ECOLOGY

-Ecology is the study of the relationship of living organisms with each other and their physical
environment.
–The environment consists of:
a) Physical factors (non-living) also known as abiotic factors e.g. water, air, soil.
b) Biological factors (living) also known as biotic factors e.g. plants and animals.

Ecological terms:
-Habitat- a place where an organism lives e.g. water for fish.
–Ecosystem- the interaction of living things with their environment or variety of organisms
interacting with each other and their immediate surrounding e.g.
*terrestrial ecosystem- dry land with biotic or abiotic factors.
*aquatic ecosystem- water with biotic and abiotic factors.
–Community- different species in an area e.g. grass bud community or a group of organisms
living in a habitat .
Can also mean- many populations.
–Species- one type of organism e.g. robin.
–Environment- refers to the physical features of an area and its living creatures.
–Biotic- the living part of the environment e.g. plants and animals
-Abiotic- non-living components of the environment e.g. soil, water, rocks, air.
–Niche- organisms’ way of life or the part it plays in the ecosystem e.g. decomposers break
down organic waste.
–Population- a number of a particular species in an area at a given period of time.
–Adaptation- changing in order to suit the environment.
–Autotrophs- also known as producers- organisms which make food for themselves from simple
inorganic substances through photosynthesis.
–Heterotrophs- also known as consumers- organisms which can’t make their own food, they eat
ready made food e.g. herbivores- primary consumers
. carnivores- secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.
. decomposers- bacteria and fungi
-Trophic level- refers to the position of the organism in a feeding relationship.
–Trophic means feeding.

Energy flow in an ecosystem

-The main source of energy for all life on the planet is the sun.
–Living things use that energy for their activities
e.g. –heat energy is used by cold blooded animals to keep their bodies warm.
. –light energy from the sun is used by plants in photosynthesis to form chemical energy in
foods.
-A plant’s chemical energy is passed on to an animal when the herbivores eat the plants. If that
animal is eaten by another, the energy is passed on again.
–In this way, the sun’s energy enters then flows through biological ecosystems and its gradually
lost to the environment as it passes from one organism to the next. It is never recycled. It is
therefore said to be non-cyclic, meaning, it does not go back to the original source, being the sun.

Feeding relationships

-Feeding relationships in an ecosystem can be shown using:

1.food chain
2.food webs
3.food pyramids
*All feeding relationships should start with photosynthetic organisms or producers.

1. Food chain
-A sequence showing links between a series of organisms feeding on one another.
–Energy is passed on as one organism is eaten by the next in the sequence.

e.g. Grass grasshopper bird snake

In this example:
Grass= producer- takes up the first trophic level.
Grasshopper= primary consumer- takes second trophic level.
Bird= secondary consumer- takes third trophic level.
Snake= tertiary consumer- takes fourth trophic level.

-The arrows represent energy flow (eaten by).

–Food chains are normally short because energy flow from one trophic level to another is not
100% effective.
–Energy is always lost through respiration and egestion.
–Some of the energy is used for growth, movement, reproduction and heat energy. So this energy
will not be available to the next consumer.

*Draw fig 25.14 and fig 25.15 page 232

2. Food web
-It is an interlink of food chains involving organisms within the same ecosystem.
–Food chain depicts that an organism feeds on one kind of organism, it is a linear relationship.
–However, food webs are more realistic since many different organisms feed on different types
of food.
–Food webs are more complex compared to food chains.
–Like food chains, they should also start with producers.
*Write, don’t draw, the organisms for example of food web page 226 fig 25.5
-Take note that you can create single food chains from a food web.
3. Food pyramid
-Ecological food pyramids are used to estimate the amount of food at each trophic level.
–At the base of the pyramid is the producer.
–There are three types of food pyramids:
1. pyramid of numbers
2. pyramid of biomass
3. pyramid of energy.

1. Pyramid of numbers
-This food pyramid gives us the information about the number of organisms at each trophic level.
–Organisms are counted at each trophic level and they are recorded.
–The width of the bands is meant to represent the relative number of organisms at each trophic
level.

Tertiary consumer 4th trophic level

Secondary consumer 3rd trophic level

Primary consumer 2nd trophic level

Producer 1st trophic level

-Sometimes a pyramid of numbers can be inverted or upside down. This can happen when we
count the actual number of the organisms, not parts of them, e.g. a single oak tree, not counting
its leaves.

300 fleas

9 birds

100 caterpillars

1 oak tree

-In order to have the shape of a proper pyramid we will have to consider not the single tree, but
the mass of the leaves that it produces.
–Biomass is the term used when the mass of living things is being considered.

2. Pyramid of biomass
-Biomass is the dry mass of an organism.
–Organisms are killed, dried and their mass is recorded.
–The mass is then multiplied by the estimated number in the community.
–Pyramids of biomass are almost never inverted.
. 0.1 tertiary consumers

0.66 secondary consumers

1.25 primary consumers

17.7 producers

Biomass (dry weight)of living organisms in a shallow pond (grams per square metre)

3. Pyramid of energy
-The best way to show what is happening in the feeding relationship of a community is the use of
energy pyramids.
–They show the amount of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next.
e.g. in a pond, 87 000 KJ/m2/yr is passed to the tadpoles from aquatic plants. Tadpoles pass 14
000 KJ/m2/yr to the small fish and so on.
–Energy is lost as it is passed from one trophic level to the next.
–In a trophic level, energy is lost in consumers through respiration, excretion and egestion. In
producers, it is lost through transpiration, reflection and absorption by the soil.

energy input
from sun
during
photosynthesis
energy lost energy lost energy lost energy lost
. in respiration in respiration in respiration in respiration

Producers Herbivores Carnivores Top carnivores

Transpiration Excretion Egestion Egestion

and reflection and egestion and and
. excretion excretion
. Death Death Death Death

DECOMPOSERS-DECOMPOSITION BY BACTERIA+FUNGI
NUTRIENT CYCLING

-The use and re-use of materials in the living world is called recycling.
–In an ecosystem recycling of nutrients happens when the nutrients are passed from producers to
consumers and after death, decomposers break the dead remains and release chemicals for the
plants to use again. Products of decomposition are returned to the soil as nutrients.

*Draw fig 25.8 page 227

-There are about 6 elements that make up matter. Carbon, hydrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and
oxygen.
–For living organisms to make essential compounds such as protein, fat and carbohydrates, they
must have a constant supply of these elements.

The carbon cycle

*Draw fig 25.9 page 228

-Carbon is an element that is found in compounds that make up living things.

–Plant obtain carbon from carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and animals get their carbon from
plants.

Process that removes carbon (in the form CO2) from atmosphere

1. Photosynthesis
-Plants can remove carbon in the form of carbon dioxide, from the atmosphere by the
process of photosynthesis.
–The carbon in carbon dioxide is used to make carbohydrates like sugars, starch and
cellulose, as well as proteins.
–Plants are then eaten by herbivores which digest and assimilate the products, as a result,
the carbon atoms from the plants become part of the animals.

Processes that add carbon (in the form of CO2) into the atmosphere

1. Respiration
-Living things get energy by oxidizing/burning carbohydrates (glucose) in their cells into
carbon dioxide and water.

Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy

-The carbon dioxide and water are then excreted, as a result, carbon dioxide returns to the
. atmosphere.
2. Decay/decomposition
-Bacteria and fungi obtain energy from organic material (dead plants and animals).
–During decomposition, carbon compounds turn into carbon dioxide.

Fatty acids + amino acids+ sugars decay and methane, carbon dioxide ,
in dead plants and animals decomposition hydrogen sulphide

3. Combustion/burning
-The burning of carbon- containing fuels such as wood, coal, natural gas (methane, ethane,
butane and propane mixture) will result in the production of carbon dioxide.

Fuel combustion carbon dioxide + other gases

-Most of the hydrocarbons such as coal and petroleum come from ancient plants which have only
partly decomposed over a long period of time as they were buried in the soil.

The nitrogen cycle

-When an animal or a plant dies, its tissues decompose partly as a result of the action of bacteria
(saprotrophic ones).
–One important product of the decay is ammonia (NH3) which is a compound of nitrogen, and
gets washed into the soil.

Draw fig 25.10 page 229

Processes that add nitrates into the soil

1. Nitrifying bacteria
-These are bacteria living in the soil which use the ammonia from the excretory products and
decaying organisms as a source of energy (like we use glucose in respiration).
–In the process of getting energy from ammonia, the bacteria produces nitrates. How it happens:
-The ‘nitrite’ bacteria oxidise ammonium compounds to ‘nitrites’

NH4 nitrite bacteria NO2

Then…

-‘Nitrate’ bacteria oxidise nitrite to nitrates.

NO2- nitrate bacteria NO3-

-Plant roots can take up ammonia in the form of its compounds, but they take up nitrates more
readily.
–Nitrifying bacteria increase the fertility of the soil by making nitrates available to the plants.
.
2. Nitrogen fixing bacteria
-This is a special group of nitrifying bacteria which can absorb nitrogen as a gas from the air
spaces in the soil and build it up into compounds of ammonia, since nitrogen gas itself cannot be
used by plants.
–When made into compounds of ammonia, it becomes easy to be changed to nitrates by other
nitrifying bacteria.
–The process of building up nitrogen into compounds of ammonia is called nitrogen fixation.

-Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria live freely in the soil.

–Others live in the roots of leguminous plants (peas, beans) where they cause swellings called
root nodules (see page 297).
–These leguminous plants are able to thrive in soils where nitrates are scarce because these
bacteria make compounds of nitrogen available for them.
–Leguminous plants are also include in crop rotations to increase the nitrate content of the soil.

3. Lightning
-The high temperature of lightning discharge causes some of the nitrogen and oxygen in the air
to combine and form oxides of nitrogen.
–These dissolve in the rain and are washed into the soil as weak acids, where they form nitrates.

4. Use of NPK fertilisers

-These are fertilizers that contain the elements nitrogen(N), phosphorus(P) and potassium(K).
–When conditions are optimal (warm temperature and adequate carbon) microorganisms will
immobilize some of the added nitrogen in their cells and it will become part of the soil organic
matter.

Processes which remove nitrates from the soil

1. Leaching
Nitrates are very soluble and as rain water or irrigation water passes through the soil, it dissolves
the nitrates and are carried away in the run-off or to deeper layers of the soil.

2. Denitrifying bacteria
-These are bacteria which obtain their energy by breaking down nitrates to nitrogen gas which
then escapes from the soil into the atmosphere.

3. Uptake by plants
-Plant roots absorb nitrates from the soil and combine with them with glucose to make proteins.

Agricultural practices which harm the environment

a) Monoculture
-This is the production of the same crop on the same piece of land year after year.
*Effects:
-fertility of the soil is depleted.
–more plots are later abandoned with poor soils which are easily eroded by wind and rain,
leading to desert conditions.
*Possible remedies
-crop rotation
-use of organic fertilisers which become part of soil structure
-controlled use of inorganic fertilisers

-These methods can extend the useful life of the soil. However, all these methods have economic
and marketing implications that have to be dealt with if they are to be effective.

b) Excessive use of fertilisers

-Artificial fertilizers consist of inorganic salts e.g. nitrates and phosphates.
–Excessive use of fertilizers in the fields may introduce an excessive amount of nutrients in
rivers and lakes, leading to eutrophication.
–Eutrophication means the enrichment of natural waters with nutrients such as nitrates and
phosphates which allow water to support increasing amount of plant life, eventually leading to
increased Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD).
–This is how eutrophication happens:
i) Excess fertilizers are leached from the soil by rain.
ii) These nutrients enter the rivers or lakes.
iii) Green algae use the fertilizers to grow rapidly (algal bloom).
iv) They cover the water surface cutting off light for other aquatic plants.
v) Competition for resources with other aquatic plants lead to death of algae.
vi) When the decomposers (bacteria) decompose the dead algae, they multiply rapidly using up
all dissolved oxygen in the water for the decomposition.
vii) This leads to a rise in the demand for oxygen among aquatic organisms in the water.
viii) Without oxygen, fish and other water creatures die.
*Possible remedies
-The situation can be made better by using organic fertilizers containing animal waste and
decayed plant matter, which reduces the risk of nutrients leaching.
–Controlled use of inorganic fertilizers.

c) Excessive use of pesticides and herbicides

-These are chemicals intended to kill and destroy biological pests such as insects, rodents, fungi
and weeds.
–They include insecticides, pesticides and herbicides.
*Effects
-They might harm useful organisms (when they kill indiscriminately).
–These chemicals are poisonous and some are persistent e.g. DDT, meaning once ingested, they
remain in the organism.-If this organism is eaten by another, this chemical moves up the food
pyramid, becoming more concentrated at each trophic level = Bio magnification see page 237 fig
26.8.
*Possible remedies
-Use chemicals which are biodegradable i.e. chemicals that break down naturally in the
environment.
–Use biological methods of control where an organism is introduced to the ecosystem in order to
kill another e.g. cats to kill rats.

d) Overstocking
-Keeping a large number of livestock greater than the ecosystem can accommodate.
*Effects
-It leads to overgrazing and plant cover is destroyed by the animal hooves.
–Leads to soil erosion as top soil is easily carried away.
–Water sources get finished quickly.
*Possible remedies
-Strict regulations should be enforced by the government on the number of livestock allowed in
grazing areas.
–Rotational grazing should be practiced- where livestock is moved from one paddock to another,
allowing time for vegetation to recover.
–Farmers are encouraged to sell excess livestock at regular intervals.

e) Deforestation
-Excessive cutting down of trees is posing a problem in the environment as they are used to
manufacture paper, furniture, or simply to clear the land for crops or to make space for housing
or constructing roads and for firewood.
*Effects
-Without leaf cover to shield the soil and roots to hold it, the soil is blown away or washed away
leaving desert conditions behind.
–The normal rain cycle is disturbed because the forest’s ability to return water to the atmosphere
by transpiration is not met.
–Burning of wood releases even more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
–Fewer trees would mean more CO2 in the atmosphere leading to global warming as CO2
becomes an air pollutant, and traps the heat of the sun.
*Possible remedies
-Preserve as many trees as possible when farming or building.
–Recycle paper to conserve forests since paper is made from paper.
–Wind and solar energy can be used to replace wood as a source of energy.
–Plant more trees- afforestation.

Problems which contribute to famine

-Famine is widespread hunger caused by food shortage.

–Some of the factors that contribute to famine are
. –wars
. –unequal distribution of food
. –natural disasters
. –increasing populations

a) Unequal distribution of food

-In developed parts of the world, farmers have access to good soil, moderate/good climate,
expert knowledge and financing facilities.
–This helps them to produce vast quantities of food.
–But without such benefits, other areas (less developed areas) experience severe shortages.
–Efforts to spread the surplus to less fortunate areas are not always successful.

b) Natural disasters
-Severe drought destroys crops and livestock is left with nothing to graze.
–Floods resulting from cyclones or hurricanes destroy crops and drown livestock.
–These events leave people without food or the means of producing it.

c) Increasing population
-The number of individuals in the upper level of food pyramids are limited by the amount of
food available in the lower levels.
–In some parts of the world, rapid increase of the population has not been matched by a
corresponding increase in food production. Famine has thus been a result.

d) War
-Wars force people to become refugees and it disrupts agricultural production.
–In recent decades, war has been a frequent cause of widespread hunger.

e) Global warming f) Pests and diseases g) Pollution

POLLUTION

-This refers to addition of unwanted materials to the environment. Those unwanted things, called
pollutants, pose danger to the life of organisms in the affected environment. The types of
pollution include air pollution, water pollution and land pollution.

Air pollution
The air is polluted by a number of fumes and gases including:
1. Sulphur dioxide (see fig 26.20 page 243)
Sources: combustion of fossil fuels, which contain sulphur compounds e.g. coal, oil.
Adverse effects
-Dissolve in rain water forming acid rain which has the following effects:
-lowers pH of the soil which promotes leaching of ions and so makes soils poor for plant growth
so plant growth is reduced.
–Corrodes and destroys buildings made from limestone and mortar.
–Damages the leaves of plants.
–Acid and aluminum salts dissolved by the acid rain kills fish and other aquatic creatures.

*Control measures:
-Choose alternative methods of generating energy such as wind turbines, nuclear power stations
and hydro-electric power stations, to reduce combustion of fossil fuels.
–Fitting desulphurization plants in power stations.
–Use of scrubbers to reduce emissions from power stations.

2. Oxides of nitrogen (see page 243 fig 26.20)

Sources: car exhaust, power stations.
Adverse effects:
-damages lung tissue.
–dissolve in rain water forming acid rain, and the effects are similar to those outlined above.
*Control measures:
-Fit catalytic converters to car exhaust systems to remove nitrogen compounds.
–Use of alcohol as a fuel since it has less pollutants.

3. Carbon monoxide
Source: incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, where there is poor ventilation/air flow.
Adverse effects:
-If inhaled, it makes the body to have shortage of oxygen because CO binds with haemoglobin
and form carboxyhaemoglobin.
–Can lead to death.
*Control measure:
-Fuel to be burnt where there is sufficient oxygen.

4. Chloro fluro carbons (CFCs) = carbon compounds with chlorine and fluorine.
Sources: aerosol sprays, dis-used fridges. The gases liquefy readily when compressed thus they
are used as propellants in aerosol cans and coolants in fridges.
Adverse effects:
-Depletes the ozone layer (O3) by reacting with it.
–Ozone layer protects life on earth by absorbing UV radiation. So if depleted, UV rays pass
through and can cause: skin cancer, sunburn, eye disorders, mutations, damages crops and
aquatic life.
*Control measures:
-Use of ozone friendly chemicals with no CFCs.

5. Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases:

Sources: combustion of fossil fuels, gut of ruminants.
Adverse effects:
-Causes global warming if these gases accumulate in the atmosphere and trap heat radiated from
the earth (during cooling) see fig 26.24 page 245
-This is referred to as the greenhouse effect.
–This effect causes a rise in atmospheric temperature levels, hence global warming.
–Global warming may have the following effects:
-climate or distortion of climate patterns: e.g. heavier rainfalls leading to floods , high winds.
-melting of polar regions leading to flooding of seas.
–crops die due to high levels of evaporation resulting in drought.
Control-similar to oxides of nitrogen and CFCs.

6. Lead compounds
Sources: car exhausts release lead compounds used as ‘anti-knock’ in vehicle engines (when
added to petrol).
Adverse effects:
-causes mental retardation or brain damage in children.
–respiratory problems due to damage to lung tissue.
Control:
-Use of unleaded petrol.

7. Tar in smoke
Source: combustion; including fossil fuels.
Adverse effects:
-may cause lung cancer
-Damages leaves
Control:
See measures for controlling combustion of fossil fuels and fumes from vehicle exhausts.

Water pollution:
Pollutants of water include the following:

1. Sewage
Source: homes and other places where water system toilets are used.
Adverse effects
-When sewage is disposed in water sources it causes eutrophication due to the presence of
inorganic nutrients and bacteria.
–Contains pathogenic microbes e.g. bacteria which may cause water-borne diseases like cholera,
typhoid etc.
Control measures:
-Treat sewage through recycling, before disposal.
–Strict application of laws controlling disposal of industrial waste. Use detergents with less
phosphates.
–Use less agricultural fertilisers.
.
2. Oil
Sources: spillage from oil tankers or during cleaning.
Adverse effects:
-kills birds since feathers fail to insulate them (fig 26.19 page 242)
-poison fish and spread through food chains.
Control:
-Practice care when cleaning oil tankers.
–Proper disposal of used oil.

3. Lead
Source: water pipes made of lead.
Adverse effects:
-dissolve in water in pipes then spreads through food chains and poison organisms.
–causes cancer and death.
Control:
-lead not to be used in making water pipes.
-shouldn’t enter food chains.

4. Mercury
Source:
-Some industrial wastes.
Adverse effects:
-Once it enters the food chains its concentrations increase along the chain.
–Causes death, deformity and brain damage.
Control:
-Shouldn’t enter food chains.

Land pollution
Pollutants of land:

1. Insecticides/pesticides
Sources: Fields/farms/orchards to control pests.
Adverse effects:
-Useful animal species may be killed since the insecticides kill indiscriminately.
–May spread and accumulate in food chains poisoning some species.
Control:
-Use of biodegradable insecticides.

2. Litter
Sources: cans, bottles, paper, plastic from homes, shops etc.
Adverse effects:
-Spread germs due to decomposition of organic matter and this may provide breeding place for
pathogens and vectors.
–Toxic waste may poison animals and plants.
Control
-Collect and recycle waste.

3. Chemicals e.g. oil

Sources: machinery, cars.
Adverse effects:
-Oil is a toxic substance hence it kills plants and organisms in the soil.
Control
-Used oil to be collected and recycled.

4. Acids
Sources: acid rain.
Adverse effects
-Lowers pH of the soil promoting leaching of mineral ions leading to poor plant growth.
Control
-As for oxides of nitrogen and sulphur under air pollution.

How eutrophication takes place

-Eutrophication is the enrichment of natural waters with nutrients, such as phosphates and
nitrates, which allow the water to support an increasing amount of plant life.
–The following processes are the main causes of eutrophication:
a) discharge of treated sewage
-When the water from sewage treatment is discharged into rivers, it contains large quantities of
phosphates and nitrates which allow the microscopic plants to grow very rapidly.
b) use of detergents
-Some detergents contain a lot of phosphate, which is not removed by sewage treatment and if it
is discharged into rivers, it encourages growth of microscopic plants.
c) arable farming
-When inorganic/artificial fertilisers are used in excess, what the crops cannot absorb would be
washed off with rain water, and if it ends up in rivers then results in eutrophication.
d) factory farming
-Rearing chickens, pigs and calves in sheds instead of open fields means their urine and faeces
can be washed out of sheds with water forming ‘slurry’. If this slurry ends up streams and rivers
it supplies an excess of nitrates and phosphates for microscopic algae.

Process of eutrophication
-Once the extra nitrates and phosphates from the activities listed above reach a water body like a
river, they are absorbed by the aquatic algae and makes algae grow and increase so rapidly in
what is called algal bloom.
–The microscopic animals which normally eat them can not keep up with this increase so the
algae dies and falls to the bottom of the river or lake.
–Here, they are broken down by bacteria which need oxygen to carry out this breakdown, and
the oxygen is taken from the water.
–So much oxygen is taken that the water becomes deoxygenated (high BOD-biological oxygen
demand) and can no longer support animal life.
–Fish and other organisms die from suffocation.
–The higher the BOD, the more polluted the water is likely to be.

CONSERVATION

-It means preserving or careful use of resources in order to avoid their extinction.

Reasons for conservation

-To preserve for future generations.
–To avoid extinction of natural resources like trees, water, wildlife.
–To ensure that we get revenue from wildlife through tourism.
–Trees are a source of building material and fuel.
–We obtain useful like medicine, food, drugs, oil, tools, timber from natural resources.
–Natural resources beautify our surrounding.

Why do species become endangered?

-Some animals are at a risk of extinction due to:
a) overhunting e.g. leopard skins used for coats, rhino horns used for Chinese medicine.
b) destruction of habitats, some species are found only in certain habitats, so when that habitat
disappears, so does that species.
c) extinction of food resources for some organisms.
d) pollution.
e) competition from man, overpopulation of humans displaces some organisms from their
habitats and may become extinct.

How to conserve resources:

1. Setting up of protected areas e.g. national parks and game reserves.
2. Protection of certain endangered species to ensure their survival and increase in their numbers.
Examples of protected birds/animals in Botswana lion, white rhino, ostrich, African skimmer,
wild dog.
Examples of protected plants
Sengaparile, monepenepe, mowana, mosukujane.
3. Fines and prison sentences for poachers.
4. Limited hunting of certain species in certain areas which can be achieved by issuing of
hunting licenses and hunting seasons.
5. Environmental awareness through environmental education for the youth.
6. Reduction of pollution and disposal of waste.
This can be achieved by implementing laws and slogans. Litter should be thrown into rubbish
bins. Water pollution by sewage can be reduced by recycling sewage for re-use. Use of unleaded
fuel.
7. Biological means of conservation.
This is done by introducing organisms in an area so as to try and get rid of unwanted species
especially in agricultural sector. This becomes a natural way of controlling pests, other than
using pesticides which can end up destroying the whole ecosystem. e.g. cat feeds on rats.
8. Recycling of materials.
–This means re-processing of used products for re-use.

Recycling is important in order to:

a) conserve natural resources e.g recycling paper in order to preserve the plants that make paper.
–recycling glass from bottles reduces the demand for sand used in glass manufacturing.
–recycling metals like tins means metal ores can be conserved.
b) conserve energy used in manufacturing or extraction process.
c) reduce costs e.g. recycling paper helps to reduce import bills for timber.
d) avoid pollution.

Recycling of sewage

-The reasons for recycling the water from sewage are:

1. To supplement the natural water supply.
2. Cut down the pollution on rivers and streams.
3. Solve the problem of limited dumping space for sewage.

The process of recycling sewage:

1. Screening- sewage is passed through screens to separate solids from the liquid.
2. Sedimentation- smaller particles are allowed to settle at the bottom of sedimentation tanks.
3. Bacteria are added into the water to get rid of organic waste by feeding on it.
4. Filtration- the liquid is filtered through filter beds.
5. Purification- it is treated with chlorine to kill pathogens and fluoride might be added to
strengthen teeth, then the water is taken back to the town water system for reuse.