanding
 Health and wellness literacy, including nutrition, diet, exercise, and public health and
safety
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Appendix 2- Codes for Qualitative Data
CEO-RIV-UG- Interview, Chief Executive Officer, Industry, Uasin Gishu County
CS-FGD-NTC–NAR-College students’ Focus group discussion Narok Teacher Training

College, Narok County
INF-SEC-NAI –Interview Informal Sector, Nairobi
KI- ROU-HOB-Key Informant Interview, Rongo University, Homa Bay
KI-CDE-GAR- Key Informant Interview, Garissa
P –FGD-BJP –MUR-Pupils’ Focus group discussion Bishop John Mahiani Junior

School, Murang’a,County
P-FGD-BUP-LAK- Pupils’ Focus group discussion Bungoma Primary school, Laikipia,

County
P-FGD-HPP-KIL -Pupils’ Focus group discussion High Vision Academy, Kilifi,
County
P-FGD-KEBP-NYM-Pupils’ Focus group discussion Keboba Primary School, Nyamira

County
P-FGD-NAP-LAK-Pupils’ Focus group discussion Nanyuki Primary School County
P-FGD-MAP-NAR Pupils’ Focus group discussion Masantare Day and Boarding

Primary school, Narok, County.
P-FGD-MIP-MAK-Pupils’ Focus group discussion Miseke Primary School, Makueni,
County
P-FGD-SJP-BUN- Pupils’ Focus group discussion ,St.Joseph’s Primary School

Webuye, Bungoma, County,
P-FGD-TRP-NYE.- Pupils’ Focus group discussion, Temple Road Primary School,

Nyeri County
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PA-FGD-BOKPP-KAK - Parents’ Focus group discussion Booker Academy (Private
Primary), Kakamega, County.
PA-FGD-DPP-NBI- Parents’ Focus group discussion Drumvale Primary School

(Private), Nairobi, County
PA-FGD-KAP-MAK- Parents’ Focus group discussion Kathonzweni Primary School,

Makueni, County
PA- FGD-KAP –MAN- Parents’ Focus group discussion Kamor Public Primary school
Mandera, County.
PA-FGD-KIP–MUR- Parents’ Focus group discussion Kiarithaini Primary school,
Murang’a County
PA-FGD- MAP –KWA- Parents’ Focus group discussion Makwenyenye Primary
school, Kwale, County
PA- FGD-MBP-HOB- Parents’ Focus group discussion Mirogi Boys Primary school,
Homa Bay, County
PA-FGD-MGP-LAM- Parents’ Focus group discussion Mahmoud Bin Fadhil Girls’

Primary School, Lamu, County
PA-FGD- MVP -KAK- Parents’ Focus group discussion Malava Primary School,
Kakamega, County
PA-FGD- NYP –NYM- Parents’ Focus group discussion Nyagachi Primary school,
Nyamira, County
PA-FGD-RKP-HOB- Parents’ Focus group discussion Ruby Krapt Public Primary

school, Homa-Bay, County.
PA-FGD-SEP-NYM- Parents’ Focus group discussion Sengera Public Primary school,

Nyamira, County.
PA-FGD- UNP –MAK- Parents’ Focus group discussion Unoa Primary School,
Makueni, County
PA- FGD-WAP –KWA- Parents’ Focus group discussion Waa Primary school, Kwale,
County
PL-FGD-AFP-GAR Pupil Leader’s Interview, Alfaruq Primary School, Garissa.
PL-FGD- JPP-LAK- Pupil Leader’s Interview, St. John Paul Primary School, Laikipia
County
PL-KAR-PMU Pupil Leader’s Interview school, County
147
PL- -BUS .- Pupil Leader’s Interview St Paul’s Amerikwae Primary Shool,Busia,
County.
PL- OPP-USG.- Pupil Leader’s Interview school, Outspan Primary School, Uasin Gishu,
County
PL-SOP-USG - Pupil Leader’s Interview school, Sosiani Primary Schools, Uasin Gishu
County
MAN-IND-KAK- Interview, Manager of Industry, Kakamega County
MAN-IND-MAK-Interview, Manager of Industry, Makueni County
148
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KENYA INSTITUTE OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

REPORT ON NEEDS ASSESSMENT FOR PRIMARY LEVEL

KENYA INSTITUTE OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

PROF. ERASTUS P. KINYANJUI

On behalf of the Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development, l wish to acknowledge the

DR. JULIUS O. JWAN

Table 2.1: Character Curriculum ........................................................................................................... 39

Table 3.1: The Target Population Structure ........................................................................................... 65

Table 3.2: Other Targeted Organizations............................................................................................... 67

Table 3.3: Sample Size Determination ................................................................................................... 68

Table 3.4: List of participants in the Qualitative Phase .......................................................................... 69

Figure 2.1: KenyaVision2030 ................................................................................................................. 18

Figure 2.2: Developmental Skills for Learning........................................................................................ 38

Figure 3.1: Concurrent Mixed Approach Design .................................................................................... 62

Figure 4.17: Non Availability of Materials............................................................................................ 118

ABE - Adult Basic Education

CBE - Competence Based Education

EAC - East African Community

ECD - Early Childhood Development

ECDE - Early Childhood Development and Education Centers

EFA - Education for All

ESD - Education for Sustainable Development

ESQAC - Education Standards Quality Assurance

GOK - Government of Kenya

HIV - Human immunodeficiency virus

IBE - International Bureau of Education

ICT - Information Communications Technology

KCPE - Kenya Certificate of Primary Education

KICD - Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development

KIE - Kenya Institute of Education

KNEC - Kenya National Examination Council

MDGs - Millennium Development Goals

MoEST - Ministry of Education Science and

NESP - National Education Sector Plan

NFE - Non Formal Education Centers

REAR - Research Academic Reform

Monitoring Educational Quality

SDGs - Sustainable Development Goals

SNE - Special Needs Education

SPSS - Statistical Package for Social Sciences

TIMSS - Trends in International Mathematics and

UPE - Universal Primary Education

TTC’s - Teachers Training Colleges

UNESCO - United Nations Education Scientific Cultural Organization

1.2 Context of the study

Table 1.1: 21st Century skills

Technology Skills - [Values & EQ]

• Critical Thinking & • Information Literacy • Flexibility &

A reform in secondary education and modernization of the primary teacher education

Further, the policy recommends a competency based curriculum; establishment of a national

1.3 Justification for the Reform

1.4 Research Objectives

1.5 Scope of the study

1.6 Rationale for the study based on the Context

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.2 Definition of Key Concepts

A curriculum must be broadened beyond traditional knowledge-based education to facilitate the

In essence therefore, Competency-based curriculum is a system of curriculum derived from an

2.2.4. Values and attitudes

2.2.8 Contemporary and Emerging issues

Figure 2.1: KenyaVision2030

Economic Pillar Social pillar Political pillar

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT TSC ESQAC KNEC DIRECTORAT

Nurturing every learners potential